THE RENAISSANCE
=Literature.=--_Williams_, History of Modern Education; _Quick_,
Educational Reformers; _Bryce_, The Holy Roman Empire; _Andrews_,
Institutes of General History; _Fisher_, History of the Reformation;
_Reeve_, Petrarch; _Symonds_, Renaissance in Italy; _Seebohm_, Era of
Protestant Revolution; _Spofford_, Library of Historical Characters;
_Hegel_, Philosophy of History; _Draper_, Intellectual Development of
Europe; _Azarias_, Philosophy of Literature; _Schwickerath_, Jesuit
Education; _Dr. Ludwig Pastor_, History of the Popes, Vol. I, p. 54,
etc.
As the fifteenth century drew to a close there were unmistakable
evidences of the dawn of a better day, and the long period known as the
"Dark Ages" was to be succeeded by a brighter and more glorious era. The
sway of the Church over the consciences, lives, and material interests
of men was disputed; the feudal system had begun to disintegrate; the
world had been aroused to new enterprise by the discovery and
exploration of distant continents, by the invention of paper, the
printing press, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass; the Ptolemaic
system of astronomy had been superseded by that of Copernicus; the great
empires of the Middle Ages had disappeared, and upon their ruins had
been constructed smaller nationalities which spoke a language of their
own. The period in which these remarkable changes were taking place is
known as that of the Renaissance. It cannot be confined to definite
chronological limits, but is the period of transition from one
historical stage to another, in which there was a "gradual metamorphosis
of the intellectual and moral state of Europe." The Renaissance must be
viewed as "an internal process whereby spiritual energies latent in the
Middle Ages were developed into actuality and formed a mental habit for
the modern world." It prepared the way for the Reformation, and
introduced the era of wonderful progress upon which modern civilization
has entered. It was the new birth, the regeneration (renascence) of the
world.
A most important instrumentality for carrying forward the great work
thus inaugurated was the Teutonic race. The despised northern
barbarians, who had conquered Rome, had become civilized and
Christianized, and were found to possess the sterling qualities which
made them capable of bearing the great responsibilities of progressive
civilization. The proud Roman Empire had at last succumbed to its
internal weaknesses and vices, and had disappeared forever from the face
of the earth.
With the greater enlightenment of men had come once more an appreciation
of the value of the classic languages, and Greek, the language of the
Eastern Empire, was no longer regarded with antipathy. The revival of
learning, which had its inception in Italy and spread northward, found
its most important expression in the new interest awakened in the
classic languages. It is in this, the so-called humanistic phase of the
Renaissance, that the student of education is chiefly interested. To
this we turn our attention.
We have already alluded to the social conditions, the inventions, and
discoveries, which prepared the way for the revival of learning. New
and powerful impulses were shaping the progress of the world, and the
leaders of the humanistic movement were not slow to utilize the
instruments thus opportunely furnished them. Chief among these was the
art of printing, which enabled them to multiply and distribute copies of
the classics, that had been consigned to comparative oblivion.
Another important element must be considered if we are to understand
this revival. We have seen that during the Middle Ages the ecclesiastics
largely shaped the intellectual activity of Europe, that mystery was
made of science, and that the authority of the Church was supreme on all
questions of education as well as of religion. A new and vital doctrine
was taught which had much to do with the intellectual and spiritual
emancipation of man. This new doctrine may be stated as follows:--
_Man is a rational, volitional, self-conscious being, born with
capabilities and rights to enjoy whatever good the world offers._
This doctrine, it will readily appear, is capable of being perverted to
an excuse for unbridled license, as was done by the Italians; or,
rightly interpreted, of being productive of great good, as in the case
of the Germans.
Another new doctrine taught was that there was goodness in man and his
works even previous to the Christian era, and that a study of the
writings of all who have contributed to human progress is essential to
culture, and of value to mankind. This was an argument for the revival
of the study of Greek, which had for centuries been neglected. Indeed,
Gibbon tells us that in the time of Petrarch, "No more than ten votaries
of Homer could be enumerated in all Italy."
Again, it was held that the gates of learning must be opened to all and
not limited to the clergy, the recluse, and the sage. Intellectual
culture must be offered to all men, to make them better and happier, and
is not to be confined to the few for the purpose of increasing their
power and widening the breach between the classes. The Renaissance made
learning popular, it created a passion for culture, it aroused and
stimulated widespread desire for greater enlightenment. Some of the
leaders in the movement, however, merited opposition because of their
efforts to introduce not only the beauties of pagan art and literature,
but likewise some of their licentiousness.
We may now turn our attention to a more detailed history of this revival
and its effect upon different peoples, and to a brief study of some of
its great leaders.
=Humanism in Italy.=--Italy was the first to catch the impulse of
humanism. Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio in the fourteenth century
inspired men with their new ideas, and set in motion influences which
were attended with results often far from good. They revived the study
of Latin and Greek classics, extracted manuscripts from their hidden
archives, incited in society a passion for learning, and created a
popular literature in their own vernacular. They implanted a love of
freedom of thought in the Italian masses. Their enthusiasm for the new
learning attracted scholars from Germany, France, and other countries,
who spread the influence in their own lands.
The effect of humanism upon the Italian mind and life was pernicious in
the extreme. It led to infidelity, to immorality, and to a return to
many pagan practices. This was owing to two chief causes. First, the
evil influence of many leaders of the Church, and second, the passionate
nature of the Italian people. Karl Schmidt says, "Humanism, but not
morality, ruled in the Vatican." Brother Azarias, in speaking of this
period, says:[50] "The clergy loved their own ease too well; they were
too great pleasure-seekers and gold-coveters to attend to their flocks
with that pastoral spirit of simplicity and good faith that is to be
witnessed in the Church to-day. The bishops were no better. They looked
for emoluments and court favor. Even the better class of ecclesiastics
gave themselves up to the intellectual luxury of admiring Plato and
imitating Cicero. While a general laxity of morals in all orders of
religious life--among priest and monk, pope and cardinal--was bringing
odium on the Church, and weakening her hold upon the people--especially
upon the Teutonic races--the seeds of regeneration were germinating in
her own body. She was even then the mother of sanctity.... The Catholic
hierarchy at last realized that with themselves should begin the
reformation they would see established; they therefore pronounced the
most withering denunciations upon the clerical and religious abuses of
the day."
The people interpreted the teaching of Petrarch that the world was made
for man's enjoyment, as a plea for license and absence of restraint.
Even monks and priests, who had been held to the rigid life of the
cloister, imbued with this teaching, indulged in excesses that were
subversive of both morals and religion.[51]
But without doubt there was a great intellectual movement in Italy.
Draper says, "Between 1470 and 1500 more than ten thousand editions of
books and pamphlets were printed, and a majority of them in Italy,
demonstrating that Italy was in the van of the intellectual movement."
=Humanism in Germany.=--A far different result was attained among the
Teutonic peoples. The best students of Germany went to Italy, and,
becoming acquainted with the new education, returned to introduce it
into their own universities. Being less directly under the influences
that obtained in Italy, and possessing the moral stability which had
brought the Teutonic race to the front, the Germans obtained good where
the Italians had absorbed evil. The same principle, with different
interpretation, under different conditions, and in different soil,
brought forth far different fruit. Thus Petrarch's teaching was
interpreted to mean that the good things of earth are not to be abused,
and that man's acquirements are to be consecrated to his
self-development and to the glory of God.
The German humanists revived the study of the classics, Greek, Latin,
and Hebrew, until, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, these
languages were taught in every German university. The Bible was studied
in the original, and classic writings were redeemed from obscurity,
printed, and given to the world. Heidelberg and Tuebingen became centers
of the humanistic movement, and Agricola, Reuchlin, and Erasmus were the
great leaders.
=Artisan Schools.=--During the 13th and 14th centuries another type of
schools flourished, namely, the Buerger or Artisan Schools, whose
purpose, contrary to that of the humanistic influences, was to prepare
men for practical and useful work, and to fit for citizenship. The need
of these schools grew out of the changed conditions of life, especially
the growing tendency to live in cities and to divide labor into crafts.
They were supported by the secular authorities, and ultimately they came
to exert a great influence upon city governments, particularly those of
the Hanseatic league. Many of the teachers were priests, and the
instruction was usually given in the mother tongue. These schools
flourished in Germany, France, Italy, Denmark, and other countries, and
they doubtless furthered the idea of the maintenance of education at
public expense, an idea that has come to have universal acceptance.
=Summary of the Influence of Humanism.=--1. It laid the foundation for
future liberty of thought and conscience.
2. It revived the study of the classic languages, and gave them a place
in education which they still hold.
3. It utilized the art of printing by placing the works of ancient
authors in form to be used by the world.
4. It increased the number of students in the universities, and
stimulated intelligence among the masses.
5. It changed courses of study, making them more practical.
6. It exerted an influence on schools of all kinds by giving better
preparation to teachers.
7. It stimulated all forms of elevating activity,--in art, in science,
in exploration, in invention.
8. It prepared the way for the Reformation, which broadened and
perfected the work thus inaugurated.
FOOTNOTES:
[50] "Philosophy of Literature," p. 123.
[51] _Ibid._