ATHENS
=Literature.=--(See general literature for Greece.) _Harrison_, Story of
Greece; _Macaulay_, Essays; _Curtius_, History of Greece; _Davidson_,
Education of the Greeks; _Wilkins_, National Education in Greece;
_Freeman_, Historical Essays.
=History.=--The ideals of Athens--educational, political, and
moral--were in direct contrast to those of Sparta. At Athens, love of
liberty, love of knowledge, and love of beauty went hand in hand. Though
the body was not neglected, as is proved by the beautiful types of
manhood preserved for us in Athenian art, the Athenians believed that
the truest beauty was to be reached only by the development of the mind.
Hence Athens brought forth great men like Pericles, Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle, she created a literature that has influenced the world, she
developed art to its highest excellence, and gained for herself a
permanent and high place in the world's history. Sparta did none of
these things, therefore her ruin was sure and speedy; while the decline
of Athens was slow and her influence still lives.
The spirit of Athens was liberty, while that of Sparta was tyranny. It
is true that Athens had slaves; indeed, only one fourth of the
inhabitants were free; but even the slaves had a large share of freedom,
and enjoyed some means of education. We learn that children of the
wealthy were committed to trusted slaves, called _pedagogues_, who
escorted them to school, instructed them in many things, and had a
right to punish them for disobedience. This could not have been allowed
by parents with such high ideals had the slaves been debased as were
those of Sparta.
In Athens we find for the first time the democratic idea of government;
this was by no means so completely realized as it is in modern times,
especially in the western world. The "Age of Pericles" (B.C.
480-430) forms the most brilliant period of Athens, a period hardly
surpassed in some respects by any other in the world's history. Solon
(B.C. 638) was the great lawgiver of Athens. His wise laws had
much influence on the prosperity and intellectual development of the
people.
=The Home.=--In Athens the child was left with the mother until the
sixth or seventh year. The toys were greater in variety than with any
other people of antiquity. They were much the same in character as those
of modern times, and their purpose was to amuse the children rather than
to furnish a definite preparation for life, as in Persia and Sparta.
Play, therefore, was recognized as an important factor in the child's
life, and the toys in use stimulated and encouraged the joyous element
in the child's nature. That toys are a potent influence toward healthful
mental and physical growth is an educational truth that has been fully
recognized by us only within recent years. And yet the Athenians
appreciated it in the home, twenty-five centuries ago.
The training was intellectual and humane, though strict obedience was
enforced. Great attention was paid to the works of the poets, selections
being taught to all the children. The father interested himself chiefly
in the education of the boys, and when he was unable to discharge this
duty an elderly male relative was selected as mentor, who devoted his
leisure hours to such training. Little attention was paid to the mental
training of the girls.
Women were not held in so high esteem as in Sparta, nor were they as
worthy of respect. The husband exercised over his wife the same
authority as over his children. Neither by social position nor by
intellectual attainment was she his equal. "Her own chamber was the
world of the Athenian woman; her maids were her companions; household
duties and the preparation of clothing for her family were her
employment."
=Education.=--The father was free to choose for his children their
school and the character of their education. The State furnished
gymnasia in which schools could be held, fixed the qualifications of
teachers, the school hours, and the number of pupils to a teacher. Once
a year public examinations were held, the expense of which the State
defrayed. The schools were private institutions, supported by private
means, though under State inspection. The teachers were philosophers or
wise men, thoroughly competent to discharge the duties of their office.
At six or seven years of age, the boy was sent to school in charge of a
pedagogue, or leader of the young,--usually an old and trusted slave.
While not intrusted with the actual teaching of his charge, he was
responsible for his morals and manners, and was allowed, as we have
seen, to administer punishment. The pedagogue was the constant attendant
of the boy. The character of the school chosen depended upon the means
of the parents.
The first two years were devoted chiefly to gymnastics. The two subjects
of the elementary course were _gymnastics_ and _music_, the latter term
including reading and writing. But little arithmetic was taught, as the
Athenians believed that the object of the study of arithmetic was
simply utility, and but little arithmetic was needed for practical use.
"Calculating boards" made the reckoning for all business needs a purely
mechanical process. The idea of education was the development of the
_beautiful_, and they held that arithmetic contributed but little to
this end. The works of the poets were given prominence throughout the
Athenian education, and pupils were required to commit to memory many
selections.
=The Sophists.=--The Sophists flourished during the fifth century
B.C. Their greatest exponents were Protagoras and Gorgias. They
introduced a movement of which Schwegler says, "It had struck its roots
into the whole moral, political, and religious character of the Hellenic
life of that time." They wandered about from place to place proclaiming
themselves as philosophers and bidding for the patronage of the rich by
charging large fees and considering public questions. They discussed
error and wrong with the same eloquence and zeal that they discussed
truth and justice, their purpose being to foster eloquence rather than
discover truth. Hence, we have the word "sophistry," which means
fallacious reasoning. And yet, in the words of Schwegler, "It cannot be
denied that Protagoras also hit upon many correct principles of
rhetoric, and satisfactorily established certain grammatical categories.
It may in general be said of the Sophists that they gave the people a
great profusion of general knowledge; ... that they called out
investigations in the theory of knowledge, in logic, and in language;
that they laid the basis for the methodical treatment of many branches
of human knowledge, and that they partly originated and partly assisted
the wonderful intellectual activity which characterized Athens at that
time."
Children of the poorer classes were kept in school until their
fourteenth or fifteenth year, when they learned a trade. Those of the
rich remained in school until their twentieth year. The course of study
of the latter included music, rhetoric, grammar, and philosophy. At
twenty the youth's education was regarded as completed, and the young
man became a citizen. Teachers were paid fees and not fixed salaries.
It was the atmosphere of Athens, more than the discipline of the school,
that fostered culture and inspired learning. The aim of education was
the _beautiful_, and the ideal was the aesthetic in mind and body.
=Criticism of Athenian Education.=--1. It sought to educate the entire
man, giving him beauty of form, keenness of intellect, and nobleness of
heart.
2. It acknowledged the right of parents to direct and determine the
education of their children.
3. It recognized the importance of the individual as no other people had
before.
4. Strict obedience was required of the children.
5. It produced great men, with high moral and intellectual ideals, but
these ideals were centered in Athenian culture.
6. It excluded women and slaves from its benefits, and was by no means
universal.
7. It recognized the value of play as an educational force, thereby
anticipating the kindergarten.
8. The State exercised a certain control over the school by furnishing
places where it might be held, by defraying the expense of examinations,
by determining the number of pupils to a teacher, by fixing the limit of
school hours, and by deciding upon the qualifications of teachers. And
yet the choice of education was free, and its aim was the good of the
individual and not the glory of the State.