OTHER EDUCATORS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
=Literature.=--_H. M. Skinner_, The Schoolmaster in Literature, The
Schoolmaster in Comedy and Satire; _Gill_, Systems of Education;
_Quick_, Educational Reformers; _Williams_, History of Modern Education;
_Besant_, Rabelais; _Monroe_, Educational Ideal; _Collins_, Montaigne;
_Emerson_, Representative Men; _Vogel_, Geschichte der Paedagogik;
_Carlisle_, Two Great Teachers (Ascham and Arnold); _Azarias_, Essays
Educational; _Davidson_, History of Education.
We have thus far discussed educators who were directly connected with
the great Protestant and Catholic movements. There were others who were
more or less independent of these movements. Among these we may mention
Roger Ascham, Rabelais, and Montaigne.
ASCHAM (1515-1568)
Roger Ascham was the most celebrated English educator of the sixteenth
century. He was educated at Cambridge, and studied three years in
Germany. He had a thorough knowledge of the classic languages. For these
reasons he was chosen tutor to Elizabeth, a position which he held for
two years. Upon her accession to the throne, Ascham came to read with
her several hours a day, and she retained her affection for her old
teacher throughout his life.
His chief literary work is his "Scholemaster," which is the first
educational classic in English. Dr. Johnson says of this book, "It
contains, perhaps, the best advice that ever was given for the study of
languages." This method was as follows, given in Ascham's words: "First,
let him teach the child, cheerfully and plainly, the cause and matter of
the letter (Cicero's Epistles); then, let him construe it into English
so oft as the child may easily carry away the understanding of it;
lastly, parse it over perfectly. This done, then let the child by and by
both construe and parse it over again; so that it may appear that the
child doubteth in nothing that his master has taught him before.
"After this, the child must take a paper book, and sitting in some place
where no man shall prompt him, by himself let him translate into English
his former lesson. Then showing it to his master, let the master take
from him his Latin book, and pausing an hour at the least, then let the
child translate his own English into Latin again in another paper book.
When the child bringeth it turned into Latin, the master must compare it
with Tully's book, and lay them both together, and where the child doth
well, praise him, where amiss, point out why Tully's use is better.
"Thus the child will easily acquire a knowledge of grammar, and also the
ground of almost all the rules that are so busily taught by the master,
and so hardly learned by the scholar in all common schools. The
translation is the most common and most commendable of all other
exercises for youth; most common, for all your constructions in grammar
schools be nothing else but translations; but because they be not
_double_ translations (as I do require), they bring forth but simple and
single commodity; and because also they lack the daily use of writing,
which is the only thing that breedeth deep root, both in the wit for
good understanding, and in the memory for sure keeping of all that is
learned; most commendable also, and that by the judgment of all authors
which entreat of these exercises."[73]
Ascham often refers to his illustrious pupil in claiming merit for his
system. He says, "And a better and nearer example herein may be our most
noble Queen Elizabeth, who never took yet Greek nor Latin grammar in her
hand after the first declining of a noun and a verb; but only by this
double translating of Demosthenes and Isocrates daily, without missing,
every forenoon, and likewise some part of Tully every afternoon, for the
space of a year or two, hath attained to such a perfect understanding in
both tongues, and to such a ready utterance of the Latin, and that with
such a judgment as there be few now in both universities, or elsewhere
in England, that be in both tongues comparable with her Majesty." Mr.
Quick thinks that while Ascham may have thus flattered his royal pupil,
there is no doubt that she was an accomplished scholar.
We have seen that Sturm made some use of double translation, but Ascham
is entitled to full credit for the method, which he adopted from Pliny
and perfected. Many teachers of language since that time have employed
this method with excellent results.
RABELAIS[74] (1483-1553)
Though there is some obscurity as to the exact date of the birth of
Rabelais, it is generally believed that he was born the same year as
Luther, 1483. He was the son of a French innkeeper, and, after
completing a classical course, was consecrated to the priesthood. His
great ability and independent thinking, and his humanistic tendency
brought reproof from his superiors, and he was ordered to perform works
of penance in his cell; but through the influence of powerful friends he
was freed and allowed to go over to the Benedictines, with whom,
however, he did not remain long. He became an independent preacher, and
as such had many friends among the reformers, chief among whom was
Calvin. His intimacy with Calvin led the more radical reformers to be
suspicious of him, and not without reason. Walter Besant tells us that,
"One hears he is a buffoon--he is always mocking and always laughing.
That is perfectly true. He laughs at the pretensions of pope, cardinal,
bishop, and priest; he laughs at monkery and monks; he mocks at the
perpetual iteration of litanies; he laughs at the ignorance and
superstition which he thinks are about to vanish before the new day of
modern learning."[75] Nor was his sympathy with the reformers any more
marked. Besant further adds, "It was at that time all important that, as
in England, the scholars should range themselves on the Protestant side.
Rabelais refused to do this. More, he set an example which deterred
other scholars, and kept them, in sheer impatience, in the enemy's
camp."[76]
The great literary work of Rabelais is embodied in a series of
chronicles, the first of which is called "Gargantua" and the second,
"Pantagruel." It is believed that these were popular names of giants in
the Middle Ages. In these books we find Rabelais's pedagogy.[77] The
giant Gargantua attends a school in which scholastic methods are
employed. The author skillfully ridicules the methods, and shows the
utter inefficiency of the instruction by contrasting the result in
Gargantua and Eudemon, a page of the king. Gargantua, a man of
fifty-five, is introduced to Eudemon, a boy of twelve. The former is
awkward, bashful, and does not know what to say, while the latter meets
Gargantua cap in hand, with open countenance, ruddy lips, steady eyes,
and with modesty becoming a youth. In reply to the polite and
intelligent conversation of the lad, Gargantua "falls to crying like a
cow, casting down his face, and hiding it with his cap." Compayre says,
"In these two pupils, so different in manner, Rabelais has personified
two contrasted methods of education: that which, by mechanical exercises
of memory, enfeebles and dulls the intelligence; and that which, with
large grants of liberty, develops intelligences and frank and open
characters."
The deficiencies of the old education (the scholastic) being thus shown,
Rabelais places his pupil under Ponocrates, Eudemon's teacher, who has
produced such practical results. He then opens up his system of pedagogy
in the plan pursued for the redemption of Gargantua.
=Realism in Education.=--Compayre's estimate of this pedagogy is as
follows: "The pedagogy of Rabelais is the first appearance of what may
be called _realism_ in instruction, in distinction from the scholastic
_formalism_. The author of 'Gargantua' turns the mind of the young man
toward objects truly worthy of occupying his attention. He catches a
glimpse of the future reserved to scientific education, and to the study
of nature. He invites the mind, not to the labored subtleties and
complicated tricks which scholasticism had brought into fashion, but to
manly efforts, and to a wide unfolding of human nature."[78]
In comparing Rabelais with Lucretius, Walter Besant says, "Both, at an
interval of fifteen hundred years, anticipated the nineteenth century
in its restless discontent of old beliefs, its fearless questioning, its
advocacy of scientific research."[79] Compayre thinks that Rabelais is
"certainly the first, in point of time, of that grand school of
educators who place the sciences in the first rank among the studies of
human thought."[80] It would seem, then, that the author of "Gargantua"
is worthy of a most honorable place among educational writers. Rabelais
began a movement, which was destined to revolutionize educational
methods.
The educational scheme of Rabelais embraced the study of letters, of
nature, of science, of morals and religion, of the physical
well-being,--in short, of everything necessary, as Herbert Spencer would
say, to complete living.
MONTAIGNE[81] (1533-1592)
Of a very different character from Rabelais was Montaigne. Rabelais was
radical and extravagant, Montaigne conservative and discreet; Rabelais
sought development of all the faculties alike, Montaigne gave preference
to the training of the judgment; Rabelais would thoroughly master every
branch of human knowledge, Montaigne was content to skim over the
sciences. And yet, Montaigne must be recognized as an important factor
in education, not only for his own teachings, but because undoubtedly
Bacon, Locke, Rousseau, and other apostles of reform were greatly
influenced by him. Bacon furthered Montaigne's theories concerning the
importance of science, and by his inductive method rendered the world a
far greater service than his great French contemporary. Locke enlarged
upon Montaigne's ideas of physical training. Rousseau accepted a vital
doctrine of Montaigne in the following words: "He (Emile) possesses a
universal capacity, not in point of actual knowledge, but in the faculty
of acquiring it; an open, intelligent genius adapted to everything, and,
as Montaigne says, if not instructed, capable of receiving instruction."
Montaigne's father was a French nobleman, who fully appreciated the
responsibility laid upon him in the education of his son. Doubtless his
training had much to do in shaping the pedagogy of the illustrious son.
It was wise, mild but firm, natural, and thorough. The tutors and
servants who surrounded him were allowed to speak only in Latin. That
tongue thus became as familiar as his native tongue. Indeed, it is said,
that at the age of six he was so proficient in the language of Cicero,
that the best Latinists of the time feared to address him. Nor was his
knowledge confined to Latin alone. He was instructed in modern lore as
well. At the age of six he was placed in the college of Guienne, where
he remained seven years. His experience there, so contrary to that under
which he had been brought up, led him to be utterly opposed to corporal
punishment. Of the methods of discipline employed in the school, he
says, "The discipline of most of our colleges has always displeased me.
They are veritable jails in which youth is held prisoner. The pupils are
made vicious by being punished before they become so. Pay a visit there
when they are at their work; you will hear nothing but cries,--children
under execution, and masters drunk with fury. What a mode of creating in
these tender and timid souls an appetite for their lessons, to conduct
them to their tasks with a furious countenance, rod in hand!--it is an
iniquitous and pernicious fashion. How much more becoming it would be
to see the classroom strewed with leaves and flowers than with
blood-stained stumps of birch rods! I would have painted up there scenes
of joy and merriment, Flora and the Graces, as Speusippus had his school
of philosophy: where they are to gain profit, there let them find
happiness too. One ought to sweeten all food that is wholesome, and put
bitter into what is dangerous."[82]
Here we find a strong plea for humane forms of punishment and a severe
criticism of the prevailing practice of flogging, a practice which did
not cease until long after Montaigne's time. It is an equally forcible
plea for beautiful and pleasant schoolrooms, decorated with works of art
intended to awaken and cultivate the aesthetic sense of the children,
while contributing to their happiness. It has been left to the educators
of the end of the nineteenth century to take up and seriously act upon
this suggestion made over three hundred years ago. "The purpose of
education," said Montaigne, "is the training, not of a grammarian, or a
logician, but of a complete gentleman." Education should be of a
practical nature. The child must become familiar with the things about
him. He must learn his own language first and then that of his
neighbors, and languages should all be learned by conversation.
A decided weakness in his system is found in his ideas concerning women.
He made no provision for their education, and, indeed, expressed great
contempt for their abilities of either mind or heart.
Montaigne's chief literary work is his "Essays." Compayre pronounces
Montaigne's pedagogy, "a pedagogy of good sense," and further adds that
he has "remained, after three centuries, a sure guide in the matter of
intellectual education."
Observation and experience were to be abundantly employed, and visits to
other lands, together with intercourse with intelligent men everywhere,
were to "sharpen our wits by rubbing them upon those of others."
To sum up, we may say that the pedagogy of Montaigne teaches the
training and use of the senses; the study of science; the learning of
the mother tongue first by conversation, and then the language of our
neighbors with whom we come in contact; the abolition of corporal
punishment, and the beautifying of schoolrooms. This surely is no small
contribution to education. His definition of education is worthy of
note. He says, "It is not the mind only, nor the body, but the whole man
that is to be educated."[83]
=Summary of Educational Progress during the Sixteenth Century.=--1.
Humanism had reached its climax and begun to decline. It stimulated
invention and discovery; it revived classic literature and put it in
such form that it could be used; it emancipated the mind; it prepared
the way for later reforms; it produced great educators such as Petrarch,
Erasmus, and Reuchlin.
2. The Reformation took up the educational work of humanism, and carried
it forward. It instituted primary education, the education of the
masses, compulsory education and parental responsibility therefor; it
asserted the right and duty of the State to demand and secure universal
education; it elevated and gave dignity to the office of teacher; it
formulated several school systems, and laid the foundation of the
present German school system. Among its great educators were Luther,
Melanchthon, Sturm, and Neander.
3. The Jesuits established a remarkable system of schools, noted for
their thoroughness, for their singleness of purpose, for their rapid
growth, and for their trained teachers. They gave little attention to
primary education, but sought to reach the higher classes. Emulation was
the principal incentive employed.
4. Opposed to the Jesuit education was that of the Port Royalists. They
appealed to the intelligence of the children and cultivated the
sense-perceptions. They invented the phonic method of spelling.
5. Sturm's celebrated course of study was introduced during this century
at Strasburg.
6. The method of double translations in learning a language was taught
by Ascham and Sturm.
7. In Rabelais we find the first appearance of _realism_, which bore
rich fruit in later scientific education.
8. Montaigne opposed the use of the rod, and taught that the schoolroom
should be made attractive. He also advocated the study of modern
languages by conversation, and gave science an honorable place in the
curriculum.
It thus appears that the sixteenth century surpassed many previous eras
in its contributions to educational progress.
FOOTNOTES:
[73] H. M. Skinner, "The Schoolmaster in Literature," p. 20.
[74] For special reference see Besant's "Rabelais."
[75] "Rabelais," 192.
[76] Ibid., 193.
[77] "Schoolmaster in Comedy and Satire," 9-33.
[78] "History of Pedagogy," p. 91.
[79] "Rabelais," p. 187.
[80] "History of Pedagogy," p. 96.
[81] See Collins, "Montaigne."
[82] Collins, "Montaigne," p. 14.
[83] A good summary of Montaigne's educational ideas may be found in
Collins's "Montaigne," p. 102.