EGYPT
=Literature.=--_Maspero_, Egyptian Archaeology; _Wilkinson_, The Ancient
Egyptians; _Stoddard's_ Lectures; Myers, Ancient History; _Routledge_,
The Modern Wonders of the World; _Johonnot_, Geographical Reader;
_Edwards_, A Thousand Miles up the Nile; _Knox_, Egypt and the Holy
Land; _Ballou_, Due West; _Clarke_, Ten Great Religions; _Ebers_, Uarda;
and Egyptian Princess; _Curtis_, Nile Notes of a Howadji.
=Geography and History.=--Egypt consists of a narrow strip of land about
six hundred miles long, lying in the northeastern part of Africa. Its
geographical importance is due to the river Nile, which flows through
it, and which, by its annual overflow, enriches the soil, and makes one
of the most productive portions of the globe. For many centuries
reservoirs for the storage of water in time of the overflow, and
irrigation canals for its later distribution, have secured the country
against drought, and thus abundant harvests were always assured
"independent of the seasons and the skies." This, with the mild climate
and exceedingly rich soil, made food attainable with slight labor,
furnishing an abundance, not only for its own population, but making
Egypt the granary of the Mediterranean countries. We learn from the
Scriptures, of the visits of the sons of Jacob to Egypt to buy corn of
Joseph when famine existed in their own land. These conditions, which
made living so cheap, were doubtless the main causes of the early
settlement of the valley of the Nile, and the rapid increase in its
population. In confirmation of the foregoing we have the testimony of
Diodorus Siculus, a Greek writer, who visited Egypt nearly two thousand
years ago. He tells us that the entire cost to bring up a child to
manhood was not more than twenty drachmas (less than four dollars of our
money).[13]
Of the antiquity of Egyptian history we have abundant evidence. Swinton
says, "Egypt is the country in which we first find a government and
political institutions established. Egypt itself may not have been the
oldest _nation_, but Egyptian history is certainly the oldest _history_.
Its monuments, records, and literature surpass in antiquity those of
Chaldea and India, the two next oldest nations."[14] The records of the
history of Egypt are found in abundance carved on her monuments, tombs,
buildings, implements, etc. They were written in hieroglyphics, the
meaning of which was unknown until the discovery of the "Rosetta stone,"
which furnished the key to their interpretation.
The ancient Egyptians excelled in mechanics and arts. It is doubtful
whether to-day we know as much of certain sciences as they did four
thousand years ago. Their applications of mechanics, engineering,
dyeing, and embalming still remain to us "lost arts." The wisdom of the
Egyptians was proverbial, and the great scholars of other countries made
pilgrimages to Egypt to study philosophy, literature, law, and science.
=The Caste System.=--The caste system existed also in Egypt, but in no
such strict sense as in India. The first and highest caste consisted of
the priests, who represented the learning and wealth of the country.
They owned one third of the land, upon which they paid no tax. They
held all the offices, were the surveyors, engineers, teachers,--indeed,
their caste alone furnished all the higher professions. They ruled the
land with an iron hand. Concerning their influence, Swinton says, "The
priests were the richest, most powerful, and most influential order. It
must not be supposed, however, that the modern word 'priest' gives the
true idea of this caste. Its members were not limited to religious
offices; they formed an order _comprising many occupations and
professions_. They were distributed all over the country, possessing
exclusively the means of reading and writing, and the whole stock of
medical and scientific knowledge. Their ascendency, both direct and
indirect, over the minds of the people was immense, for they prescribed
that minute religious ritual under which the life of every Egyptian, not
excepting the king himself, was passed."[15]
The second caste consisted of the military class, who also belonged to
the nobles. There was freer intercourse between the two higher castes
than was possible in the Hindu system. It was not uncommon to find
brothers belonging to different castes. Ampere found an inscription on a
monument mentioning one son as a priest, another as governor of a
province, and a third as superintendent of buildings. To each member of
this caste was assigned a parcel of land (six and one half acres), which
also was free from taxation. These two higher castes were especially
privileged, and the gulf between them and the lower castes was very
wide.
The third, or _unprivileged_ caste was subdivided into three orders: (1)
the farmers and boatmen; (2) the mechanics and tradespeople; and (3) the
common laborers. Between these, also, there were bonds of common
interest, though a decided difference between the orders was recognized.
The caste system may be outlined as follows:--
{ I. _Priests_, who represented the learning and wealth and
{ ruled the land.
{
Egyptian { II. _Soldiers_, who, though lower in caste than the priests,
Castes. { yet associated with them.
{ {1. _Farmers_ and _boatmen_, who ranked next.
{ III. {2. _Mechanics_ and _tradespeople_, who ranked next.
{ {3. The common laborers.
The slaves were lower than the common laborers, and were not classified
among the castes. They were generally captives taken in war. Respect and
reverence for the higher castes were by no means so marked as in India,
and outbreaks between the various classes were common.
=The Home.=--Woman occupied a much higher plane in Egypt than in China
or India, though polygamy was practiced by all classes except the
priests. She was the recognized mistress of the home, possessed some
education, and largely directed the education of the children. Children
of wives of different castes had equal rights before the law to
inheritance. Great attention was paid to religious ceremonies, and the
children were taught piety and obedience in their early youth. They were
highly regarded in the Egyptian home, and were brought up in an
atmosphere of love and filial respect. The day of a child's birth was
regarded as determining its destiny. The child was brought up on the
simplest food, and furnished with scanty clothing, in order that its
body might be strong and supple.
=The Education.=--The education, like that of India, was suited to the
different castes. Priests were the only teachers. While chief attention
was given to the education of boys, girls also received some
instruction. The principal subjects taught in the lowest caste were
writing and mathematics. The papyrus plant, found along the Nile,
furnished a material on which writing was practiced. In arithmetic we
find an anticipation of modern principles in the concrete methods
employed. Religious instruction was also given. Bodily exercise was
severe, running being a favorite pastime. The expense of schooling was
very small. The boy usually followed the trade of his father, though
this was not an inflexible rule. The occupation he was to follow had
some influence in shaping his education.
The higher castes received an extensive education, including a knowledge
of higher mathematics, astronomy, language, natural science, medicine,
music, engineering, and religion. The annual overflow of the Nile
necessitated the construction of reservoirs and irrigation canals, and
caused frequent changes of boundary lines. For all this a knowledge of
mathematics was necessary, and this study was therefore greatly
encouraged. Institutions of higher learning for the training of priests
and soldiers were found at Thebes, Memphis, and Heliopolis. The Museum
of Alexandria, which reached its highest prosperity about the middle of
the third century B.C., and which made Alexandria the center of
the learning of the world at that period, attracted philosophers and
investigators from Athens and Rome. In connection with the Museum was
the celebrated Alexandrian library, which was fostered by the Ptolemies,
and which contained a vast collection of books, variously estimated at
from four hundred thousand to seven hundred thousand volumes.[16]
=Criticism of Egyptian Education.=--1. It was dominated by the priests
under the caste system, and did not recognize equality of man.
2. It encouraged greater respect for woman than other oriental systems,
but took little account of her intellectual training.
3. It made use of concrete methods, at least in writing and arithmetic,
for the first time in history.
4. It was non-progressive in its elementary education, the father
generally expecting his son to follow his calling.
5. In higher education it was justly noted, as it attracted wise men
from Greece and Rome to study its science and philosophy.
GENERAL SUMMARY OF ORIENTAL EDUCATION
With the discussion of Egyptian education, the consideration of oriental
systems ceases. Concerning the education of the Phoenicians,
Babylonians, and other oriental nations we know but little. To the
Phoenicians the invention of the alphabet, glass making, and purple
dyeing is generally credited, and the knowledge of these things was
communicated to the Mediterranean nations with whom they engaged in
trade. The classical countries were materially influenced by Egyptian
culture, and the way was prepared for a broader and more enlightened
interpretation of the purpose of education, and for a more successful
evolution of civilization on soil better suited to that end. We may
briefly summarize the lessons of oriental education, as follows:--
1. The Oriental systems fostered class distinctions by furnishing but
little enlightenment to the lower classes, and affording superior
advantages to the privileged few.
2. They were non-progressive, for centuries witnessed no improvement in
methods of instruction, reached no higher ideals, and marked no advance
in civilization.
3. They did not feel the need of trained teachers.
4. The importance of the individual was not appreciated, and man was
regarded as belonging to the State.
5. The end sought was good conduct, which was to be attained through
memorizing moral precepts. This gave undue importance to the memory.
6. Little encouragement was given to free investigation; authority of
teachers and ancestral traditions were the principal factors employed.
The progress of civilization was therefore very slow.
7. In general, excepting with the Jews, woman had no part in education,
being regarded as incapable of any considerable intellectual
development.
8. In China the motive of education was to prepare for success in this
life; in India, for the future life; in Persia, to support the State; in
Israel, to rehabilitate the nation; and in Egypt, to maintain the
supremacy of the priests.
9. In no case was the conception reached that the aim of education
should be to emancipate all the powers of man,--physical, intellectual,
moral, spiritual.
10. Finally, we may sum up the conditions that prepared the way for
classical education in the words of Karl Schmidt: "In Greece at last the
idea of human individuality as the principal end, and not as a means to
that end, was grasped. Conformable to this truth, all human, social, and
political conditions were shaped and education given its form. This idea
of the emancipation of the individual became established in Greece with
a brilliancy which attracts attention to that land until the present
time."
FOOTNOTES:
[13] The student should bear in mind the fact that the purchasing power
of a sum equivalent to four dollars was much greater in those days than
now.
[14] "Outlines of the World's History," p. 12.
[15] "Outlines of History," p. 20.
[16] It must be observed that the ancient volume, or roll, contained
much less matter than the modern book.