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The Philippine Islands
A Political, Geographical, Ethnographical, Social and
Commercial History of the Philippine Archipelago
Embracing the Whole Period of Spanish Rule
With an Account of the Succeeding American Insular Government
By John Foreman, F.R.G.S.
Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged with Maps and Illustrations
London: T. Fisher Unwin
1, Adelphi Terrace.
MCMVI
Printed and bound by Hazell, Watson and Viney, LD., London and
Aylesbury.
Preface to the First Edition
It would be surprising if the concerns of an interesting Colony
like the _Philippine Islands_ had not commanded the attention of
literary genius.
I do not pretend, therefore, to improve upon the able productions of
such eminent writers as Juan de le Concepcion, Martinez Zuniga, Tomas
de Comyn and others, nor do I aspire, through this brief composition,
to detract from the merit of Jagor's work, which, in its day, commended
itself as a valuable book of reference. But since then, and within
the last twenty years, this Colony has made great strides on the
path of social and material progress; its political and commercial
importance is rapidly increasing, and many who know the Philippines
have persuaded me to believe that my notes would be an appreciated
addition to what was published years ago on this subject.
The critical opinions herein expressed are based upon personal
observations made during the several years I have travelled in and
about all the principal islands of the Archipelago, and are upheld
by reference to the most reliable historical records.
An author should be benevolent in his judgement of men and manners
and guarded against mistaking isolated cases for rules. In matters
of history he should neither hide the truth nor twist it to support
a private view, remembering how easy it is to criticize an act when
its sequel is developed: such will be my aim in the fullest measure
consistent.
By certain classes I may be thought to have taken a hypercritical view
of things; I may even offend their susceptibilities--if I adulated
them I should fail to chronicle the truth, and my work would be a
deliberate imposture.
I would desire it to be understood, with regard to the classes and
races in their collectedness, that my remarks apply only to the large
majority; exceptions undoubtedly there are--these form the small
minority. Moreover, I need hardly point out that the native population
of the capital of the Philippines by no means represents the true
native character, to comprehend which, so far as its complicacy can
be fathomed, one must penetrate into and reside for years in the
interior of the Colony, as I have done, in places where extraneous
influences have, as yet, produced no effect.
There may appear to be some incongruity in the plan of a work which
combines objects so dissimilar as those enumerated in the Contents
pages, but this is not exclusively a History, or a Geography, or an
Account of Travels--it is a concise review of all that may interest
the reader who seeks for a general idea of the condition of affairs
in this Colony in the past and in the present.
J. F.
Preface to the Third Edition
The success which has attended the publication of the Second Edition
of this work has induced me to revise it carefully throughout, adding
the latest facts of public interest up to the present period.
Long years of personal acquaintance with many of the prime movers in
the Revolutionary Party enabled me to estimate their aspirations. My
associations with Spain and Spaniards since my boyhood helped me,
as an eye-witness of the outbreak of the Rebellion, to judge of the
opponents of that movement. My connection with the American Peace
Commission in Paris afforded me an opportunity of appreciating the
noble desire of a free people to aid the lawful aspirations of millions
of their fellow-creatures.
My criticism of the regular clergy applies only to the four religious
confraternities in their lay capacity of government agents in these
Islands and not to the Jesuit or the Paul fathers, who have justly
gained the respect of both Europeans and natives: neither is it
intended, in any degree, as a reflection on the sacred institution
of the Church.
I take this opportunity of acknowledging, with gratitude, my
indebtedness to Governor-General Luke E. Wright, Major-General Leonard
Wood, Colonel Philip Reade, Major Hugh L. Scott, Captain E. N. Jones,
Captain C. H. Martin, Captain Henry C. Cabell, Captain George Bennett,
Captain John P. Finley, Dr. David P. Barrows, Mr. Tobias Eppstein,
and many others too numerous to mention, who gave me such valuable
and cordial assistance in my recent investigations throughout the
Archipelago.
This book is not written to promote the interests of any person or
party, and so far as is consistent with guiding the reader to a fair
appreciation of the facts recorded, controversial comment has been
avoided, for to pronounce a just dictum on the multifarious questions
involved would demand a catholicity of judgement never concentrated
in the brain of a single human being.
I am persuaded to believe that the bare truth, unvarnished by flattery,
will be acceptable to the majority, amongst whom may be counted all
those educated Americans whose impartiality is superior to their
personal interest in the subject at issue.
It is therefore confidently hoped that the present Edition may merit
that approval from readers of English which has been so graciously
accorded to the previous ones.
J. F. _September_, 1905.
Table of Contents
_Introduction_
_Chapter_ I
_General Description of the Archipelago_
Geographical features of the Islands. Limits. Mountains. 13
Rivers. Lakes. Volcanoes. Eruptions of the Mayon and Taal
Volcanoes. 14
Monsoons. Seasons. Temperature. Rains. Climate. Earthquakes. 22
_Chapter_ II
_Discovery of the Archipelago_
Hernando de Maghallanes. Treaty of Tordesillas. 24
Discovery of Magellan Straits and the Ladrone Islands. 27
Death of Maghallanes. Elcano's voyage round the world. 28
The Loaisa expedition. The Villalobos expedition. Andres de
Urdaneta. 31
Miguel de Legaspi; his expedition; he reaches Cebu; dethrones
King Tupas. 33
Manila is proclaimed the capital of the Archipelago. 36
Martin de Goiti. Juan Salcedo. Native Local Government
initiated. 37
_Chapter_ III
_Philippine Dependencies, Up To 1898_
The Ladrone, Caroline, and Pelew Islands. 39
First mission to the Ladrone Islands. Pelew Islanders. Caroline
Islanders. 40
Spain's possession of the Caroline Islands disputed by
Germany. 44
Posadillo, Governor of the Caroline Islands, is murdered. 45
The Ladrone, Caroline, and Pelew Islands (except Guam) sold
to Germany. 46
_Chapter_ IV
_Attempted Conquest by Chinese_
Li-ma-hong, a Chinese corsair, attacks Manila. 47
He settles in Pangasinan; evacuates the Islands. 49
Rivalry of lay and Monastic authorities. Philip II.'s decree
of Reforms. 51
Manila Cathedral founded. Mendicant friars. Archbishopric
created. 55
Supreme Court suppressed and re-established. Church and State
contentions. 57
Murder of Gov.-General Bustamente Bustillo. The monks in open
riot. 60
_Chapter_ V
_Early Relations with Japan_
_The Catholic Missions_
The Emperor of Japan demands the surrender of the Islands. 63
Fray Pedro Bautista's mission; he and 25 others are
crucified. 65
Jesuit and Franciscan jealousy. The martyrs' mortal remains
lost at sea. 67
Emperor Taycosama explains his policy. Further missions and
executions. 68
Missionary martyrs declared saints. Emperor of Japan sends
a shipment of lepers. 70
Spaniards expelled from Formosa by the Dutch. Missions to
Japan abandoned. 71
_Chapter_ VI
_Conflicts with the Dutch_
The Spanish expedition to the Moluccas fails. 72
Chinese mutiny, murder the Spanish leader, and take the ship
to Cochin China. 73
Expeditions of Bravo de Acuna and Pedro de Heredia. Battle
of Playa Honda. 74
Koxinga, a Chinese adventurer, threatens to attack the
Colony. 76
Vittorio Riccio, an Italian monk, visits Manila as Koxinga's
ambassador. 77
Chinese goaded to rebellion; great massacre. 77
Vicissitudes of Govs.-General. Defalcations. Impeachments. 78
Gov.-General Fajardo de Tua kills his wife and her paramour. 80
Separation of Portugal and Spain (1640). Spanish failure to
capture Macao. 81
Nunneries. Mother Cecilia's love adventures. Santa Clara
Convent. 81
The High Host is stolen. Inquisition. Letter of Anathema. 82
The Spanish Prime Minister Valenzuela is banished to Cavite. 83
Monseigneur Maillard de Tournon, the Papal Legate. 84
His arrogance and eccentricities; he dies in prison at
Macao. 85
Question of the _Regium exequatur_. Philip V.'s edict of
punishments. 86
_Chapter_ VII
_British Occupation of Manila_
Coalition of France and Spain against England by the "Family
Compact." 87
Simon de Anda y Salazar usurps the Archbishop-Governor's
authority. 88
British bombard Manila. Archbishop-Governor Rojo
capitulates. 89
British in possession of the City. Sack and pillage. Agreed
Indemnity. 90
Simon de Anda y Salazar defies Governor Rojo and declares
war. 91
British carry war into the provinces. Bustos opposes them. 92
Bustos completely routed. Chinese take the British side. 93
Massacre of Chinese. Villa Corta's fate. The _Philipino_
treasure. 94
Simon de Anda y Salazar offers rewards for British heads. 95
Austin friars on battle-fields. Peace of Paris (Feb. 10,
1763). 96
Archbishop-Governor Rojo dies. La Torre appointed
Gov.-General. 97
British evacuate Manila. La Torre allows Anda to receive back
the City. 98
Anda goes to Spain; is rewarded by the King; returns as
Gov.-General. 99
Anda is in conflict with the out-going Governor, the Jesuits,
and the friars. 99
Anda dies in hospital (1776). His burial-place and
monument. 100
Rebellion succeeds the war. Ilocos Rebellion led by Diego de
Silan. 100
Revolt in Bojol Island led by Dagohoy. 101
Revolts in Leyte Island, Surigao (Mindanao Is.), and Samar
Island. 102
Rebellion of "King" Malong and "Count" Gumapos. 103
Rebellion of Andres Novales. Execution of A. Novales and
Ruiz. 104
Apolinario de la Cruz declares himself "King of the
Tagalogs." 105
General Marcelo Azcarraga, Spanish War Minister, Philippine
born. 105
The Cavite Conspiracy of 1872. The Secret Society of
Reformers. 106
The Philippine Martyrs, Dr. Burgos and Fathers Zamora and
Gomez. 107
Illustrious exiles--Dr. Antonio M. Regidor and Jose
M. Basa. 108
_Chapter_ VIII
_The Chinese_
The China-Manila trade in the days of Legaspi. 109
The _Alcayceria_. The _Parian_. Chinese
banished. Restrictions. 110
The Chinese as immigrants; their comparative activity. 112
Chinese mandarins come to seek the "Mount of Gold" in
Cavite. 114
The Chinese are goaded to revolt. Saint Francis' victory over
them. 115
Massacre of Foreigners. The Chinese Traders; their Guilds. 116
Chinese patron saint; population. The _Sangley_. The
_Macao_. 118
Restrictions on Chinese immigration. Their gradual
exclusion. 119
_Chapter_ IX
_Wild Tribes and Pagans_
The _Aetas_ or _Negritos_ or _Balugas_. 120
The _Gaddanes_. The _Itavis_. The _Igorrotes_. The
_Ibanacs_. 122
Attempt to subdue the _Igorrotes_. Its failure. 124
The _Calingas_. The _Igorrote-Chinese._ The _Tinguianes_. 125
The _Basanes_. The _Manguianes_. The _Hindoos_. _Albinos_. 128
_Chapter_ X
_Mahometans and Southern Tribes_
Early history of the Mahometans, called Moros. 129
The First Expedition against the Mindanao Moros. 130
Gov.-General Corcuera effects a landing in Sulu Island. 131
The scourge of Moro Piracy. Devastation of the
coasts. Captives. 132
Zamboanga Fort; cost of its maintenance. Fighting Friars. 133
Vicissitudes of Sultan Mahamad Alimudin. 134
The Sultan appeals to his suzerain's delegate and is made
prisoner. 134
His letter to Sultan Muhamad Amirubdin. 135
The charges against the Sultan. Extermination of Meros
decreed. 136
Mindanao and Sulu Moros join forces. Extermination
impossible. 137
The Treaty with Sultan Mahamad Alimudin. 138
The Claveria and Urbiztondo expeditions against Moros. 139
Gov.-General Malcampo finally annexes Jolo (1876). 140
Spain appoints Harun Narrasid Sultan of Sulu (1885). 141
The ceremony of investiture. Opposition to the nominee. 142
Datto Utto defies the Spaniards. Terrero's expedition (Jan.,
1887). 143
Colonel Arolas' victory at Maybun (Sulu Is.) (April, 1887). 144
The Marahui Campaign (1895). The Moro tribes. 145
The _Juramentado_. Moro dress; character; arts; weapons. 146
Moro customs. The _Pandita_. The _Datto_. 148
Jolo (Sulu) town. H.H. the Sultan of Sulu. 149
A _juramentado_ runs _amok_. Across Sulu Island to Maybun. 152
The Sultan's official reception. Subuanos of Zamboanga. 154
Climate in the South. Palauan Island. Spanish settlers. 157
Across Palauan Island. The _Tugbanuas_ tribe. 158
Their dress, customs, and country. 159
Efforts to colonize Palauan Island. The Moro problem. 160
_Chapter_ XI
_Domesticated Natives--Origin--Character_
Theory concerning the first inhabitants of these Islands. 163
Their advent before the Spanish Conquest. 165
Japanese and Chinese early immigrants. 166
Native character; idiosyncracies and characteristics. 167
Notion of sleep. "Castila!". 169
Tagalog and Visayo hospitality. The native's good
qualities. 172
Native aversion to discipline; bravery; resignation;
geniality. 175
Mixed races. Native physiognomy; marriages; minors' rights. 176
Family names. The _Catapusan_. 179
Dancing; the _Balitao_; the _Comitan_. The _Asuan_. 180
Mixed marriages. The Half-caste (_Mestizo_). 181
The Shrines and Saints. The Holy Child of Cebu. St. Francis
of Tears. 183
Our Lady of Cagsaysay. The Virgin of Antipolo. 184
Miraculous Saints. _Santones_. Native Conception of
Religion. 187
Musical talent. Slavery. Education in Spanish times. 190
The Intellectuals. The Illiterates. State aid for Schools. 192
The Athenaeum. Girls' Colleges. St. Thomas' University. 194
The Nautical School. The provincial student. Talented
natives. 195
Diseases. Leprosy. Insanity. Death-rate. Sanitation. 197
_Chapter_ XII
_The Religious Orders_
Their early co-operation a necessity. 199
Their power and influence. 200
Opinions for and against that power. 201
The Spanish parish priest. Father Piernavieja. 202
Virtueless friars. Monastic persecution. 204
The Hierarchy. The Orders. Church revenues and State aid. 206
Rivalry of Religious Orders. Papal intervention to ensure
peace. 209
_Chapter_ XIII
_Spanish Insular Government_
The _Encomiendas_. The Trading-Governors. 211
The Judge-Governors (_Alcalde Mayor_). The Reforms of 1886. 213
Cost of Spanish Insular Government. The Provincial Civil
Governor's duties. 214
The position of Provincial Civil Governor. Local
Funds. Provincial poverty. 216
Highways and Public Works. Cause of national decay. 218
Fortunes made easily. Peculations. Town Local Government. 220
The _Gobernadorcillo_ (petty-governor). The _Cabeza de
Barangay_ (Tax-collector). 222
The _Cuadrillero_ (guard). The _Fallas_ (tax). The _Cedula
personal_. 224
The _Tribunal_ (town hall). Reforms affecting travellers. 225
_Chapter_ XIV
_Spanish-Philippine Finances_
Philippine budgets. Curious items of revenue and
expenditure. 227
Spanish-Philippine army, police, and constabulary
statistics. 230
The armed forces in the olden times. 232
Spanish-Philippine navy and judicial statistics. 233
Prison statistics. Brigandage. The brigands' superstition. 235
A chase for brigands. The _anting-anting_. Pirates. 237
The notorious Tancad. Dilatory justice. A _cause celebre_. 239
Spanish-Philippine Criminal Law procedure. 241
_Chapter_ XV
_Trade of the Islands from Early Times_
Its early history. Its State galleons. 243
The _Consulado_ merchants. The Mexican subsidy. 244
In the days of the Mexican galleons. The _Obras Pias_. 245
Losses of the treasure-laden galleons. Trade difficulties. 246
The period of restrictions on trade. Prohibitory decrees. 248
The Manila merchants alarmed; appeal to the King. 249
Penalties on free-traders. Trading friars. The budget for
1757. 250
Decline of trade. Spanish trading-company failures. 252
The _Real Compania de Filipinas_; its privileges and
failure. 253
The dawn of free trade. Foreign traders admitted. 254
Manila port, unrestrictedly open to foreigners (1834),
becomes known to the world. 256
Pioneers of foreign trade. Foreign and Philippine banks. 257
The Spanish-Philippine currency. Mexican-dollar smuggling. 259
Ports of Zamboanga, Yloilo, Cebu, and Sual opened to foreign
trade. 261
Mail service. Carrying-trade. Middlemen. Native industries. 263
The first Philippine Railway. Telegraph service. Seclusion
of the Colony. 265
_Chapter_ XVI
_Agriculture_
Interest on loans to farmers. Land values and tenure in Luzon
Island. 269
Sugar-cane lands and cultivation. Land-measures. 271
Process of sugar-extraction. Labour conditions on
sugar-estates. 273
Sugar statistics. World's production of cane and beet
sugar. 275
Rice. Rice-measure. Rice machinery; husking; pearling;
statistics. 276
Macan and Paga rice. Rice planting and trading. 278
_Chapter_ XVII
_Manila Hemp--Coffee--Tobacco_
_Musa textilis_. Extraction and uses of the
fibre. Machinery. 281
Hemp experiments in British India. Cultivation. Qualities. 283
Labour difficulties. Statistics. Albay province (local)
land-measure. 286
Coffee. Coffee dealing and cultivation. 289
Tobacco. The Government Tobacco Monopoly. 292
Tobacco-growing by compulsory labour. Condition of the
growers. 294
Tobacco Monopoly abolished. Free trade in tobacco. 296
Tobacco-trading risks; qualities; districts. Cigar values. 299
_Chapter_ XVIII
_Sundry Forest and Farm Produce_
Maize. Cacao-beans. Chocolate. 300
Cacao cultivation. Castor oil. Gogo. 302
Camote. Gabi. Potatoes. Mani (pea-nut). Areca-nut. Buyo. 303
Cocoanuts. Extraction of Tuba (beverage). 304
Cocoanut-oil extraction. Coprah. Coir. 305
Nipa palm. Cogon-grass. Cotton-tree. 307
Buri palm. Dita. Palma brava. Bamboo. 308
Bojo. Bejuco (Rattan-cane). Palasan (Bush-rope). 310
Gum mastic. Gutta-percha. Wax. Cinnamon. Edible
Bird's-nest. 311
Balate (Trepang). Sapan-wood. Tree-saps. 312
Hardwoods; varieties and qualities. 313
Molave wood tensile and transverse experiments. 315
Relative strengths of hardwoods. Timber trade. 317
Fruits; the Mango; the Banana; the Papaw, etc. 318
Guavas; Pineapples; Tamarinds; the Mabolo. 320
Sundry vegetable produce. Flowers. 321
Botanical specimens--curious and beautiful. Orchids. 322
Firewoods; Locust beans; _Amor seco_. 324
Botanical names given to islands, towns etc. 324
Medicinal herbs, roots, leaves and barks. Perfumes. 325
_Chapter_ XIX
_Mineral Products_
Coal import. Coal-mining ventures. 326
Comparative analyses of coal. 328
Gold-mining ventures. The Paracale and Mambulao mines. 329
Iron-mining ventures. Failures, poverty and suicide. 332
Copper. Marble. Stone. Gypsum. Sulphur. Mineral oil. 334
_Chapter_ XX
_Domestic Live-stock--Ponies, Buffaloes, Etc_.
Ponies. Horses. Buffaloes (_carabaos_). 336
Donkeys. Mules. Sheep. Fish. Insects. Reptiles. Snakes. 338
Butterflies. White ants. Bats. Deer. Wild boars. 340
Fowls. Birds. The Locust plague. Edible insects. 341
_Chapter_ XXI
_Manila Under Spanish Rule_
The fortified city. The moats. The drawbridges. 343
Public buildings in the city. The port in construction. 344
Manila Bay. Corregidor Island and Mariveles. 345
The Pasig River. Public lighting. Tondo suburb. 346
Binondo suburb. Chinese and native artificers. 347
Easter week. The vehicle traffic. 348
The Theatres. The _Carrillo_. The "_Moro Moro_"
performance. 349
The bull-ring. Annual feasts. Cock-fighting. 350
European club. Hotels. The Press. Spanish journalism. 351
Botanical gardens. Dwelling-houses. 353
Manila society. Water-supply. Climate. 354
Population of the Islands in 1845; of Manila in 1896. 355
Typhoons and earthquakes affecting Manila. 356
Dress of both sexes. A "first-class" funeral. 357
Excursions from Manila. Los Banos. 359
The story of Los Banos and Jalajala. The legend of Guadalupe
Church. 360
_Chapter_ XXII
_The Tagalog Rebellion of 1896-98_
_First Period_
The _Cortes de Cadiz_. Philippine deputies in the
Peninsula. 362
The Assembly of Reformists. Effect of the Cavite Rising of
1872. 363
Official acts conducive to rebellion. The _Katipunan_
League. 364
Arrest of prominent Filipinos. The first overt act of
rebellion. 366
War commences. The Battle of San Juan del Monte. 368
Execution of Sancho Valenzuela and others. 369
Andres Bonifacio heads the movement. He is superseded by
Emilio Aguinaldo. 370
Imus (Cavite) is captured by the rebels. The history of
Imus. 372
Atrocities of the rebels. Rebel victory at Binacayan. 373
Execution of 13 rebels in Cavite. The rebel chief Llaneras
in Bulacan. 374
Volunteers are enrolled. Tragedy at Fort Santiago; cartloads
of corpses. 375
A court-martial cabal. Gov.-General Blanco is recalled. 376
The rebels destroy a part of the railway. They threaten an
assault on Manila. 377
General Camilo Polavieja succeeds Blanco as Gov.-General. 378
General Lachambre, the Liberator of Cavite. Polavieja returns
to Spain. 379
Dr. Jose Rizal, the Philippine ideal patriot; his career and
hopes. 381
His return to Manila; banishment, liberation, re-arrest,
and execution. 383
The love-romance of Dr. Jose Rizal's life. 387
General Primo de Rivera succeeds Polavieja as Gov.-General. 389
The Gov.-General decrees concentration; its bad effect. 391
The rebels define their demands in an exhortation to the
people. 392
Emilio Aguinaldo now claims independence. 394
Don Pedro A. Paterno acts as peace negotiator. 395
The Protocol of Peace between the Rebels and the
Gov.-General. 396
The alleged Treaty of Biac-na-bato (Dec. 14, 1897). 397
The Primo de Rivera-Paterno agreement as to indemnity
payment. 398
Emilio Aguinaldo in exile. Peace rejoicings. Spain
defaults. 399
The rebel chiefs being in exile, the people are goaded to
fresh revolt. 400
The tragedy of the _Calle de Camba_. Cebu Island rises in
revolt. 401
The Cebuanos' raid on Cebu City; Lutao in flames; piles of
corpses. 402
Exciting adventures of American citizens. Heartrending scenes
in Cebu City. 404
Rajahmudah Datto Mandi visits Cebu. Rebels in Bolinao
(Zambales). 406
Relief of Bolinao. Father Santos of Malolos is murdered. 408
The peacemaker states his views on the reward he expects from
Spain. 409
Don Maximo Paterno, the Philippine "Grand Old Man". 411
Biographical sketch of his son, Don Pedro A. Paterno. 411
General Basilio Augusti succeeds Primo de Rivera as
Gov.-General. 413
The existence of a Peace Treaty with the rebels is denied in
the Spanish _Cortes_. 414
_Chapter_ XXIII
_The Tagalog Rebellion of 1896-98_
_Second Period_
_American Intervention_
Events leading to the Spanish-American War (April-Aug.,
1898). 417
Events preliminary to the naval Battle of Cavite (May 1,
1898). 419
Aspirations of the Revolutionary Party. 420
Revolutionary exhortation denouncing Spain. 421
Allocution of the Archbishop of Madrid to the Spanish army. 423
Gov.-General Basilio Augusti issues a call to arms. 424
His proclamation declaring a state of war with America. 425
War in the Islands approaching. Flight of non-combatants. 426
The naval Battle of Cavite. Destruction of the Spanish
Fleet. 427
The Stars and Stripes hoisted at Cavite. 429
The first news of the naval defeat raises panic in Madrid. 431
Emilio Aguinaldo returns from exile to Cavite (May 19,
1898). 432
Revolutionary exhortation to the people to aid America. 433
In the beleaguered city of Manila. German attitude. 434
The merchants' harvest. Run on the _Banco
Espanol-Filipino_. 435
General Aguinaldo becomes Dictator. Filipinos congratulate
America. 436
Conditions in and around Manila. Senor Paterno's pro-Spanish
Manifesto. 438
The revolutionists' refutation of Senor Paterno's
manifesto. 440
General Monet's terrible southward march with refugees. 445
Terror-stricken refugees' flight for life. The _Macabebes_. 446
The Revolutionary Government proclaimed. Statutes of
Constitution. 448
Message of the Revolutionary President accompanying the
proclamation. 454
The Revolutionists' appeal to the Powers for recognition. 457
Spain makes peace overtures to America. The Protocol of
Peace. 458
The Americans prepare for the attack on Manila. 460
The Americans again demand the surrender of Manila. 461
The Americans' attack on Manila (Aug. 13, 1898). 462
Spain's blood-sacrifice for "the honour of the country". 464
Capitulation of Manila to the Americans (Aug. 14, 1898). 465
The Americans' first measures of administration in Manila. 467
Trade resumed. Liberty of the Press. Malolos (Bulacan) the
rebel capital. 468
General Aguinaldo's triumphal entry into Malolos. 470
The Paris Peace Commission (Oct.-Dec., 1898). 471
Peace concluded in Paris between America and Spain (Dec. 10,
1898). 472
Innovations in Manila customs. Spanish government in
Visayas. 473
Strained relations between the rebels and the Americans. 475
Rebels attack the Spaniards in Visayas. The Spaniards evacuate
the Visayas. 476
The end of Spanish rule. The rebels' disagreement. 478
Text of the Treaty of Peace between America and Spain. 479
_Chapter_ XXIV
_An Outline of the War of Independence Period, 1899-1901_
Insurgents prepare for the coming conflict. 484
Anti-American manifesto. The Philippine Republic. 486
The war begins; the opening shot. Battle of Paco. 487
Fighting around Manila; Gagalanging. Manila in flames. 489
Battle of Marilao. Capture of Malolos, the insurgent
capital. 490
Proclamation of American intentions. Santa Cruz (La Laguna)
captured. 493
Effect of the war on public opinion in America. 495
Insurgent defeat. Calumpit captured. Insurgents ask for an
armistice. 496
Insurgent tactics. General Lawton in Cavite. 499
Violent death of General Antonio Luna. 501
General Aguinaldo's manifesto; his pathetic allusion to the
past. 502
Insurgents destroy the s.s. _Saturnus_. Death of General
Lawton. 503
War on the wane. Many chiefs surrender. 505
Partial disbandment of the insurgent army urged by hunger. 506
Capture of General Emilio Aguinaldo (March 23, 1901). 507
He swears allegiance to America. His home at Canit (Cavite
Viejo). 509
_Chapter_ XXV
_The Philippine Republic in the Central and Southern Islands_
The Spaniards evacuate Yloilo (Dec., 1898). Native Government
there. 511
General Miller demands the surrender of Yloilo. The Panay
army. 512
Riotous insurgent soldiery. Flight of civilians. 513
The Yloilo native Government discusses the crisis in open
assembly. 514
Mob riot. Yloilo in flames. Looting, anarchy, and
terrorism. 515
Bombardment of Yloilo. The American forces enter and the
insurgents vanish. 516
Surrender of insurgent leaders. Peace
overtures. "Water-cure". 517
Formal surrender of the Panay army remnant at Jaro (Feb. 2,
1901). 518
Yloilo town. Native Government in Negros Island. Peaceful
settlement. 519
An armed rabble overruns Negros Island. 521
Native Government in Cebu Island. American occupation of Cebu
City. 522
Cebuano insurgents on the warpath. Peace signed with
Cebuanos. 524
Reformed government in Cebu Island. Cebu City. 526
American occupation of Bojol Island. Insurgent rising
quelled. 528
Native Government in Cottabato. Slaughter of the
Christians. 529
The Spaniards' critical position in Zamboanga (Mindanao
Is.). 531
Rival factions and anarchy in Zamboanga. Opportune American
advent. 532
The Rajahmudah Datto Maudi. Zamboanga town. 534
Samar and Marinduque Islands under native leaders. 535
Slaughter of American officers and troops at Balangiga (Samar
Is.). 536
_Chapter_ XXVI
_The Spanish Prisoners_
The approximate number of Spanish prisoners and their
treatment. 537
The Spanish Government's dilemma in the matter of the
prisoners. 538
Why the prisoners were detained. Baron Du Marais' ill-fated
mission. 539
Further efforts to obtain their release. The captors state
their terms. 541
Discussions between Generals E. S. Otis and Nicolas
Jaramillo. 542
The Spanish commissioners' ruse to obtain the prisoners'
release fails. 543
The end of the Spaniards' captivity. 544
_Chapter_ XXVII
_End of the War of Independence and After_
The last of the recognized insurgent leaders. Notorious
outlaws. 545
Apolinario Mabini. Brigands of the old and of the new type. 546
Ferocity of the new caste of brigands. 548
The Montalon and Felizardo outlaw bands. 549
The "Guards of Honour." The _Pulajan_ in gloomy Samar. 550
Army and Constabulary Statistics. Insurgent navy. 553
Sedition. Seditious plays. 554
Landownership is conducive to social tranquillity. 555
_Chapter_ XXVIII
_Modern Manila_
Innovations under American rule. 556
Clubs. Theatres. Hotels. "Saloons." The Walled City. 558
The Insular Government. Feast-days. Municipality. 560
Emoluments of high officials. The Schurman Commission. 561
The Taft Commission. The "Philippines for the Filipinos"
doctrine. 563
The Philippine Civil Service. Civil government established. 565
Constabulary. Secret Police. The Vagrant Act. 567
Army strength. Military Division. Scout Corps. 569
_Chapter_ XXIX
_The Land of the Moros_
The Bates Agreement with the Sultan of Sulu. 571
The warlike _Dattos_ and their clansmen. 573
Captain Pershing's brilliant exploits around Lake Lanao. 574
Storming the _Cottas_. American pluck. 575
American policy in Moroland. Maj.-General Leonard Wood. 576
Constitution of the Moro Province. 577
Municipalities. Tribal Wards. Moro Province finances. 578
Moro Province armed forces. Gen. Wood's victory at
Kudarangan. 580
Datto Pedro Cuevas of Basilan Island. His career. 582
General Wood in Sulu Island. Panglima Hassan. Major
H. L. Scott. 584
Major Hugh L. Scott vanquishes Panglima Hassan. A
_bichara_. 585
Jolo town. H.H. The Sultan of Sulu. 587
American policy towards the Moro chiefs. 588
The Manguiguin's eventful visit to Zamboanga. 589
Education and progress in the Moro Province. 591
What the Moro Province needs. The prospect therein. 592
_Chapter_ XXX
_The Spanish Friars, After 1898_
Free cult. Causes of the anti-friar feeling. 594
Attitude of the Philippine clergy. Monsignor Chapelle. 596
The question of the friars' lands. American view. 597
The American Government negotiates with the Holy See. 599
The Pope's contrary view of the friars' case. 600
The friars'-lands purchase. The approximate acreage. Monsignor
Guidi. 601
The anti-friar feeling diminishes. The Philippine Independent
Church. 602
The head of the Philippine Independent Church throws off
allegiance to the Pope. 604
Conflict between Catholics and Schismatics. 606
Aglipayan doctrine. Native clergy. Monsignor Agius. 607
American education. The Normal School. The Nautical School. 608
The School for Chinese. The Spanish Schools. 610
The English language for Orientals. Native politics. 611
The Philippine Assembly. The cry for "independence". 612
The native interpretation of the term "Protection". 613
Capacity for self-government. Population. Benguet road. 614
Census Statistics. Regulations affecting foreign
travellers. 616
Administration of justice. Provincial Courts. Justices of
the peace. 618
_Chapter_ XXXI
_Trade and Agriculture Since the American Advent_
Trade in war-time. After-effect of war on trade and
agriculture. 620
Losses in tilth-cattle. The Congressional Relief Fund. 621
Fruitless endeavours to replace the lost buffalo herds. 622
Government supplies rice to the needy. Planters'
embarrassments. 623
Agitation for an Agricultural Bank. Bureau of Agriculture. 624
Land-tax. Manila Port Works. The Southern ports. 626
Need of roads. Railway projects. 627
The carrying-trade. The Shipping Law. Revenue and
Expenditure. 628
The Internal Revenue Law. Enormous increase in cost of
living. 630
"The Democratic Labour Union." The Chinese Exclusion Act. 632
Social position of the Chinese in the Islands since 1898. 634
The new Philippine currency (_Peso Conant_). 635
American Banks. The commercial policy of the future. 637
Trade Statistics. Total Import and Export values. Hemp
shipments. 639
Total Chief Exports. Total Sugar Export. 640
Tobacco, Cigar, and Coprah shipments. Values of Coprah and
Cocoanut-oil. 644
Sapan-wood, Gum Mastic, and Coffee shipments. 646
Gold and Silver Imports and Exports. Tonnage. Exchange. 647
Proportionate table of Total Exports. 648
Proportionate table of Total Imports. 649
Proportionate table of Staple Exports and Rice Imports. 650
_Chronological Table of Leading Events_. 651
_Index_. 655
List of Illustrations
_The Author_ _Frontispiece_
_Taal Volcano_ _Facing_ 16
_Mavon Volcano_ 16
_Effect of the Hurricane of September 26, 1905_ 23
_A Negrito Family_ 120
_An Igorrote Type (Luzon)_ 128
_A Pagan Type (Mindanao)_ 128
_A Tagalog Girl_ 128
_Moro Weapons_ 132
_A Scene in the Moro Country_ 148
_Zamboanga Fortress ("Fuerza del Pilar")_ 148
_A Visayan Girl_ 164
_A Tagalog Girl_ 164
_A Visayan Planter_ 172
_A Chinese Half-caste_ 172
_A Tagalog Milkwoman_ 182
_A Tagalog Townsman_ 182
_Middle-class Tagalog Natives_ 196
_A Spanish-Mexican Galleon_ 244
_A Canoe_ 244
_A Casco (Sailing-barge)_ 244
_A Prahu (Sailing-canoe)_ 244
_A Sugar-estate House, Southern Philippines_ 275
_Shipping Hemp in the Provinces_ 288
_Botanical Specimen_ 321
_Botanical Specimen_ 322
_Botanical Specimen_ _Facing_ 323
_Botanical Specimen_ 324
_The Old Walls of Manila City_ 344
_La Escolta_ in the Business Quarter of Manila 347
_A Riverside Washing-scene_ 359
_Dr. Jose Rizal_ 381
_Don Felipe Agoncillo_ 381
_General Emilio Aguinaldo_ 396
_Don Pedro a Paterno_ 396
_Admiral Patricio Montojo_ 430
_Admiral George Dewey_ 430
_General Basilio Augusti_ 430
_Maj.-General Wesley Merritt_ 430
_Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda_ 430
_Tagalog Bowie-knives and Weapons_ 485
_A Pandita (Mahometan Priest)_ 534
_Rajahmudah Datto Mandi and Wife_ 534
_Santa Cruz Church (Manila Suburb)_ 559
_Panglima Hassan (of Sulu)_ 584
_A Mindanao Datto and Suite_ 584
_The Rt. Rev. Bishop Gregorio Aglipay_ 604
_A Roadside Scene in Bulacan Province_ 627
_Maps_
_The Province of Cavite_ 371
_Map of the Archipelago_ _at the end_
Introduction
"Nothing extenuate,
Nor set down aught in malice."
_Othello_, Act V., Sc. 2.
During the three centuries and a quarter of more or less effective
Spanish dominion, this Archipelago never ranked above the most
primitive of colonial possessions.
That powerful nation which in centuries gone by was built up by
Iberians, Celts, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Visigoths, Romans,
and Arabs was in its zenith of glory when the conquering spirit and
dauntless energy of its people led them to gallant enterprises of
discovery which astonished the civilized world. Whatever may have
been the incentive which impelled the Spanish monarchs to encourage
the conquest of these Islands, there can, at least, be no doubt as to
the earnestness of the individuals entrusted to carry out the royal
will. The nerve and muscle of chivalrous Spain ploughing through a
wide unknown ocean in quest of glory and adventure, the unswerving
devotion of the ecclesiastics to the cause of Catholic supremacy,
each bearing intense privations, cannot fail to excite the wonder of
succeeding generations. But they were satisfied with conquering and
leaving unimproved their conquests, for whilst only a small fraction
of this Archipelago was subdued, millions of dollars and hundreds
of lives were expended in futile attempts at conquest in Gamboge,
Siam, Pegu, Moluccas, Borneo, Japan, etc.--and for all these toils
there came no reward, not even the sterile laurels of victory. The
Manila seat of government had not been founded five years when the
Governor-General solicited royal permission to conquer China!
Extension of dominion seized them like a mania. Had they followed up
their discoveries by progressive social enlightenment, by encouragement
to commerce, by the concentration of their efforts in the development
of the territory and the new resources already under their sway, half
the money and energy squandered on fruitless and inglorious expeditions
would have sufficed to make high roads crossing and recrossing the
Islands; tenfold wealth would have accrued; civilization would have
followed as a natural consequence; and they would, perhaps even
to this day, have preserved the loyalty of those who struggled for
and obtained freer institutions. But they had elected to follow the
principles of that religious age, and all we can credit them with
is the conversion of millions to Christianity and the consequent
civility at the expense of cherished liberty, for ever on the track
of that fearless band of warriors followed the monk, ready to pass
the breach opened for him by the sword, to conclude the conquest by
the persuasive influence of the Holy Cross.
The civilization of the world is but the outcome of wars, and probably
as long as the world lasts the ultimate appeal in all questions will
be made to force, notwithstanding Peace Conferences. The hope of ever
extinguishing warfare is as meagre as the advantage such a state of
things would be. The idea of totally suppressing martial instinct in
the whole civilized community is as hopeless as the effort to convert
all the human race to one religious system. Moreover, the common
good derived from war generally exceeds the losses it inflicts on
individuals; nor is war an isolated instance of the few suffering
for the good of the many. "_Salus populi suprema lex_." "Nearly
every step in the world's progress has been reached by warfare. In
modern times the peace of Europe is only maintained by the equality
of power to coerce by force. Liberty in England, gained first by an
exhibition of force, would have been lost but for bloodshed. The great
American Republic owes its existence and the preservation of its unity
to this inevitable means, and neither arbitration, moral persuasion,
nor sentimental argument would ever have exchanged Philippine monastic
oppression for freedom of thought and liberal institutions.
The right of conquest is admissible when it is exercised for the
advancement of civilization, and the conqueror not only takes upon
himself, but carries out, the moral obligation to improve the condition
of the subjected peoples and render them happier. How far the Spaniards
of each generation fulfilled that obligation may be judged from these
pages, the works of Mr. W. H. Prescott, the writings of Padre de las
Casas, and other chroniclers of Spanish colonial achievements. The
happiest colony is that which yearns for nothing at the hands of
the mother country; the most durable bonds are those engendered by
gratitude and contentment. Such bonds can never be created by religious
teaching alone, unaccompanied by the twofold inseparable conditions
of moral and material improvement. There are colonies wherein equal
justice, moral example, and constant care for the welfare of the
people have riveted European dominion without the dispensable adjunct
of an enforced State religion. The reader will judge the merits of
that civilization which the Spaniards engrafted on the races they
subdued; for as mankind has no philosophical criterion of truth, it is
a matter of opinion where the unpolluted fountain of the truest modern
civilization is to be found. It is claimed by China and by Europe, and
the whole universe is schismatic on the subject. When Japan was only
known to the world as a nation of artists, Europe called her barbarous;
when she had killed fifty thousand Russians in Manchuria, she was
proclaimed to be highly civilized. There are even some who regard
the adoption of European dress and the utterance of a few phrases in
a foreign tongue as signs of civilization. And there is a Continental
nation, proud of its culture, whose sense of military honour, dignity,
and discipline involves inhuman brutality of the lowest degree.
Juan de la Concepcion, [1] who wrote in the eighteenth century,
bases the Spaniards' right to conquest solely on the religious
theory. He affirms that the Spanish kings inherited a divine right
to these Islands, their dominion being directly prophesied in Isaiah
xviii. He assures us that this title from Heaven was confirmed by
apostolic authority, [2] and by "the many manifest miracles with
which God, the Virgin, and the Saints, as auxiliaries of our arms,
demonstrated its unquestionable justice." Saint Augustine, he states,
considered it a sin to doubt the justice of war which God determines;
but, let it be remembered, the same _savant_ insisted that the world
was flat, and that the sun hid every night behind a mountain!
An apology for conquest cannot be rightly based upon the sole desire
to spread any particular religion, more especially when we treat of
Christianity, the benign radiance of which was overshadowed by that
debasing institution the Inquisition, which sought out the brightest
intellects only to destroy them. But whether conversion by coercion
be justifiable or not, one is bound to acknowledge that all the
urbanity of the Filipinos of to-day is due to Spanish training,
which has raised millions from obscurity to a relative condition
of culture. The fatal defect in the Spanish system was the futile
endeavour to stem the tide of modern methods and influences.
The government of the Archipelago alone was no mean task.
A group of islands inhabited by several heathen races--surrounded
by a sea exposed to typhoons, pirates, and Christian-hating
Mussulmans--had to be ruled by a handful of Europeans with inadequate
funds, bad ships, and scant war material. For nearly two centuries
the financial administration was a chaos, and military organization
hardly existed. Local enterprise was disregarded and discouraged so
long as abundance of silver dollars came from across the Pacific. Such
a short-sighted, unstable dependence left the Colony resourceless
when bold foreign traders stamped out monopoly and brought commerce
to its natural level by competition. In the meantime the astute
ecclesiastics quietly took possession of rich arable lands in many
places, the most valuable being within easy reach of the Capital
and the Arsenal of Cavite. Landed property was undefined. It all
nominally belonged to the State, which, however, granted no titles;
"squatters" took up land where they chose without determined limits,
and the embroilment continues, in a measure, to the present day.
About the year 1885 the question was brought forward of granting
Government titles to all who could establish claims to land. Indeed,
for about a year, there was a certain enthusiasm displayed both by the
applicants and the officials in the matter of "Titulos Reales." But
the large majority of landholders--among whom the monastic element
conspicuously figured--could only show their title by actual
possession. [3] It might have been sufficient, but the fact is that
the clergy favoured neither the granting of "Titulos Reales" nor the
establishment of the projected Real Estate Registration Offices.
Agrarian disputes had been the cause of so many armed risings against
themselves in particular, during the nineteenth century, that they
opposed an investigation of the land question, which would only have
revived old animosities, without giving satisfaction to either native
or friar, seeing that both parties were intransigent. [4]
The fundamental laws, considered as a whole, were the wisest devisable
to suit the peculiar circumstances of the Colony; but whilst many of
them were disregarded or treated as a dead letter, so many loopholes
were invented by the dispensers of those in operation as to render
the whole system a wearisome, dilatory process. Up to the last every
possible impediment was placed in the way of trade expansion; and in
former times, when worldly majesty and sanctity were a joint idea,
the struggle with the King and his councillors for the right of
legitimate traffic was fierce.
So long as the Archipelago was a dependency of Mexico (up to 1819)
not one Spanish colonist in a thousand brought any cash capital to
this colony with which to develop its resources. During the first
two centuries and a quarter Spain's exclusive policy forbade the
establishment of any foreigner in the Islands; but after they did
settle there they were treated with such courteous consideration
by the Spanish officials that they could often secure favours with
greater ease than the Spanish colonists themselves.
Everywhere the white race urged activity like one who sits behind a
horse and goads it with the whip. But good advice without example
was lost to an ignorant class more apt to learn through the eye
than through the ear. The rougher class of colonist either forgot,
or did not know, that, to civilize a people, every act one performs,
or intelligible word one utters, carries an influence which pervades
and gives a colour to the future life and thoughts of the native,
and makes it felt upon the whole frame of the society in embryo. On
the other hand, the value of prestige was perfectly well understood by
the higher officials, and the rigid maintenance of their dignity, both
in private life and in their public offices, played an important part
in the moral conquest of the Filipinos. Equality of races was never
dreamed of, either by the conquerors or the conquered; and the latter,
up to the last days of Spanish rule, truly believed in the superiority
of the white man. This belief was a moral force which considerably
aided the Spaniards in their task of civilization, and has left its
impression on the character of polite Philippine society to this day.
Christianity was not only the basis of education, but the symbol of
civilization; and that the Government should have left education
to the care of the missionaries during the proselytizing period
was undoubtedly the most natural course to take. It was desirable
that conversion from paganism should precede any kind of secular
tuition. But the friars, to the last, held tenaciously to their old
monopoly; hence the University, the High Schools, and the Colleges
(except the Jesuit Schools) were in their hands, and they remained as
stumbling-blocks in the intellectual advancement of the Colony. Instead
of the State holding the fountains of knowledge within its direct
control, it yielded them to the exclusive manipulation of those who
eked out the measure as it suited their own interests.
Successful government by that sublime ethical essence called "moral
philosophy" has fallen away before a more practical _regime_. Liberty
to think, to speak, to write, to trade, to travel, was only partially
and reluctantly yielded under extraneous pressure. The venality of the
conqueror's administration, the judicial complicacy, want of public
works, weak imperial government, and arrogant local rule tended to
dismember the once powerful Spanish Empire. The same causes have
produced the same effects in all Spain's distant colonies, and to-day
the mother country is almost childless. Criticism, physical discovery
of the age, and contact with foreigners shook the ancient belief
in the fabulous and the supernatural; the rising generation began
to inquire about more certain scientific theses. The immutability
of Theology is inharmonious to Science--the School of Progress;
and long before they had finished their course in these Islands the
friars quaked at the possible consequences. The dogmatical affirmation
"_qui non credit anathema sit_," so indiscriminately used, had lost
its power. Public opinion protested against an order of things which
checked the social and material onward movement of the Colony. And,
strange as it may seem, Spain was absolutely impotent, even though
it cost her the whole territory (as indeed happened) to remedy the
evil. In these Islands what was known to the world as the Government
of Spain was virtually the Executive of the Religious Corporations, who
constituted the real Government, the members of which never understood
patriotism as men of the world understand it. Every interest was made
subservient to the welfare of the Orders. If, one day, the Colony
must be lost to _them_, it was a matter of perfect indifference into
whose hands it passed. It was their happy hunting-ground and last
refuge. But the real Government could not exist without its Executive;
and when that Executive was attacked and expelled by America, the
real Government fell as a consequence. If the Executive had been
strong enough to emancipate itself from the dominion of the friars
only two decades ago, the Philippines might have remained a Spanish
colony to-day. But the wealth in hard cash and the moral religious
influence of the Monastic Orders were factors too powerful for any
number of executive ministers, who would have fallen like ninepins
if they had attempted to extricate themselves from the thraldom of
sacerdotalism. Outside political circles there was, and still is in
Spain, a class who shrink from the abandonment of ideas of centuries'
duration. Whatever the fallacy may be, not a few are beguiled into
thinking that its antiquity should command respect.
The conquest of this Colony was decidedly far more a religious
achievement than a military one, and to the _friars of old_ their
nation's gratitude is fairly due for having contributed to her glory,
but that gratitude is not an inheritance.
Prosperity began to dawn upon the Philippines when restrictions
on trade were gradually relaxed since the second decade of last
century. As each year came round reforms were introduced, but
so clumsily that no distinction was made between those who were
educationally or intellectually prepared to receive them and those who
were not; hence the small minority of natives, who had acquired the
habits and necessities of their conquerors, sought to acquire for _all_
an equal status, for which the masses were unprepared. The abolition of
tribute in 1884 obliterated caste distinction; the university graduate
and the herder were on a legal equality if they each carried a _cedula
personal_, whilst certain Spanish legislators exercised a rare effort
to persuade themselves and their partisans that the Colony was ripe for
the impossible combination of liberal administration and monastic rule.
It will be shown in these pages that the government of these Islands
was practically as theocratic as it was civil. Upon the principle of
religious pre-eminence all its statutes were founded, and the reader
will now understand whence the innumerable Church and State contentions
originated. Historical facts lead one to inquire: How far was Spain
ever a _moral_ potential factor in the world's progress? Spanish
colonization seems to have been only a colonizing mission preparatory
to the attainment, by her colonists, of more congenial conditions
under other _regimes_; for the repeated struggles for liberty,
generation after generation, in all her colonies, tend to show that
Spain's sovereignty was maintained through the inspiration of fear
rather than love and sympathy, and that she entirely failed to render
her colonial subjects happier than they were before.
One cannot help feeling pity for the Spanish nation, which has let
the Pearl of the Orient slip out of its fingers through culpable
and stubborn mismanagement, after repeated warnings and similar
experiences in other quarters of the globe. Yet although Spain's
lethargic, petrified conservatism has had to yield to the progressive
spirit of the times, the loss to her is more sentimental than real,
and Spaniards of the next century will probably care as little about
it as Britons do about the secession of their transatlantic colonies.
Happiness is merely comparative: with a lovely climate--a continual
summer--and all the absolute requirements of life at hand, there is not
one-tenth of the misery in the Philippines that there is in Europe, and
none of that forlorn wretchedness facing the public gaze. Beggary--that
constant attribute of the highest civilization--hardly exists,
and suicide is extremely rare. There are no ferocious animals,
insects, or reptiles that one cannot reasonably guard against; it
is essentially one of those countries where "man's greatest enemy is
man." There is ample room for double the population, and yet a million
acres of virgin soil only awaiting the co-operation of husbandman
and capitalist to turn it to lucrative account. A humdrum life is
incompatible here with the constant emotion kept up by typhoons,
shipwrecks, earthquakes, tidal waves, volcanic eruptions, brigands,
epidemics, devastating fires, etc.
It is a beautiful country, copiously endowed by Nature, where the
effulgent morning sun contributes to a happy frame of mind--where the
colonist's rural life passes pleasantly enough to soothe the longing
for "home, sweet home."
"And yet perhaps if countries we compare
And estimate the blessings which they share,
Though patriots flatter, yet shall wisdom find
An equal portion dealt to all mankind."
Such is America's new possession, wherein she has assumed the moral
responsibility of establishing a form of government on principles
quite opposite to those of the defunct Spanish _regime_: whether
it will be for better or for worse cannot be determined at this
tentative stage. Without venturing on the prophetic, one may not
only draw conclusions from accomplished facts, but also reasonably
assume, in the light of past events, what might have happened under
other circumstances. There is scarcely a Power which has not, in
the zenith of its prosperity, consciously or unconsciously felt the
"divine right" impulse, and claimed that Providence has singled it
out to engraft upon an unwilling people its particular conception of
human progress. The venture assumes, in time, the more dignified name
of "mission"; and when the consequent torrents of blood recede from
memory with the ebbing tide of forgetfulness, the conqueror soothes
his conscience with a profession of "moral duty," which the conquered
seldom appreciate in the first generation. No unforeseen circumstances
whatever caused the United States to drift unwillingly into Philippine
affairs. The war in Cuba had not the remotest connexion with these
Islands. The adversary's army and navy were too busy with the task
of quelling the Tagalog rebellion for any one to imagine they could
be sent to the Atlantic. It was hardly possible to believe that
the defective Spanish-Philippine squadron could have accomplished
the voyage to the Antilles, in time of war, with every neutral port
_en route_ closed against it. In any case, so far as the ostensible
motive of the Spanish-American War was concerned, American operations
in the Philippines might have ended with the Battle of Cavite. The
Tagalog rebels were neither seeking nor desiring a change of masters,
but the state of war with Spain afforded America the opportunity,
internationally recognized as legitimate, to seize any of the enemy's
possessions; hence the acquisition of the Philippines by conquest. Up
to this point there is nothing to criticize, in face of the universal
tacit recognition, from time immemorial, of the right of might.
American dominion has never been welcomed by the Filipinos. All the
principal Christianized islands, practically representing the whole
Archipelago, except Moroland, resisted it by force of arms, until,
after two years of warfare, they were so far vanquished that those
still remaining in the field, claiming to be warriors, were, judged
by their exploits, undistinguishable from the brigand gangs which have
infested the Islands for a century and a half. The general desire was,
and is, for sovereign independence; and although a pro-American party
now exists, it is only in the hope of gaining peacefully that which
they despaired of securing by armed resistance to superior force. The
question as to how much nearer they are to the goal of their ambition
belongs to the future; but there is nothing to show, by a review of
accomplished facts, that, without foreign intervention, the Filipinos
would have prospered in their rebellion against Spain. Even if they
had expelled the Spaniards their independence would have been of
short duration, for they would have lost it again in the struggle
with some colony-grabbing nation. A united Archipelago under the
Malolos Government would have been simply untenable; for, apart
from the possible secessions of one or more islands, like Negros,
for instance, no Christian Philippine Government could ever have
conquered Mindanao and the Sulu Sultanate; indeed, the attempt might
have brought about their own ruin, by exhaustion of funds, want of
unity in the hopeless contest with the Moro, and foreign intervention
to terminate the internecine war. Seeing that Emilio Aguinaldo had to
suppress two rivals, even in the midst of the bloody struggle when
union was most essential for the attainment of a common end, how
many more would have risen up against him in the period of peaceful
victory? The expulsion of the friars and the confiscation of their
lands would have surprised no one cognizant of Philippine history. But
what would have become of religion? Would the predominant religion
in the Philippines, fifty years hence, have been Christian? Recent
events lead one to conjecture that liberty of cult, under native rule,
would have been a misnomer, and Roman Catholicism a persecuted cause,
with the civilizing labours of generations ceasing to bear fruit.
No generous, high-minded man, enjoying the glorious privilege of
liberty, would withhold from his fellow-men the fullest measure of
independence which they were capable of maintaining. If America's
intentions be as the world understands them, she is endeavouring to
break down the obstacles which the Filipinos, desiring a lasting
independence, would have found insuperable. America claims (as
other colonizing nations have done) to have a "mission" to perform,
which, in the present case, includes teaching the Filipinos the art of
self-government. Did one not reflect that America, from her birth as an
independent state, has never pretended to follow on the beaten tracts
of the Old World, her brand-new method of colonization would surprise
her older contemporaries in a similar task. She has been the first to
teach Asiatics the doctrine of equality of races--a theory which the
proletariat has interpreted by a self-assertion hitherto unknown, and
a gradual relinquishment of that courteous deference towards the white
man formerly observable by every European. This democratic doctrine,
suddenly launched upon the masses, is changing their character. The
polite and submissive native of yore is developing into an ill-bred,
up-to-date, wrangling politician. Hence rule by coercion, instead
of sentiment, is forced upon America, for up to the present she
has made no progress in winning the hearts of the people. Outside
the high-salaried circle of Filipinos one never hears a spontaneous
utterance of gratitude for the boon of individual liberty or for the
suppression of monastic tyranny. The Filipinos craving for immediate
independence, regard the United States only in the light of a useful
medium for its attainment, and there are indications that their
future attachment to their stepmother country will be limited to an
unsentimental acceptance of her protection as a material necessity.
Measures of practical utility and of immediate need have been set
aside for the pursuit of costly fantastic ideals, which excite more
the wonder than the enthusiasm of the people, who see left in abeyance
the reforms they most desire. The system of civilizing the natives
on a curriculum of higher mathematics, literature, and history,
without concurrent material improvement to an equal extent, is like
feeding the mind at the expense of the body. No harbour improvements
have been made, except at Manila; no canals have been cut; few new
provincial roads have been constructed, except for military purposes;
no rivers are deepened for navigation, and not a mile of railway
opened. The enormous sums of money expended on such unnecessary works
as the Benguet road and the creation of multifarious bureaux, with a
superfluity of public servants, might have been better employed in
the development of agriculture and cognate wealth-producing public
works. The excessive salaries paid to high officials seem to be out of
all proportion to those of the subordinate assistants. Extravagance in
public expenditure necessarily brings increasing taxation to meet it;
the luxuries introduced for the sake of American trade are gradually,
and unfortunately, becoming necessities, whereas it would be more
considerate to reduce them if it were possible. It is no blessing to
create a desire in the common people for that which they can very
well dispense with and feel just as happy without the knowledge
of. The deliberate forcing up of the cost of living has converted
a cheap country into an expensive one, and an income which was
once a modest competence is now a miserable pittance. The infinite
vexatious regulations and complicated restrictions affecting trade
and traffic are irritating to every class of business men, whilst
the Colony's indebtedness is increasing, the budget shows a deficit,
and agriculture--the only local source of wealth--is languishing.
Innovations, costing immense sums to introduce, are forced upon the
people, not at all in harmony with their real wants, their instincts,
or their character. What is good for America is not necessarily good
for the Philippines. One could more readily conceive the feasibility of
"assimilation" with the Japanese than with the Anglo-Saxon. To rule and
to assimilate are two very different propositions: the latter requires
the existence of much in common between the parties. No legislation,
example, or tuition will remould a people's life in direct opposition
to their natural environment. Even the descendants of whites in the
Philippines tend to merge into, rather than alter, the conditions of
the surrounding race, and _vice versa_. It is quite impossible for
a race born and living in the Tropics to adopt the characteristics
and thought of a Temperate Zone people. The Filipinos are not an
industrious, thrifty people, or lovers of work, and no power on earth
will make them so. The Colony's resources are, consequently, not a
quarter developed, and are not likely to be by a strict application
of the theory of the "Philippines for the Filipinos." But why
worry about their lethargy, if, with it, they are on the way to
"perfect contentment"?--that summit of human happiness which no one
attains. Ideal government may reach a point where its exactions tend
to make life a burden; practical government stops this side of that
point. White men will not be found willing to develop a policy which
offers them no hope of bettering themselves; and as to labour--other
willing Asiatics are always close at hand. Uncertainty of legislation,
constantly changing laws, new regulations, the fear of a tax on
capital, and general prospective insecurity make large investors pause.
Democratic principles have been too suddenly sprung upon the
masses. The autonomy granted to the provinces needs more control
than the civil government originally intended, and ends in an
appeal on almost every conceivable question being made to one
man--the Gov.-General: this excessive concentration makes efficient
administration too dependent on the abilities of one person. There
are many who still think, and not without reason, that ten years of
military rule would have been better for the people themselves. Even
now military government might be advantageously re-established in Samar
Island, where the common people are not anxious for the franchise,
or care much about political rights. A reasonable amount of personal
freedom, with justice, would suffice for them; whilst the trading class
would welcome any effective and continuous protection, rather than have
to shift for themselves with the risk of being persecuted for having
given succour to the _pulajanes_ to save their own lives and property.
Civil government, prematurely inaugurated, without sufficient
preparation, has had a disastrous effect, and the present state of
many provinces is that of a wilderness overrun by brigand bands too
strong for the civil authority to deal with. But one cannot fail to
recognize and appreciate the humane motives which urged the premature
establishment of civil administration. Scores of nobodies before the
rebellion became somebodies during the four or five years of social
turmoil. Some of them influenced the final issue, others were mere
show-figures, really not more important than the _beau sabreur_ in
comic opera. Yet one and all claimed compensation for laying aside
their weapons, and in changing the play from anarchy to civil life
these actors had to be included in the new cast to keep them from
further mischief.
The moral conquest of the Philippines has hardly commenced. The
benevolent intentions of the Washington Government, and the
irreproachable character and purpose of its eminent members who wield
the destiny of these islanders, are unknown to the untutored masses,
who judge their new masters by the individuals with whom they come into
close contact. The hearts of the people cannot be won without moral
prestige, which is blighted by the presence of that undesirable class
of immigrants to whom Maj.-General Leonard Wood refers so forcibly in
his "First Report of the Moro Province." In this particular region,
which is ruled semi-independently of the Philippine Commission,
the peculiar conditions require a special legislation. But, apart
from this, the common policy of its enlightened Gov.-General would
serve as a pattern of what it might be, with advantage, throughout
the Archipelago.
So much United States money and energy have been already expended
in these Islands, and so far-reaching are the pledges made to their
inhabitants, that American and Philippine interests are indissolubly
associated for many a generation to come. It does not necessarily
follow that the fullest measure of national liberty will create real
personal liberty. Such an idea does not at all appeal to Asiatics,
according to whose instinct every man dominates over, or is dominated
by, another. If America should succeed in establishing a permanently
peaceful independent Asiatic government on democratic principles,
it will be one of the unparalleled achievements of the age.
CHAPTER I
General Description of the Archipelago
The Philippine Islands, with the Sulu Protectorate, extend a little
over 16 degrees of latitude--from 4 deg. 45' to 21 deg. N., and longitude
from 116 deg. 40' to 126 deg. 30' E.--and number some 600 islands, many of
which are mere islets, besides several hundreds of rocks jutting out
of the sea. The 11 islands of primary geographical importance are
Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Panay, Negros, Palauan (Paragua), Mindoro,
Leyte, Cebu, Masbate, and Bojol. Ancient maps show the islands and
provinces under a different nomenclature. For example: (old names in
parentheses) Albay (Ibalon); Batangas (Comintan); Basilan (Taguima);
Bulacan (Meycauayan); Capis (Panay); Cavite (Cauit); Cebu (Sogbu);
Leyte (Baybay); Mindoro (Mait); Negros (Buglas); Rizal (Tondo; later
on Manila); Surigao (Caraga); Samar (Ibabao); Tayabas (Calilayan).
Luzon and Mindanao united would be larger in area than all the rest
of the islands put together. Luzon is said to have over 40,000 square
miles of land area. The northern half of Luzon is a mountainous region
formed by ramifications of the great cordilleras, which run N. to
S. All the islands are mountainous in the interior, the principal
peaks being the following, viz.:--
Feet above sea level
Halcon (Mindoro) 8,868
Apo [5] (Mindanao) 8,804
Mayon (Luzon) 8,283
San Cristobal (Luzon) 7,375
Isarog (Luzon) 6,443
Banajao (Luzon) 6,097
Labo (Luzon) 5,090
South Caraballo (Luzon) 4,720
Caraballo del Baler (Luzon) 3,933
Maquiling (Luzon) 3,720
Most of these mountains and subordinate ranges are thickly covered
with forest and light undergrowth, whilst the stately trees are gaily
festooned with clustering creepers and flowering parasites of the most
brilliant hues. The Mayon, which is an active volcano, is comparatively
bare, whilst also the Apo, although no longer in eruption, exhibits
abundant traces of volcanic action in acres of lava and blackened
scoriae. Between the numberless forest-clad ranges are luxuriant plains
glowing in all the splendour of tropical vegetation. The valleys,
generally of rich fertility, are about one-third under cultivation.
There are numerous rivers, few of which are navigable by sea-going
ships. Vessels drawing up to 13 feet can enter the Pasig River,
but this is due to the artificial means employed.
The principal Rivers are:--In _Luzon Island_ the Rio Grande de Cagayan,
which rises in the South Caraballo Mountain in the centre of the
island, and runs in a tortuous stream to the northern coast. It has two
chief affluents, the Rio Chico de Cagayan and the Rio Magat, besides
a number of streams which find their way to its main course. Steamers
of 11-feet draught have entered the Rio Grande, but the sand shoals
at the mouth are very shifty, and frequently the entrance is closed
to navigation. The river, which yearly overflows its banks, bathes
the great Cagayan Valley,--the richest tobacco-growing district in
the Colony. Immense trunks of trees are carried down in the torrent
with great rapidity, rendering it impossible for even small craft--the
_barangayanes_--to make their way up or down the river at that period.
The Rio Grande de la Pampanga rises in the same mountain and flows
in the opposite direction--southwards,--through an extensive plain,
until it empties itself by some 20 mouths into the Manila Bay. The
whole of the Pampanga Valley and the course of the river present a
beautiful panorama from the summit of Arayat Mountain, which has an
elevation of 2,877 feet above the sea level.
The whole of this flat country is laid out into embanked rice fields
and sugar-cane plantations. The towns and villages interspersed are
numerous. All the primeval forest, at one time dense, has disappeared;
for this being one of the first districts brought under European
subjection, it supplied timber to the invaders from the earliest days
of Spanish colonization.
The Rio Agno rises in a mountainous range towards the west coast
about 50 miles N.N.W. of the South Caraballo--runs southwards as
far as lat. 16 deg., where it takes a S.W. direction down to lat. 15 deg.
48'--thence a N.W. course up to lat. 16 deg., whence it empties itself by
two mouths into the Gulf of Lingayen. At the highest tides there is
a maximum depth of 11 feet of water on the sand bank at the E. mouth,
on which is situated the port of Dagupan.
The Bicol River, which flows from the Bato Lake to the Bay of San
Miguel, has sufficient depth of water to admit vessels of small
draught a few miles up from its mouth.
In _Mindanao Island_ the Butuan River or Rio Agusan rises at a distance
of about 25 miles from the southern coast and empties itself on the
northern coast, so that it nearly divides the island, and is navigable
for a few miles from the mouth.
The Rio Grande de Mindanao rises in the centre of the island and
empties itself on the west coast by two mouths, and is navigable
for some miles by light-draught steamers. It has a great number of
affluents of little importance.
The only river in _Negros Island_ of any appreciable extent is the
Danao, which rises in the mountain range running down the centre of
the island, and finds its outlet on the east coast. At the mouth it
is about a quarter of a mile wide, but too shallow to permit large
vessels to enter, although past the mouth it has sufficient depth
for any ship. I went up this river, six hours' journey in a boat,
and saw some fine timber near its banks in many places. Here and
there it opens out very wide, the sides becoming mangrove swamps.
The most important Lakes are:--In _Luzon Island_ the Bay Lake or
Laguna de Bay, supplied by numberless small streams coming from the
mountainous district around it. Its greatest length from E. to W. is
25 miles, and its greatest breadth N. to S. 21 miles. In it there
is a mountainous island--Talim,--of no agricultural importance, and
several islets. Its overflow forms the Pasig River, which empties
itself into the Manila Bay. Each wet season--in the middle of the
year--the shores of this lake are flooded. These floods recede as the
dry season approaches, but only partially so from the south coast,
which is gradually being incorporated into the lake bed.
Bombon Lake, in the centre of which is a volcano in constant activity,
has a width E. to W. of 11 miles, and its length from N. to S. is
14 miles. The origin of this lake is apparently volcanic. According
to tradition it was formed by the terrific upheaval of a mountain
7,000 or 8,000 feet high, in the year 1700. It is not supplied by any
streams emptying themselves into it (further than two insignificant
rivulets), and it is connected with the sea by the Pansipit River,
which flows into the Gulf of Balayan at lat. 13 deg. 52' N.
Cagayan Lake, in the extreme N.E. of the island, is about 7 miles
long by 5 miles broad.
Lake Bato, 3 miles across each way, and Lake Buhi, 3 miles N. to S. and
2 1/2 miles wide, situated in the eastern extremity of Luzon Island,
are very shallow.
In the centre of Luzon Island, in the large valley watered by
the above-mentioned Pampanga and Agno Rivers, are three lakes,
respectively Canarem, Mangabol, and Candava; the last two being
lowland meres flooded and navigable by canoes in the rainy season only.
In _Mindoro Island_ there is one lake called Naujan, 2 1/2 miles from
the N.E. coast. Its greatest width is 3 miles, with 4 miles in length.
In _Mindanao Island_ there are the Lakes Maguindanao or Boayan, in
the centre of the island (20 miles E. to W. by 12 N. to S.); Lanao,
18 miles distant from the north coast; Liguasan and Buluan towards
the south, connected with the Rio Grande de Mindanao, and a group of
four small lakes on the Agusuan River.
The Lanao Lake has great historical associations with the struggles
between Christians and Moslems during the period of the Spanish
dominion, and is to this day a centre of strife with the Americans.
In some of the straits dividing the islands there are strong currents,
rendering navigation of sailing vessels very difficult, notably in
the San Bernadino Straits separating the Islands of Luzon and Samar,
the roadstead of Yloilo between Panay and Guimarras Islands, and the
passage between the south points of Cebu and Negros Islands.
Most of the islets, if not indeed the whole Archipelago, are of
volcanic origin. There are many volcanoes, two of them in frequent
intermittent activity, viz. the Mayon, in the extreme east of
Luzon Island, and the Taal Volcano, in the centre of Bombon Lake,
34 miles due south of Manila. Also in Negros Island the Canlauan
Volcano--N. lat. 10 deg. 24'--is occasionally in visible eruption. In
1886 a portion of its crater subsided, accompanied by a tremendous
noise and a slight ejection of lava. In the picturesque Island of
Camiguin a volcano mountain suddenly arose from the plain in 1872.
The _Mayon Volcano_ is in the north of the Province of Albay;
hence it is popularly known as the Albay Volcano. Around its base
there are several towns and villages, the chief being Albay, the
capital of the province; Cagsaua (called Daraga) and Camaling on
the one side, and Malinao, Tobaco, etc., on the side facing the east
coast. The earliest eruption recorded is that of 1616, mentioned by
Spilbergen. In 1769 there was a serious eruption, which destroyed the
towns of Cagsaua and Malinao, besides several villages, and devastated
property within a radius of 20 miles. Lava and ashes were thrown out
incessantly during two months, and cataracts of water were formed. In
1811 loud subterranean noises were heard proceeding from the volcano,
which caused the inhabitants around to fear an early renewal of its
activity, but their misfortune was postponed. On February 1, 1814,
[6] it burst with terrible violence. Cagsaua, Badiao, and three other
towns were totally demolished. Stones and ashes were ejected in all
directions. The inhabitants fled to caves to shelter themselves. So
sudden was the occurrence, that many natives were overtaken by the
volcanic projectiles and a few by lava streams. In Cagsaua nearly
all property was lost. Father Aragoneses estimates that 2,200 persons
were killed, besides many being wounded.
Another eruption, remarkable for its duration, took place in 1881-82,
and again in the spring of 1887; but only a small quantity of ashes
was thrown out, and did very little or no damage to the property in
the surrounding towns and villages.
The eruption of July 9, 1888, severely damaged the towns of Libog
and Legaspi; plantations were destroyed in the villages of Bigaa and
Bonco; several houses were fired, others had the roofs crushed in;
a great many domestic animals were killed; fifteen natives lost their
lives, and the loss of live-stock (buffaloes and oxen) was estimated
at 500. The ejection of lava and ashes and stones from the crater
continued for one night, which was illuminated by a column of fire.
The last great eruption occurred in May, 1897. Showers of red-hot
lava fell like rain in a radius of 20 miles from the crater. In
the immediate environs about 400 persons were killed. In the
village of Bacacay houses were entirely buried beneath the lava,
ashes, and sand. The road to the port of Legaspi was covered out of
sight. In the important town of Tobaco there was total darkness and
the earth opened. Hemp plantations and a large number of cattle were
destroyed. In Libog over 100 inhabitants perished in the ruins. The
hamlets of San Roque, Misericordia, and Santo Nino, with over
150 inhabitants, were completely covered with burning _debris_. At
night-time the sight of the fire column, heaving up thousands of tons
of stones, accompanied by noises like the booming of cannon afar off,
was indescribably grand, but it was the greatest public calamity
which had befallen the province for some years past.
The mountain is remarkable for the perfection of its conic form. Owing
to the perpendicular walls of lava formed on the slopes all around,
it would seem impossible to reach the crater. The elevation of the
peak has been computed at between 8,200 and 8,400 feet. I have been
around the base on the E. and S. sides, but the grandest view is to
be obtained from Cagsaua (Daraga). On a clear night, when the moon
is hidden, a stream of fire is distinctly seen to flow from the crest.
_Taal Volcano_ is in the island of the Bombon Lake referred to
above. The journey by the ordinary route from the capital would be
about 60 miles. This volcano has been in an active state from time
immemorial, and many eruptions have taken place with more or less
effect. The first one of historical importance appears to have occurred
in 1641; again in 1709 the crater vomited fire with a deafening noise;
on September 21, 1716, it threw out burning stones and lava over the
whole island from which it rises, but so far no harm had befallen
the villagers in its vicinity. In 1731 from the waters of the lake
three tall columns of earth and sand arose in a few days, eventually
subsiding into the form of an island about a mile in circumference. In
1749 there was a famous outburst which dilacerated the coniform peak
of the volcano, leaving the crater disclosed as it now is. Being
only 850 feet high, it is remarkable as one of the lowest volcanoes
in the world.
The last and most desolating of all the eruptions of importance
occurred in the year 1754, when the stones, lava, ashes, and waves
of the lake, caused by volcanic action, contributed to the utter
destruction of the towns of Taal, Tanauan, Sala, and Lipa, and
seriously damaged property in Balayan, 15 miles away, whilst cinders
are said to have reached Manila, 34 miles distant in a straight
line. One writer says in his MS., [7] compiled 36 years after the
occurrence, that people in Manila dined with lighted candles at midday,
and walked about the streets confounded and thunderstruck, clamouring
for confession during the eight days that the calamity was visible. The
author adds that the smell of the sulphur and fire lasted six months
after the event, and was followed by malignant fever, to which half the
inhabitants of the province fell victims. Moreover, adds the writer,
the lake waters threw up dead alligators and fish, including sharks.
The best detailed account extant is that of the parish priest of Sala
at the time of the event. [8] He says that about 11 o'clock at night
on August 11, 1749, he saw a strong light on the top of the Volcano
Island, but did not take further notice. At 3 o'clock the next morning
he heard a gradually increasing noise like artillery firing, which
he supposed would proceed from the guns of the galleon expected in
Manila from Mexico, saluting the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Cagsaysay
whilst passing. He only became anxious when the number of shots he
heard far exceeded the royal salute, for he had already counted a
hundred times, and still it continued. So he arose, and it occurred
to him that there might be a naval engagement off the coast. He was
soon undeceived, for four old natives suddenly called out, "Father,
let us flee!" and on his inquiry they informed him that the island had
burst, hence the noise. Daylight came and exposed to view an immense
column of smoke gushing from the summit of the volcano, and here and
there from its sides smaller streams rose like plumes. He was joyed
at the spectacle, which interested him so profoundly that he did not
heed the exhortations of the natives to escape from the grand but
awful scene. It was a magnificent sight to watch mountains of sand
hurled from the lake into the air in the form of erect pyramids,
and then falling again like the stream from a fountain jet. Whilst
contemplating this imposing phenomenon with tranquil delight, a
strong earthquake came and upset everything in the convent. Then he
reflected that it might be time to go; pillars of sand ascended out
of the water nearer to the shore of the town, and remained erect,
until, by a second earthquake, they, with the trees on the islet,
were violently thrown down and submerged in the lake. The earth
opened out here and there as far as the shores of the Laguna de Bay,
and the lands of Sala and Tanauan shifted. Streams found new beds and
took other courses, whilst in several places trees were engulfed in
the fissures made in the soil. Houses, which one used to go up into,
one now had to go down into, but the natives continued to inhabit
them without the least concern. The volcano, on this occasion, was
in activity for three weeks; the first three days ashes fell like
rain. After this incident, the natives extracted sulphur from the
open crater, and continued to do so until the year 1754.
In that year (1754), the same chronicler continues, between nine and
ten o'clock at night on May 15, the volcano ejected boiling lava,
which ran down its sides in such quantities that only the waters
of the lake saved the people on shore from being burnt. Towards the
north, stones reached the shore and fell in a place called Bayoyongan,
in the jurisdiction of Taal. Stones and fire incessantly came from
the crater until June 2, when a volume of smoke arose which seemed
to meet the skies. It was clearly seen from Bauan, which is on a low
level about four leagues (14 miles) from the lake.
Matters continued so until July 10, when there fell a heavy shower
of mud as black as ink. The wind changed its direction and a suburb
of Sala, called Balili, was swamped with mud. This phenomenon was
accompanied by a noise so great that the people of Batangas and Bauan,
who that day had seen the galleon from Acapulco passing on her home
voyage, conjectured that she had saluted the Shrine of Our Lady of
Cagsaysay on her way. The noise ceased, but fire still continued to
issue from the crater until September 25. Stones fell all that night;
and the people of Taal had to abandon their homes, for the roofs were
falling in with the weight upon them. The chronicler was at Taal
at this date, and in the midst of the column of smoke a tempest of
thunder and lightning raged and continued without intermission until
December 4.
The night of All Saints' day (Nov. 1) was a memorable one, for the
quantity of falling fire-stones, sand, and ashes increased, gradually
diminishing again towards November 15. Then, on that night, after
vespers, great noises were heard. A long melancholy sound dinned in
one's ears; volumes of black smoke rose; an infinite number of stones
fell, and great waves proceeded from the lake, beating the shores with
appalling fury. This was followed by another great shower of stones,
brought up amidst the black smoke, which lasted until 10 o'clock at
night. For a short while the devastation was suspended prior to the
last supreme effort. All looked half dead and much exhausted after
seven months of suffering in the way described. [9] It was resolved
to remove the image of Our Lady of Cagsaysay and put in its place
the second image of the Holy Virgin.
On November 29, from seven o'clock in the evening, the volcano threw
up more fire than all put together in the preceding seven months. The
burning column seemed to mingle with the clouds; the whole of the
island was one ignited mass. A wind blew. And as the priests and the
mayor (_Alcalde_) were just remarking that the fire might reach the
town, a mass of stones was thrown up with great violence; thunderclaps
and subterranean noises were heard; everybody looked aghast, and nearly
all knelt to pray. Then the waters of the lake began to encroach
upon the houses, and the inhabitants took to flight, the natives
carrying away whatever chattels they could. Cries and lamentations
were heard all around; mothers were looking for their children in
dismay; half-caste women of the Parian were calling for confession,
some of them beseechingly falling on their knees in the middle of
the streets. The panic was intense, and was in no way lessened by
the Chinese, who took to yelling in their own jargonic syllables.
After the terrible night of November 29 they thought all was over,
when again several columns of smoke appeared, and the priest went off
to the Sanctuary of Cagsaysay, where the prior was. Taal was entirely
abandoned, the natives having gone in all directions away from the
lake. On November 29 and 30 there was complete darkness around the
lake vicinity, and when light reappeared a layer of cinders about
five inches thick was seen over the lands and houses, and it was
still increasing. Total darkness returned, so that one could not
distinguish another's face, and all were more horror-stricken than
ever. In Cagsaysay the natives climbed on to the housetops and threw
down the cinders, which were over-weighting the structures. On November
30 smoke and strange sounds came with greater fury than anything
yet experienced, while lightning flashed in the dense obscurity. It
seemed as if the end of the world was arriving. When light returned,
the destruction was horribly visible; the church roof was dangerously
covered with ashes and earth, and the chronicler opines that its not
having fallen in might be attributed to a miracle! Then there was
a day of comparative quietude, followed by a hurricane which lasted
two days. All were in a state of melancholy, which was increased when
they received the news that the whole of Taal had collapsed; amongst
the ruins being the Government House and Stores, the Prison, State
warehouses and the Royal Rope Walk, besides the Church and Convent.
The Gov.-General sent food and clothing in a vessel, which was nearly
wrecked by storms, whilst the crew pumped and baled out continually
to keep her afloat, until at length she broke up on the shoals at
the mouth of the Pansipit River. Another craft had her mast split by
a flash of lightning, but reached port.
With all this, some daft natives lingered about the site of the town
of Taal till the last, and two men were sepulchred in the Government
House ruins. A woman left her house just before the roof fell in
and was carried away by a flood, from which she escaped, and was
then struck dead by a flash of lightning. A man who had escaped from
Mussulman pirates, by whom he had been held in captivity for years,
was killed during the eruption. He had settled in Taal, and was held
to be a perfect genius, for he could mend a clock!
The road from Taal to Balayan was impassable for a while on account
of the quantity of lava. Taal, once so important as a trading centre,
was now gone, and Batangas, on the coast, became the future capital
of the province.
The actual duration of this last eruption was 6 months and 17 days.
In 1780 the natives again extracted sulphur, but in 1790 a writer at
that date [10] says that he was unable to reach the crater owing to
the depth of soft lava and ashes on the slopes.
There is a tradition current amongst the natives that an Englishman
some years ago attempted to cut a tunnel from the base to the centre
of the volcanic mountain, probably to extract some metallic product
or sulphur. It is said that during the work the excavation partially
fell in upon the Englishman, who perished there. The cave-like entrance
is pointed out to travellers as the _Cueva del Ingles_.
Referring to the volcano, Fray Gaspar de San Agustin in his History
[11] remarks as follows:--"The volcano formerly emitted many large
fire-stones which destroyed the cotton, sweet potato and other
plantations belonging to the natives of Taal on the slopes of the
(volcano) mountain. Also it happened that if three persons arrived
on the volcanic island, one of them had infallibly to die there
without being able to ascertain the cause of this circumstance. This
was related to Father Albuquerque, [12] who after a fervent deesis
entreating compassion on the natives, went to the island, exorcised
the evil spirits there and blessed the land. A religious procession was
made, and Mass was celebrated with great humility. On the elevation of
the Host, horrible sounds were heard, accompanied by groaning voices
and sad lamentations; two craters opened out, one with sulphur in it
and the other with green water (sic), which is constantly boiling. The
crater on the Lipa side is about a quarter of a league wide; the other
is smaller, and in time smoke began to ascend from this opening so that
the natives, fearful of some new calamity, went to Father Bartholomew,
who repeated the ceremonies already described. Mass was said a second
time, so that since then the volcano has not thrown out any more fire
or smoke. [13] However, whilst Fray Thomas Abresi was parish priest
of Taal (about 1611), thunder and plaintive cries were again heard,
therefore the priest had a cross, made of Anobing wood, borne to the
top of the volcano by more than 400 natives, with the result that
not only the volcano ceased to do harm, but the island has regained
its original fertile condition."
The Taal Volcano is reached with facility from the N. side of the
island, the ascent on foot occupying about half an hour. Looking
into the crater, which would be about 4,500 feet wide from one border
to the other of the shell, one sees three distinct lakes of boiling
liquid, the colours of which change from time to time. I have been
up to the crater four times; the last time the liquids in the lakes
were respectively of green, yellow, and chocolate colours. At the
time of my last visit there was also a lava chimney in the middle,
from which arose a snow-white volume of smoke.
The Philippine Islands have numberless creeks and bays forming
natural harbours, but navigation on the W. coasts of Cebu, Negros and
Palauan Islands is dangerous for any but very light-draught vessels,
the water being very shallow, whilst there are dangerous reefs all
along the W. coast of Palauan (Paragua) and between the south point
of this island and Balabac Island.
The S.W. monsoon brings rain to most of the islands, and the wet
season lasts nominally six months,--from about the end of April. The
other half of the year is the dry season. However, on those coasts
directly facing the Pacific Ocean, the seasons are the reverse of this.
The hottest season is from March to May inclusive, except on the coasts
washed by the Pacific, where the greatest heat is felt in June, July,
and August. The temperature throughout the year varies but slightly,
the average heat in Luzon Island being about 81 deg. 50' Fahr. In the
highlands of north Luzon, on an elevation above 4,000 feet, the maximum
temperature is 78 deg. Fahr. and the minimum 46 deg. Fahr. Zamboanga, which is
over 400 miles south of Manila, is cooler than the capital. The average
number of rainy days in Luzon during the years 1881 to 1883 was 203.
Commencing July 11, 1904, three days of incessant rain in Rizal
Province produced the greatest inundation of Manila suburbs within
living memory. Human lives were lost; many cattle were washed away;
barges in the river were wrenched from their moorings and dashed
against the bridge piers; pirogues were used instead of vehicles in
the thoroughfares; considerable damage was done in the shops and many
persons had to wade through the flooded streets knee-deep in water.
The climate is a continual summer, which maintains a rich verdure
throughout the year; and during nine months of the twelve an alternate
heat and moisture stimulates the soil to the spontaneous production
of every form of vegetable life. The country generally is healthy.
The whole of the Archipelago, as far south as 10 deg. lat., is affected
by the monsoons, and periodically disturbed by terrible hurricanes,
which cause great devastation to the crops and other property. The
last destructive hurricane took place in September, 1905.
Earthquakes are also very frequent, the last of great importance having
occurred in 1863, 1880, 1892, 1894, and 1897. In 1897 a tremendous
tidal wave affected the Island of Leyte, causing great destruction of
life and property. A portion of Tacloban, the capital of the island,
was swept away, rendering it necessary to extend the town in another
direction.
In the wet season the rivers swell considerably, and often overflow
their banks; whilst the mountain torrents carry away bridges, cattle,
tree trunks, etc., with terrific force, rendering travelling in some
parts of the interior dangerous and difficult. In the dry season long
droughts occasionally occur (about once in three years), to the great
detriment of the crops and live-stock.
The southern boundary of the Archipelago is formed by a chain of some
140 islands, stretching from the large island of Mindanao as far as
Borneo, and constitutes the Sulu Archipelago, the Sultanate of which
was under the protection of Spain (_vide_ Chap. xxix.). It is now
being absorbed, under American rule, in the rest of the Archipelago,
under the denomination of Moro Province (q.v.).