SPARTA
=Literature.=--(See general literature for Greece.) _Sankey_, Spartan
and Theban Supremacies; _Smith_, History of Greece; _Plutarch's_ Lives;
_Mombert_, Great Lives; _Spofford_, Library of Historical Characters.
=History.=--Sparta was the capital of Laconia, the southern province of
Greece. Its inhabitants consisted of:--
1. _Citizens_, composed of nine thousand families of nobles, who ruled
the other classes.
2. _Perioeci_,[18] composed of thirty thousand families of freemen who
lived in the territory surrounding Sparta, but who were subject to the
nobles.
3. _Helots_,[19] about three hundred thousand in number, who were
slaves.
The Perioeci and the helots, with the love of freedom characteristic
among the Greeks, chafed under their yoke of subjugation, and eagerly
watched for opportunities for revolt. Only by an exercise of superior
force could the nobles maintain their supremacy, and they were obliged
to seek by martial training the strength they lacked in numbers. Hence
the education of the Spartan youth was of necessity military, and every
citizen was trained to become a warrior.
The Spartans were dignified, austere, and of few words, "laconic" in
speech. The young were expected to be silent in the presence of their
elders except when addressed. They were taught to give way to their
seniors, especially to old men, whenever they met upon the street or in
a public place.
=The Home.=--The child was left in charge of the mother until six or
seven years of age. Toys inciting to warlike sports were provided, and
childhood was made happy. The father usually superintended the child's
training, but sometimes an aged relative assumed the responsibility. The
treatment was humane and intelligent. From the first the child was
taught implicit obedience and modesty.
The _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ have been called the Bible of the Greeks,
and children early learned extracts from the works of the great poet,
Homer. The Spartan mother was highly respected by her husband and her
children, and she was noted for her chastity and nobility of character.
She entered fully into the Spartan idea, and cheerfully gave her sons to
her country, while she often inspired them to deeds of bravery and
patriotism. The lofty and self-sacrificing patriotism of the Spartan
mother is illustrated by her words upon sending her son to
battle,--"Return either with your shield or on it!"
It is said that weak and unpromising children were either killed as soon
as they were born, or abandoned to the wild beasts upon the mountains.
This was because the State would assume the training only of strong
children, such as were likely to make good soldiers. It is probable
that many of these abandoned children were rescued and reared by the
lower classes, which would partially account for the fierce resistance
so often offered by these classes to those who deprived them of liberty.
If such an inhuman practice had been encouraged by other nations of the
world, many of the greatest benefactors of the race would have been
consigned to an untimely death, for some of the noblest men that have
ever lived were weak in infancy.
=Education.=--At six or seven the boy was taken from the home, and the
State had entire jurisdiction over his education. The boys were placed
in groups in charge of young men who were responsible for their
education, which was almost wholly physical. They lived on very simple
food, and were often obliged to appease hunger by theft. They were
taught that crime did not lie in the commission of the offense, but in
its detection. Their dress from seven to twelve consisted of a long coat
of very coarse material, the same for summer and winter. They were
taught to bear blows without a murmur, and instances are related of boys
being whipped to death without crying out.
Children sat at table with older men and listened to their conversation,
but they were never allowed to speak except in answer to questions. Thus
they absorbed wisdom and were incited to deeds of bravery by the stories
of heroism related by their seniors.
The State furnished barracks poorly provided with the comforts of life,
in which the boys slept in severe weather; at other times they slept in
the open air. They were wholly separated from their homes, and
completely under control of the State. The purpose was to secure strong,
beautiful, and supple bodies, inured to hardship, as a preparation for
the life of the soldier. The only intellectual education was music,
which consisted in playing the lyre as an accompaniment to the dance.
Reading and writing were despised as being fit only for slaves.
At the age of twelve the boy exchanged the long coat for the mantle,
thereby entering upon manhood. From this time until the age of thirty,
much the same form of training was continued, though it became more
definitely military. At thirty the Spartan youth became a citizen and
was expected to marry. Girls also received gymnastic training, in many
cases with the boys. The purpose of this was to develop strong and
beautiful wives and mothers. The effect of this coeducation of the sexes
was in the highest degree salutary, impurity among women being unknown
in Sparta. We have already noted the patriotism of the Spartan mother.
Woman was highly esteemed in the home. Her praises and her reproofs were
alike respected, and all her opinions bore much weight.
=Criticism of Spartan Education.=--1. It produced men and women of
beautiful physique.
2. It inculcated obedience, politeness, modesty, sobriety, respect for
the aged, courage, and patriotism.
3. It checked luxury and extravagance.
4. On the other hand, it gave little attention to intellectual training,
hence it produced few men of lasting fame.
5. Its aim was martial supremacy, and this attained, the State fell into
a hasty decline because of the instability of such a foundation.
6. It excluded a large part of the inhabitants from its benefits, only
the nobles being included.
7. It was selfish because it trained for Sparta and not for Greece, or
for humanity.
8. It taught the duty of man to the State, and not the duty of man to
man.
9. It took boys at an early age away from the influences of home, thus
robbing the parents of the sacred prerogative of directing the education
of their offspring.
10. It produced men cruel in battle and revengeful in victory, men
incapable of cultivating the arts of peace.
LYCURGUS
There is so much that is mythical and uncertain concerning Lycurgus that
many have doubted whether he ever lived. Curtius, however, says, "There
really lived in the ninth century B.C. a legislator of the name
of Lycurgus." Lycurgus formed the constitution which gave Sparta its
peculiar institutions, and which established its place in history. His
laws were intended to check luxury and to inculcate the simplest habits.
Some of his important laws led to the introduction of the following
customs:--
1. All the men ate at common tables, fifteen at a table.
2. Children sat at these tables, but were required to maintain silence
save when addressed. They were not allowed to ask for food. The object
was to teach them good manners, to inculcate implicit obedience, and to
impart to them the wisdom of the Spartan fathers.
3. The food was of the simplest kind.
4. Sparta was divided into nine thousand parts, a part for each of the
nine thousand citizens, or noble families. The provinces under Spartan
rule were divided into thirty thousand parts, a part for each Perioeci
family.
5. Iron was made the only money, so that the people could not become
rich; for its great weight rendered burdensome the possession of a
considerable amount.
6. All children belonged to the State, to which only soldiers were
valuable, therefore weak or deformed children were cast out. Marriage
was also controlled by the State.
Lycurgus exerted a great influence upon Sparta, and his laws were
responsible for her peculiar political system and her resulting
greatness.
PYTHAGORAS
Pythagoras, though not a Spartan, is associated with southern Greece.
Little is known of his early life. He was born on the island of Samos,
about B.C. 582. He was familiar with the Ionic philosophy, and
probably visited Egypt for study, a custom common among scholars of that
time. Such a visit would in part explain his knowledge of mathematics,
as the Egyptians had long been masters in that science. One of his
teachers was Thales, the father of philosophy. The fundamental thought
of the Pythagorean philosophy was the idea of proportion and harmony.
"Through number alone, the quantitative relations of things, extension,
magnitude, figure (triangular, quadrangular, cubic), combination,
distance, etc., obtain their peculiar character; the forms and
proportions of things can all be reduced to number. Therefore, it was
concluded, since without form and proportion nothing can exist, number
must be the principle of things themselves, as well as the order in
which they manifest themselves in the world." (Schwegler's "History of
Philosophy.")
While mathematics was the central idea of his system, medicine, physics,
and philosophy were also taught in his school. He did the world great
service in the discovery of the so-called Pythagorean theorem in
geometry, that the square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle
is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
FOOTNOTES:
[18] The Perioeci (dwellers around) were the older population of the
land, who inhabited the mountains and hillsides about Sparta. They were
farmers, and they also worked the mines and quarries, manufactured
articles for the Spartan market, and carried on the commerce. Though
freemen, they were allowed no part in the government, could not bear
arms, and had to pay tribute to Sparta.
[19] The Helots were probably peasants who occupied the land about
Helos, and, defeated in war, became Spartan subjects. They could not be
sold or given away, but belonged to the inventory of the farm.