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Textiles and Clothing
BY
KATE HEINTZ WATSON
GRADUATE ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN DOMESTIC ART
LEWIS INSTITUTE
LECTURER UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
[Illustration: American School of Home Economics seal]
CHICAGO
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS
1907
COPYRIGHT 1906, 1907, BY
HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION
THE LIBRARY
OF
HOME ECONOMICS
A COMPLETE HOME-STUDY COURSE
ON THE NEW PROFESSION OF HOME-MAKING AND ART OF RIGHT LIVING;
THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE MOST RECENT ADVANCES
IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES TO HOME AND HEALTH
PREPARED BY TEACHERS OF
RECOGNIZED AUTHORITY
FOR HOME-MAKERS, MOTHERS, TEACHERS, PHYSICIANS, NURSES, DIETITIANS,
PROFESSIONAL HOUSE MANAGERS, AND ALL INTERESTED
IN HOME, HEALTH, ECONOMY AND CHILDREN
TWELVE VOLUMES
NEARLY THREE THOUSAND PAGES, ONE THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS
TESTED BY USE IN CORRESPONDENCE INSTRUCTION
REVISED AND SUPPLEMENTED
[Illustration: American School of Home Economics seal]
CHICAGO
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS
1907
Copyright, 1907
by
Home Economics Association
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London
_All Rights Reserved._
AUTHORS
ISABEL BEVIER, Ph. M.
Professor of Household Science, University of Illinois. Author U. S.
Government Bulletins, "Development of The Home Economics Movement in
America," etc.
ALICE PELOUBET NORTON, M. A.
Assistant Professor of Home Economics, School of Eduction, University of
Chicago; Director of the Chautauqua School of Domestic Science.
S. MARIA ELLIOTT
Instructor in Home Economics, Simmons College; Formerly Instructor
School of Housekeeping, Boston.
ANNA BARROWS
Director Chautauqua School of Cookery; Lecturer Teachers' College,
Columbia University, and Simmons College; formerly Editor "American
Kitchen Magazine;" Author "Home Science Cook Book."
ALFRED CLEVELAND COTTON, A. M., M. D.
Professor Diseases of Children, Rush Medical College, University of
Chicago; Visiting Physician Presbyterian Hospital, Chicago; Author of
"Diseases of Children."
BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. B.
Professor in Home Economics in Hartford School of Pedagogy; Author of U.
S. Government Bulletins.
KATE HEINTZ WATSON
Formerly Instructor in Domestic Economy, Lewis Institute; Lecturer
University of Chicago.
MARION FOSTER WASHBURNE
Editor "The Mothers' Magazine;" Lecturer Chicago Froebel Association;
Author "Everyday Essays," "Family Secrets," etc.
MARGARET E. DODD
Graduate Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Teacher of Science,
Woodard Institute.
AMY ELIZABETH POPE
With the Panama Canal Commission; Formerly Instructor in Practical and
Theoretical Nursing, Training School for Nurses, Presbyterian Hospital,
New York City.
MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B.
Director American School of Home Economics; Member American Public
Health Association and American Chemical Society.
CONTRIBUTORS AND EDITORS
ELLEN H. RICHARDS
Author "Cost of Food," "Cost of Living," "Cost of Shelter," "Food
Materials and Their Adulteration," etc., etc.; Chairman Lake Placid
Conference on Home Economics.
MARY HINMAN ABEL
Author of U. S. Government Bulletins, "Practical Sanitary and Economic
Cooking," "Sale Food," etc.
THOMAS D. WOOD, M. D.
Professor of Physical Education, Columbia University.
H. M. LUFKIN, M. D.
Professor of Physical Diagnosis and Clinical Medicine, University of
Minnesota.
OTTO FOLIN, Ph. D.
Special Investigator, McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass.
T. MITCHELL PRUDDEN, M. D., LL. D.
Author "Dust and Its Dangers," "The Story of the Bacteria," "Drinking
Water and Ice Supplies," etc.
FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN
Architect, Boston, Mass.; Author of "The Five Orders of Architecture,"
"Letters and Lettering."
MRS. MELVIL DEWEY
Secretary Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics.
HELEN LOUISE JOHNSON
Professor of Home Economics, James Millikan University, Decatur.
FRANK W. ALLIN, M. D.
Instructor Rush Medical College, University of Chicago.
MANAGING EDITOR
MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B.
Director American School of Home Economics.
BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS
MRS. ARTHUR COURTENAY NEVILLE
President of the Board.
MISS MARIA PARLOA
Founder of the first Cooking School in Boston; Author of "Home
Economics," "Young Housekeeper," U. S. Government Bulletins, etc.
MRS. MARY HINMAN ABEL
Co-worker in the "New England Kitchen," and the "Rumford Food
Laboratory;" Author of U. S. Government Bulletins, "Practical Sanitary
and Economic Cooking," etc.
MISS ALICE RAVENHILL
Special Commissioner sent by the British Government to report on the
Schools of Home Economics in the United States; Fellow of the Royal
Sanitary Institute, London.
MRS. ELLEN M. HENROTIN
Honorary President General Federation of Woman's Clubs.
MRS. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF
President National Congress of Mothers.
MRS. LINDA HULL LARNED
Past President National Household Economics Association; Author of
"Hostess of To-day."
MRS. WALTER McNAB MILLER
Chairman of the Pure Food Committee of the General Federation of Woman's
Clubs.
MRS. J. A. KIMBERLY
Vice President of National Household Economics Association.
MRS. JOHN HOODLESS
Government Superintendent of Domestic Science for the province of
Ontario; Founder Ontario Normal School of Domestic Science, now the
MacDonald Institute.
[Illustration: DRESS MAKING IN MEXICO]
CONTENTS
Primitive Methods 3
Weaving 14
Fibers 29
Cotton 29
Wool 37
Flax 43
Silk 53
Modern Methods 59
Weaving 69
Weaves 72
Bleaching and Dyeing 78
Printing 81
Finishing 83
Cotton Goods 85
Linens 86
Woolens and Worsteds 88
Silks 90
Names of Fabrics 94
Bibliography on Textiles 103
Hand Sewing 107
Ornamental Stitches 114
Hems 123
Tucks and Seams 128
Plackets 135
Sewing on Bands 138
Fastenings 141
Patching 149
Darning 155
Mitering Embroidery, Joining Lace 158
Machine Sewing 162
Dressmaking 167
Patterns 171
Making Seven-Gored Skirt 172
Making Shirt Waists 182
Lined Waist 186
Sleeves 194
Collars 198
Seamless Yokes 200
Pressing 201
Construction and Ornament in Dress 203
Ornament of Textiles 212
Color 214
Children's Clothes 216
Care of Clothing 219
Cleaning 221
Repairing 225
Bibliography on Sewing and Dressmaking 229
References: History of Costume; Ornament and Design 234
Program for Supplemental Study 236
Index 241
[Illustration: "THE THREAD OF LIFE"
Spinning with the Distaff and Spindle. From a Painting.]
TEXTILES AND CLOTHING
[Sidenote: Origin of Textile Arts]
Spinning and weaving are among the earliest arts. In the twisting of
fibers, hairs, grasses, and sinews by rolling them between the thumb and
fingers, palms of the hands, or palms and naked thigh, we have the
original of the spinning wheel and the steam-driven cotton spindle; in
the roughest plaiting we have the first hint of the finest woven cloth.
The need of securing things or otherwise strengthening them then led to
binding, fastening, and sewing. The wattle-work hut with its roof of
interlaced boughs, the skins sewn by fine needles with entrails or
sinews, the matted twigs, grasses, and rushes are all the crude
beginnings of an art which tells of the settled life of to-day.
[Sidenote: Primitive Methods]
Nothing is definitely known of the origin of these arts; all is
conjecture. They doubtless had their beginning long before mention is
made of them in history, but these crafts--spinning and
weaving--modified and complicated by inventions and, in modern times
transferred largely from man to machine, were distinctively woman's
employment.
The very primitive type of spinning, where no spindle was used, was to
fasten the strands of goats' hair or wool to a stone which was twirled
round until the yarn was sufficiently twisted when it was wound upon
the stone and the process repeated over and over.
[Illustration: ITALIAN WOMAN SPINNING FLAX
Spindle and Distaff.
From Hull House Museum. (In This Series of Pictures the Spinners and
Weavers Are in Native Costume.)]
[Illustration: RUSSIAN SPINNING
Flax Held on Frame, Leaving Both Hands Free to Manage the Thread and
Spindle.
From Hull House Museum.]
[Sidenote: Spinning with the Spindle]
The next method of twisting yarn was with the spindle, a straight stick
eight to twelve inches long on which the thread was wound after
twisting. At first it had a cleft or split in the top in which the
thread was fixed; later a hook of bone was added to the upper end. The
spindle is yet used by the North American Indians, the Italians, and in
the Orient. The bunch of wool or flax fibers is held in the left hand;
with the right hand the fibers are drawn out several inches and the end
fastened securely in the slit or hook on the top of the spindle. A
whirling motion is given to the spindle on the thigh or any convenient
part of the body; the spindle is then dropped, twisting the yarn, which
is wound on the upper part of the spindle. Another bunch of fibers is
drawn out, the spindle is given another twirl, the yarn is wound on the
spindle, and so on.
[Sidenote: Spindle Whorl]
A spindle containing a quantity of yarn was found to rotate more easily,
steadily and continue longer than an empty one, hence the next
improvement was the addition of a _whorl_ at the bottom of the spindle.
These whorls are discs of wood, stone, clay, or metal which keep the
spindle steady and promote its rotation. The process in effect is
precisely the same as the spinning done by our grandmothers, only the
spinning wheel did the twisting and reduced the time required for the
operation.
[Illustration: SPINNING WITH CRUDE WHEEL AND DISTAFF
Distaff Thrust Into the Belt.]
[Illustration: "GOSSIP" IN THE OLDEN TIMES]
[Illustration: COLONIAL WOOL WHEEL
The Large Wheel Revolved by Hand Thus Turning the Spindle and Twisting
the Yarn, Which Is Then Wound on the Spindle; Intermittent in Action.]
[Illustration: COLONIAL FLAX WHEEL
Worked by a Foot Treddle; Distaff on the Frame of the Wheel; "Fliers" on
the Spindle, Continuous in Action; Capacity Seven Times That of Hand
Spindle.]
[Illustration: DUTCH WHEEL
Spinner Sits in Front of the Wheel Spinning Flax at Hull House.]
[Sidenote: Distaff]
Later the distaff was used for holding the bunch of wool, flax, or other
fibers. It was a short stick on one end of which was loosely wound the
raw material. The other end of the distaff was held in the hand, under
the arm or thrust in the girdle of the spinner. When held thus, one hand
was left free for drawing out the fibers.
[Illustration: Graphic Diagram Showing Time During which Different
Methods of Spinning Has Been Used.]
[Sidenote: Wheel Spinning]
On the small spinning wheel the distaff was placed in the end of the
wheel bench in front of the "fillers"; this left both hands free to
manage the spindle and to draw out the threads of the fibers.
[Illustration: SYRIAN SPINNING
Spinner Sits on the Floor, Wheel Turned by a Crank; Spindle Held in
Place by Two Mutton Joints Which Contain Enough Oil for Lubrication. At
Hull House.]
The flax spinning wheel, worked by means of a treadle, was invented in
the early part of the sixteenth century and was a great improvement
upon the distaff and spindle. This it will be seen was a comparatively
modern invention. The rude wheel used by the natives of Japan and India
may have been the progenitor of the European wheel, as about this time
intercourse between the East and Europe increased. These wheels were
used for spinning flax, wool, and afterwards cotton, until Hargreaves'
invention superseded it.
WEAVING
Someone has said that "weaving is the climax of textile industry." It is
an art practiced by all savage tribes and doubtless was known before the
dawn of history. The art is but a development of mat-making and
basketry, using threads formed or made by spinning in place of coarser
filaments.
[Illustration: PUEBLO WOMAN WORKING HEDDLE IN WEAVING A BELT]
[Illustration: A NAVAJO BELT WEAVER]
[Illustration: ZUNI WOMAN WEAVING CEREMONIAL BELT]
[Illustration: PRIMITIVE HEDDLES]
[Sidenote: The Heddle]
In the beginning of the art the warp threads were stretched between
convenient objects on the ground or from horizontal supports. At first
the woof or filling threads were woven back and forth between the warp
threads as in darning. An improvement was the device called the "heald"
or "heddle," by means of which alternate warp threads could be drawn
away from the others, making an opening through which the filling thread
could be passed quickly. One form of the heddle was simply a straight
stick having loops of cord or sinew through which certain of the warp
threads were run. Another form was a slotted frame having openings or
"eyes" in the slats. This was carved from one piece of wood or other
material or made from many. Alternate warp threads passed through the
eyes and the slots. By raising or lowering the heddle frame, an opening
was formed through which the filling thread, wound on a rude shuttle,
was thrown. The next movement of the heddle frame crossed the threads
over the filling and made a new opening for the return of the shuttle.
At first the filling thread was wound on a stick making a primitive
bobbin. Later the shuttle to hold the bobbin was devised.
[Illustration: NAVAJO LOOM
One on the Earliest Types of Looms. At Hull House.]
[Illustration: SIMPLE COLONIAL LOOM]
[Sidenote: The Reed]
Before the "reed" was invented, the filling threads were drawn evenly
into place by means of a rude comb and driven home by sword-shaped piece
of wood or "batten." The reed accomplished all this at one time.
[Illustration: A JAPANESE LOOM.]
[Illustration: A FOUR HARNESS HAND LOOM
Weaving Linen in the Mountains of Virginia. (Photograph by C. R.
Dodge).]
[Illustration: TYPICAL COLONIAL HAND LOOM
Two Harnesses in Use; Weaving Wool at Hull House.]
[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF A HAND LOOM
_A_--Warp Beam; _B_--Cloth Beam; _DD_--Lees Rods; _H_--Harness;
_T_--Treddle.]
[Sidenote: Definition of a Loom]
It is probable that the European looms were derived from those of India
as they seem to be made on the same principle. From crude beginnings,
the hand loom of our grandmothers' time developed. A loom has been
defined as a mechanism which affects the following necessary movements:
1. The lifting of the healds to form an opening, or shed, or race for
the shuttle to pass through.
2. The throwing of the weft or filling by means of a shuttle.
3. The beating up of the weft left in the shed by the shuttle to the
cloth already formed. This thread may be adjusted by means of the
batten, needle, comb, or any separate device like the reed.
4 & 5. The winding up or taking up of the cloth as it is woven and the
letting off of the warp as the cloth is taken up.
[Illustration: SWEDISH HAND LOOM
Norwegian Woman Weaving Linen at Hull House.]
[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF THE WORKING PARTS OF A LOOM.
_S_--Shuttle for carrying the woof; _R_--Reed for beating up the woof;
_H_--Frame holding heddles, with pullies (_P_) making the harness;
_T_--Treddles for moving the harness.]
[Sidenote: Colonial Loom]
No essential changes have been made since our grandmothers made cloth a
hundred years ago. The "harnesses" move part of the warp now up, now
down, and the shuttle carries the weft from side to side to be driven
home by the reeds to the woven cloth. Our grandmothers did all the work
with swift movements of hands and feet. The modern weaver has her loom
harnessed to the electric dynamo and moves her fingers only to keep the
threads in order. If she wishes to weave a pattern in the cloth, no
longer does she pick up threads of warp now here, now there, according
to the designs. It is all worked out for her on the loom. Each thread
with almost human intelligence settles automatically into its appointed
place, and the weaver is only a machine tender.
[Illustration: FLY SHUTTLE HAND LOOM.
The Pulling of the Reed Automatically Throws the Shuttle Back and Forth
and Works the Harness, Making a Shed at the Proper Time.]
[Sidenote: Primitive Fabrics]
No textiles of primitive people were ever woven in "pieces" or "bolts"
of yards and yards in length to be cut into garments. The cloth was made
of the size and shape to serve the particular purpose for which it was
designed. The mat, robe, or blanket had tribal outlines and proportions
and was made according to the materials and the use of common forms that
prevailed among the tribes. The designs were always conventional and
sometimes monotonous. The decoration never interfered with its use. "The
first beauty of the savage woman was uniformity which belonged to the
texture and shape of the product." The uniformity in textile, basketry,
or pottery, after acquiring a family trait, was never lost sight of.
Their designs were suggested by the natural objects with which they were
familiar.
[Illustration: PICKING COTTON.
From Department of Agriculture Bulletin, "The Cotton Plant."]
FIBERS
Both the animal and vegetable kingdoms furnish the materials for
clothing as well as for all the textiles used in the home. The fleece of
sheep, the hair of the goat and camel, silk, furs, and skins are the
chief animal products. The principal vegetable fibers are cotton, flax,
ramie, jute, and hemp.
[Sidenote: Chief Fibers]
Cotton linen, wool, and silk have heretofore formed the foundation of
all textiles and are the principal fibers used for clothing materials.
Ramie or China grass and pineapple fibers are sometimes used as
adulterants in the manufacture of silk. When woven alone, they give soft
silky textiles of great strength and beauty.
COTTON
[Illustration: PRODUCTION OF COTTON]
Cotton is now our chief vegetable fiber, the yearly crop being over six
billion pounds, of which the United States raises three-fourths. Texas
is the largest producer, followed by Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.
The remainder of the world supply comes chiefly from India, Egypt,
Russia, and Brazil. The Hindoos were the first ancient people to make
extensive use of the cotton fiber. Not until the invention of the cotton
gin by Eli Whitney in 1794 did the cotton begin to reach its present
importance. Only four or five pounds of the fiber could be separated by
hand from the seed by a week's labor. The modern saw gins turn out over
five thousand pounds daily.
[Sidenote: Native Home]
Cotton is the white downy covering of the seed of several special of
cotton of cotton plant. It is a native of many parts of the world, being
found by Columbus growing in the West Indies and on the main land, by
Cortez in Mexico, and Pizarro in Peru.
[Illustration: COTTON FIBER ATTACHED TO SEED]
[Sidenote: Sea Island Cotton]
The value of cotton depends upon the strength, and evenness of the
fiber. In ordinary cotton the individual fiber is about an inch in
length. The sea island cotton grown chiefly on the islands off the coast
of Georgia, Carolina, and Florida is the most valuable variety, having a
fine fiber, one and one-half to two inches in length. Some of the
Egyptian cotton belongs to this species. Sea island cotton is used
chiefly for fine laces, thread and knit goods and for the finest lawns
and muslins.
[Sidenote: Upland Cotton]
The short fiber or upland cotton is the most common and useful variety.
It is grown in Georgia, North and South Carolina and Alabama. Texas
cotton is similar to upland, but sometimes is harsh with shorter fiber.
Gulf cotton occupies a position between upland and sea island cotton.
[Illustration: UPLAND COTTON PLANT WITH FULLY DEVELOPED BOLES
From Bulletin No. 31, Georgia Experiment Station.]
[Illustration: COTTON BOLE FULLY DEVELOPED
From Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, 1903.]
[Illustration: BOLE OPENED, COTTON READY FOR PICKING
Year Book of 1903.]
The Brazilian and Peruvian cotton yields a long staple and is sometimes
used to adulterate silk and other fibers. Some varieties of this cotton
are harsh and wooly and are prized for use in mixing with wool.
[Sidenote: Nankin Cotton]
The Nankin cotton grown in China and India and in the southwestern part
of Louisiana is characterized by its yellow color. It is used in weaving
cloth of various kinds in the "fireside industries" which have become
popular in the United States and England.
[Illustration: COTTON FIBERS
_A A_--Unripe Fibers; _B B_--Half-ripe Fibers; _C C_--Ripe Fibers.]
[Sidenote: Spinning Qualities]
Very fine yarn can be spun from cotton because of the spiral character
of the fibers. This twist of the fibers is peculiar to cotton, being
present in no other animal or vegetable fiber. On account of this twist,
cotton cloths are much more elastic in character than those woven from
linen, the fibers of which are stiff and straight.
After the removal of the seed, no other fiber is so free from
impurities--5 per cent is the loss sustained by cleaning and bleaching.
In its natural condition, cotton will not dye readily because of a waxy
substance on the surface of the fibers. This must be removed by washing.
[Sidenote: Picking and Ginning]
Cotton should be picked only when it is fully ripe when the pods are
fully burst and the fibers expanded. The unripe fiber is glassy, does
not attain its full strength and resists the dye. After picking, the
cotton is sent to the ginning factory to have the seed removed. It is
then pressed into bales by hydraulic presses, five hundred pounds being
the standard bale in the United States.
[Illustration: COTTON BALES]
[Sidenote: Physical Characteristics]
Purified bleached cotton is nearly pure cellulose. It resists the action
of alkalis well, but is harmed by hot, strong acids, or if acid is
allowed to dry on the fabric. It is not harmed by high temperature, and
so may be ironed with a hot iron.
[Illustration: WOOL FIBER AND SUBSTITUTES
1. South American Wool; 2. Noil from the Same; 3. Tangled Waste; 4.
Waste Combed Out; 5. Lap Waste; 6. Shoddy.]
WOOL
[Sidenote: Character of Fiber]
Wool is the most important animal fiber. Strictly speaking the name
applies only to the hairy covering of sheep, but the hair of certain
goats and of camels is generally classified under the same terms. The
wool fiber is distinguished by its scale-like surface which gives it its
felting and spinning properties. Hair as distinguished from wool has
little or no scaly structure being in general a smooth filament with no
felting properties and spinning only with great difficulty. Fur is the
undergrowth found on most fur-bearing animals and has in a modified way
the scaly structure and felting properties of wool.
[Illustration: MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE OF WOOL FIBERS]
[Sidenote: Value for Clothing]
The great value of wool as a fiber lies in the fact that it is strong,
elastic, soft, very susceptible to dye stuffs and being woven, furnishes
a great number of air spaces, rendering clothing made from it very warm
and light.
[Sidenote: Quality of Wool]
Climate, breed, and food influence the quality of the wool. Where the
pasturage is barren and rocky, the wool is apt to be coarse.
[Illustration: MERINO RAMS
The Variety of Sheep Giving the Finest Wool.]
[Sidenote: Varieties of Sheep]
There are supposed to be about thirty distinct varieties of sheep,
nearly half of which are natives of Asia, one-third of Africa, and only
four coming from Europe, and two from America. Wool is divided into two
general classes--long and short staple, according to the average length
of fiber. The long fiber wool is commonly carded, combed and spun into
_worsted_ yarn. The short fiber is usually carded and spun into woolen
yarn. The short fiber obtained in combing long staple wool is called
"noil." It is used for woolens.
[Sidenote: Goat Wools]
Alpaca, Vicuna and Llama wools are obtained from animals which are
native to the mountains of Peru and Chile. The Angora goat, originally
from Asia Minor, furnishes the mohair of commerce. This fiber does not
resemble the hairs of common goats in any respect. It is a very
beautiful fiber of silky luster, which constitutes its chief value.
[Illustration: ANGORA GOATS]
[Sidenote: Fur]
The fur of beavers and rabbits can be and is used in manufacture, either
spun into yarn or made into felt. The fibers of both animals enter
largely into the manufacture of felt hats.
[Sidenote: Sorting Wool]
The fleece of sheep after being sheared is divided into different parts
or _sorted_, according to the quality of the wool, the best wool coming
from the sides of the animal.
[Illustration: WOOL FIBERS
_a_--Medium Wool; _b_--Camel's Hair; _c_--Diseased Fiber; _d_--Merino
Wool; _e_--Mohair.]
[Sidenote: Scouring Wool]
As it comes from the sheep, the wool contains many substances besides
the wool fiber which must be removed before dyeing or spinning. This
cleansing is called _scouring_. Before scouring, the wool is usually
dusted by machines to remove all loose dirt. The scouring must be done
by the mildest means possible in order to preserve the natural
fluffiness and brilliancy of the fiber. The chief impurity is the wool
grease or "yolk" which is secreted by the skin glands to lubricate the
fiber and prevent it from matting.
[Illustration: ONE METHOD OF WOOL SORTING
1--The Best Grade; 2--Lowest Grade; 3--Fair; 4--Medium Grade.]
[Sidenote: Scouring Agents]
In the scouring of wool, soap is the principal agent. Soft soap made
from caustic potash is generally used as it is less harmful than
ordinary hard soda soap. Potassium carbonate--"pearl ash"--is often used
in connection with the soap. If the water for scouring is hard, it is
softened with pearl ash. The temperature of wash water is never allowed
to go above 120° F. The scoured wool weighs from a little over a half to
one-third or less of the weight of the fleece.
[Sidenote: Hydroscopic Moisture]
Wool has the remarkable property of absorbing up to 30 per cent or more
of its weight of water and yet not feel perceptibly damp to the touch.
This is called "hydroscopic moisture." To this property wool owes its
superiority as a textile for underclothing.
[Illustration: WOOL SORTING]
The thoroughly cleansed fiber is made up chiefly of the chemical
substance keratin, being similar in composition to horn and feathers. In
burning it gives off a characteristic disagreeable odor. It is a
substance very weakly acid in its nature, for which reason it combines
readily with many dyes. Wool resists the action of acids very well, but
is much harmed by the alkalis, being dissolved completely by a warm
solution of caustic soda. High temperature harms wool.
FLAX
Next to wool and cotton, flax is used most largely in our textile
manufactures. The linen fiber consists of the bast cells of certain
species of flax grown in Europe, Africa, and the United States. All bast
fibers are obtained near the outer surface of the plant stems. The pith
and woody tissues are of no value. The flax plant is an annual and to
obtain the best fibers it must be gathered before it is fully ripe. To
obtain seed from which the best quality of linseed oil can be made it is
usually necessary to sacrifice the quality of the fibers to some extent.
[Illustration: FLAX]
[Sidenote: Treatment of Flax]
Unlike cotton, flax is contaminated by impurities from which it must be
freed before it can be woven into cloth. The first process to which the
freshly pulled flax is submitted is that of "rippling" or the removal of
the seed capsules. Retting, next in order, is the most important
operation. This is done to remove the substances which bind the bast
fibers to each other and to remove the fiber from the central woody
portion of the stem. This consists of steeping the stalks in water.
[Illustration: A FIELD OF FLAX IN MINNESOTA
The Flax Must Be Pulled Up by the Roots to Give Fibres with Tapered Ends.
(Photograph of C. R. Dodge).]
[Sidenote: Retting]
(1) Cold water retting, either running or stagnant water.
(2) Dew retting.
(3) Warm water retting.
[Illustration: RETTING TANK _A_--Inlet; _B_--Undisturbed Water;
_C_--Bundles of Flax.]
Cold water retting in running water is practiced in Belgium. Retting in
stagnant water is the method usually employed in Ireland and Russia. The
retting in stagnant water is more rapidly done, but there is danger of
over-retting on account of the organic matter retained in the water
which favors fermentation. In this case the fiber is weakened.
[Illustration: RETTING FLAX IN THE RIVER LYS, BELGIUM
From the Government Bulletin, "Flax for Seed and Fiber."]
In dew retting, the flax is spread on the field and exposed to the
action of the weather for several weeks without any previous steeping.
This method of retting is practiced in Germany and Russia. Warm water
retting and chemical retting have met with limited success.
When the retting is complete, the flax is set up in sheaves to dry. The
next operations consist of "breaking," "scutching," and "hackling" and
are now done by machinery.
[Illustration: FIBERS OF FLAX]
Breaking removes the woody center from the retted and dried flax by
being passed through a series of fluted rollers. The particles of woody
matter adhering to the fibers are detached by scutching.
[Sidenote: Hackling]
Hackling or combing still further separates the fibers into their finest
filaments--"line" and "tow." The "flax line" is the long and valuable
fiber; the tow, the short coarse tangled fiber which is spun and used
for weaving coarse linen.
[Illustration: FLAX
A, Unthrashed Straw; B, Retted; C, Cleaned or Scutched; D, Hackled or
Dressed.
(Photograph of C. R. Dodge).]
[Illustration: HACKLING FLAX BY HAND
The "Tow" Is Seen at the Left and a Bunch of "Flax line" on the Bench.
(Photograph of C. R. Dodge, Special Agent U. S. Department of
Agriculture.)]
[Sidenote: Characteristics of Linen]
When freed from all impurities the chief physical characteristics of
flax are its snowy whiteness, silky luster and great tenacity. The
individual fibers may be from ten to twelve inches in length; they
are much greater in diameter than cotton. It is less pliant and elastic
than cotton and bleaches and dyes less readily. Linen cloth is a better
conductor of heat than cotton and clothing made from it is cooler. When
pure, it is, like cotton, nearly pure cellulose.
[Sidenote: Ramie]
Besides the linen, there is a great number of bast fibers fit for
textile purposes, some superior, some inferior. India alone has over
three hundred plants that are fiber yielding. One-third of these furnish
useful fibers for cordage and fabrics. The next in importance to linen
is ramie or rhea, and China grass. China grass comes from a different
plant but is about the same as ramie. The staple is longer and finer
than linen. The great strength of yarn made from it is due to length of
the staple.
The variety and great value of the ramie fibers has long been
recognized, but difficulties attending the separation and degumming of
the fibers have prevented its employment in the manufactures to any
great extent. The native Chinese split and scrape the plant stems,
steeping them in water. The common retting process used for flax is not
effective on account of the large amount of gummy matter, and although
easy to bleach it is difficult to dye in full bright shades without
injuring the luster of the fibers.
[Sidenote: Jute and Hemp]
Jute and hemp belong to the lower order of bast fibers. The fiber is
large and is unfit for any but the coarsest kind of fabrics. Jute is
mainly cultivated in Bengal. The fiber is separated from the plant by
retting, beating, etc.
[Illustration: JUTE GROWING IN LOUISIANA.
From Culture of Hemp and Jute, Report of U. S. Department of Agriculture.]
[Illustration: DRYING HEMP IN KENTUCKY
From "Culture of Hemp and Jute."]
[Sidenote: Olona]
Olona, the textile fiber of Hawaii, is found to have promising
qualities. This plant resembles ramie and belongs to the nettle family
also, but it is without the troublesome resin of the ramie. The fiber is
fine, light, strong, and durable.
The Philippines are rich in fiber producing plants. The manila hemp is
the most prominent, of which coarse cloth is woven, besides the valuable
cordage. The sisal hemp, pineapple, yucca, and a number of fiber plants
growing in the southern part of the United States are worthy of note.
These fiber industries are conducted in a rude way, the fiber being
cleaned by hand, except the pineapple.
SILK
The silk fiber is the most perfect as well as the most beautiful of all
fibers. It is nearly faultless, fine and continuous, often measuring
from 1000 to 4000 feet long, without a scale, joint, or a blemish,
though not of the same diameter or fineness throughout its entire
length, as it becomes finer as the interior of the cocoon is approached.
Silk differs from all other vegetable or animal fibers by being devoid
of all cellular structure.
[Sidenote: Where Produced]
Southern Europe leads in the silk worm culture--Italy, southern France,
and Turkey, with China and India. Several species of moths, natives of
India, China, and Japan, produce the wild silk. The most important of
the "wild silks" are the Tussah. Silk plush and the coarser varieties of
buff colored fabrics are made of this silk. While manufacturers do not
favor the wild silk, the coarse uneven weave and softness make it a
favorite with artists and it is being used for interior decoration as
well as for clothing.
[Sidenote: Silk Worm]
The silk of commerce begins with an egg no bigger than a mustard seed,
out of which comes a diminutive caterpillar, which is kept in a frame
and fed upon mulberry leaves. When the caterpillars are full grown, they
climb upon twigs placed for them and begin to spin or make the cocoon.
The silk comes from two little orifices in the head in the form of a
glutinous gum which hardens into a fine elastic fiber. With a motion of
the head somewhat like the figure eight, the silk worm throws this
thread around the body from head to tail until at last it is entirely
enveloped. The body grows smaller and the thread grows finer until at
last it has spun out most of the substance of the body and the task is
done.
If left to itself, when the time came, the moth would eat its way out of
the cocoon and ruin the fiber. A few of the best cocoons are saved for a
new supply of caterpillars; the remainder are baked at a low heat which
destroys the worm but preserves the silk. This now becomes the cocoon of
commerce.
[Sidenote: Reeling Silk]
Next the cocoons go to the reelers who wind the filaments into the silk
yarn that makes the raw material of our mills. The cocoons are thrown
into warm water mixed with soap in order to dissolve the gum. The outer
or coarser covering is brushed off down to the real silk and the end of
the thread found. Four or five cocoons are wound together, the sticky
fibers clinging to each other as they pass through the various guides
and are wound as a single thread on the reels. The silk is dried and
tied into hanks or skeins. As the thread unwinds from the cocoon, it
becomes smaller, so other threads must be added.
[Illustration: SILK:--CATERPILLAR, COCOON, CHRYSALIS, MOTH]
[Sidenote: Organize and Tram]
At the mill the raw silk goes to the "throwster" who twists the silk
threads ready for the loom. These threads are of two kinds--"organize"
or warp and "tram" or filling. The warp runs the long way of woven
fabric or parallel with the selvage and it must be strong, elastic, and
not easily parted by rubbing. To prepare the warp, two threads of raw
silk are slightly twisted. Twist is always put into yarn of any kind to
increase its strength. These threads are united and twisted together and
this makes a strong thread capable of withstanding any reasonable strain
in the loom and it will not roughen. For the woof or tram which is
carried across the woven cloth on the shuttle, the thread should be as
loose and fluffy as possible. Several threads are put together,
subjected to only a very slight twist--just enough to hold the threads
together so they will lie evenly in the finished fabric.
[Sidenote: Boiling Off]
After the yarn leaves the spinners it is again run off on reels to be
taken to the dye house. First the yarn is boiled off in soapy water to
remove the remaining gum. Now the silk takes on its luster. Before it
was dull like cotton. The silk is now finer and harder and is known as
"souple."
[Sidenote: Loading Silk]
The silk fiber has a remarkable property of absorbing certain metallic
salts, still retaining much of its luster. This process is known as
"loading" or "weighting," and gives increased body and weight to the
silk. Silk without weighting is known as "pure dye," of which there is
little made, as such goods take too much silk.
[Illustration: REELING SILK]
For the weighting of white or light colored silk goods, tin crystals
(stanous chloride) are used and for dark shades and black, iron salts
and tannin. By this means the original weight of the fiber may be
increased three or four hundred per cent. This result is not attained,
however, except through the weakening of the fiber.
[Sidenote: Action of Common Salt]
Common salt has a very curious action on weighted silk. It slowly
weakens the fiber. A silk dress may be ruined by being splashed with
salt water at the seashore. Most often holes appear after a dress comes
back from the cleaners; these he may not be to blame for, as salt is
abundant in nearly all the bodily secretions,--tears, perspiration,
urine.
[Sidenote: Artificial Silk]
Artificial silk is made by dissolving cellulose obtained from cotton. It
is lacking in strength and water spoils all kinds manufactured at
present.
[Sidenote: Characteristics of Silk]
Silk, like wool, has the property of absorbing considerable moisture
without becoming perceptibly damp. Like wool and all the animal fibers,
it is harmed by alkalis. The important physical properties of silk are
its beautiful luster, strength, elasticity and the readiness with which
it takes dyes. Silk combines well with other fibers, animal and
vegetable.
[Sidenote: Value of Raw Fibers]
A comparison of the relative value of textile fibers may be seen from
the following approximate prices:
Cotton--$.07 to $.14 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching 5
per cent.
Flax--$.12 to $.30 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching about
20 per cent.
Wool--$.15 to $.30 per pound; loss in scouring 20 to 60 per cent.
Raw Silk--$7.00 to $10.00 per pound; loss in "boiling off" about 30
per cent which is made up and much more by "loading."
MODERN METHODS
All the complex processes and machinery of the textile industry are but
developments of the old-time methods of the home. Brief outlines only
will be given here for the processes are most intricate in detail.
SPINNING
The spinning of cotton yarn (thread) is typical of all the fibers. The
stages may be divided into--
1. Opening and picking.
2. Carding.
3. Combing.
4. Drawing.
5. Spinning.
[Sidenote: Picking and Carding]
The picking and carding have for their object the removal of all foreign
substances with as little damage to the fiber as possible. The foreign
substances in cotton are sand, dirt, pieces of leaves, seed, husk, etc.,
which have become mixed with the fiber during the process of growing,
ginning and transportation.
[Sidenote: Cleaning]
The cotton bales are opened and thrown into the automatic feeder which
carries up a layer of cotton on a spiked apron from which it is removed
by a rapidly revolving "doffer" underneath which is a screen which
catches some of the dirt. It is next fed between rolls in front of a
rapidly revolving blunt-edged knife which throws out more of the dirt
through a screen. There is a suction of air through the screen which
helps remove the foreign substances. The cotton passes through several
of such machines, being formed into a soft web or "lap" which is wound
into a roll.
[Sidenote: Carding]
The carding machine further cleans the fibers and lays them in a general
parallel position. From this machine the web is formed into "sliver," a
loose rope of cotton fiber about two inches in diameter. This is
received in circular cans.
[Illustration: COTTON OPENER AND PICKER
The cotton from the bale is thrown into _A_, carried by the spiked
aprons _B_ and _C_, evened by _E_, removed from the apron by _F_ (some
of the dirt falls through the screen into box _G_) is beaten by the
revolving "knife," _N P_, more dirt being removed through screen _N_,
then goes through the flue _C_ to the next machine.]
[Sidenote: Combing]
The combing is omitted for short fiber cotton, but is used in worsted
spinning and with long staple cotton to remove the short fibers. Cotton
to be used for making yarn suitable for hosiery, underwear, sewing
thread, lace, and for very fine cotton fabrics is carded.
In drawing, from six to sixteen "slivers" are run together and the
fibers drawn out in several stages until the soft rope is about an
eighth of an inch in diameter, called "roving." This tends to get rid of
any unevenness and makes the fibers all parallel. From this machine the
roving is wound on a bobbin ready for the spinning frame.
[Illustration: COTTON CARD
The roll of webbing _A_ is beaten and transferred to the cylinder _H H_,
carded by the spiked belt _E_, removed by the "doffer" and formed into a
"sliver" which runs into the can _M_.]
[Sidenote: Spinning]
The spinning frame may have a hundred spindles or more, each one of
which is drawing out its supply of "roving" to the required size of yarn
and giving it the twist necessary to bind the fibers together. The yarn
to be used for the warp is given a harder twist so that it may be strong
enough to stand the strain in weaving. The yarn for filling is usually
left soft.
[Illustration: COTTON COMB, USED FOR LONG STAPLE]
[Illustration: RECEIVING THE "SLIVER" AT THE BACK OF THE DRAWING
FRAME.]
[Illustration: DRAWING FRAME Drawing the Roving Finer.]
[Illustration: A FLY SPINNING FRAME The Spools of Roving Above Are Being
Drawn Out, Given the Twist by the Fliers, and Wound on Bobbins Below.]
[Illustration: MULE DRAWING AND SPINNING FRAME Always used for wool.
Part of the machine moves away from the frame, thus drawing out the
thread, which is then twisted.]
[Illustration: MODERN RING SPINNING FRAME FOR COTTON. SIXTY-EIGHT
SPINDLES Gives the Largest Production.]
[Illustration: A PLAIN POWER LOOM WEAVING LINEN]
The yarn for warp is now usually given a coating or "sizing" of starch
and gums so that the thread may not become unwound and break during
weaving.
The process of spinning is much the same for flax and for wool, although
somewhat differently constructed machines must be used. Flax is usually
spun wet.
WEAVING
[Sidenote: Modern Loom]
The modern power driven loom is a wonderful piece of machinery. The
principle of its operation is essentially the same as the hand loom, but
it is almost perfectly automatic in its action, a man or woman being
able to tend from ten to fifteen looms weaving plain cotton goods.
[Sidenote: Warping]
The yarn coming from the spinning frame is sometimes dyed before
weaving. The warp is formed by winding as many threads as the width of
the fabric is to contain on a slowly revolving drum, called a "beam," in
the same relative position in which they are to appear in the finished
cloth. From its position on the beam at the back of the loom, each
thread is brought through its particular loop or eye with the heddle,
then passes through its own slot in the reed, and down to the roller or
"cloth beam" that is to take up the woven cloth. This is called "drawing
in the warp." If there is a piece of cloth coming from the loom, the
work is very simple, for the ends of the new warp are tied to the ends
remaining from the warp that has been woven out.
The shuttle with its bobbin, containing the yarn of the filling, is much
the same as is used in the hand looms, except for form and size, which
varies according to the requirements and size of the warp being used. At
first only one shuttle was used, but in 1760 Robert Kay invented a
mechanism by which several shuttles containing different grades or
colors of yarn might be used. Each throw of the shuttle across the width
of the goods is called a "pick."
[Sidenote: The Harness]
In making a cloth with plain weave, that is, with every thread
interlacing with every other, as in darning, only two harnesses are
required, but the modern loom may have up to about twenty-four harnesses
so that an infinite variety of weaves may be obtained. Various cams and
levers move the harness frame and so raise or lower the threads required
for the design.
[Sidenote: Jacquard Loom]
The Jacquard loom is arranged on a different principle. In this loom,
all kinds of fancy weaves may be obtained as in table linen, tapestries
and carpets. Each warp thread is supplied with a separate hook and by
means of perforated card the desired threads are raised or depressed at
each throw of the shuttle. The cards are worked out by the designer. A
set of a thousand or more cards may be required to produce the desired
design. Jacquard looms are sometimes to be seen at fairs and expositions
weaving handkerchiefs with some picture design.
[Illustration: JACQUARD HAND LOOM Weaving Ingrain Carpet at Hull
House.]
WEAVES
The great variety of weaves found in the textiles of to-day are
modifications of a few fundamental weaves invented in the earliest
times.
The chief fundamental weaves are:
(1) Plain weave.
(2) Twills.
(3) Sateen.
To which may be added the derivatives--
(4) Rib weave.
(5) Basket weave.
[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF FANCY KNIT GOODS]
These do not include the many fancy weaves, too numerous to classify,
and the open work weaves, made in the Leno loom, in which some of the
threads are crossed. Knit goods are made by the interlooping of a single
thread, by hand or on circular knitting machines and lace by an
analogous process, using several systems of threads. Felt is made up of
matted fibers of fur and wool and has no thread structure.
[Illustration: WEAVE DIAGRAMS]
[Sidenote: Plain Weave]
The plain weave is the most common, nearly all light weight goods being
thus woven. In plain weaving, each thread of both warp and filling
passes alternately over and under the threads at right angles. This
makes a comparatively open cloth, requiring the smallest amount of yarn
for the surface covered. This weave is used in nearly all cotton goods,
as in muslins, sheetings, calicoes, ginghams, and thin woolen goods.
Even in the plain weave variety is obtained by having some of the
threads larger than others, either in warp or filling or both, thus
producing stripes and checked effects.
[Illustration: SECTIONS OF WEAVES
_a_--Plain weave; _b_--Prunella twill; _c_--Cassimere twill;
_d_--Swansdown twill.]
[Sidenote: Twills]
After the plain weave the twill is the most common, being much used for
dress goods, suitings, etc., as well as some of the thicker cottons. In
this weave the intersections of the threads produce characteristic lines
diagonally across the fabric, most often at an angle of 45°. The twill
may be hardly visible or very pronounced. The simplest twills are the
so-called "doeskin" and "prunella." In the doeskin the filling threads
pass over one and under two of the warp threads and in the prunella
twill over two and under one. The most common twill is the cassimere
twill in which both the warp and filling run over two and under two of
the threads at right angles.
[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF RIB AND BASKET WEAVE AND DOUBLE CLOTH]
[Sidenote: Uneven Twills]
A twill made by running both warp and filling under one and over three
threads is called a swansdown twill and the reverse is known as the crow
weave. In these the diagonal twilled effect is much more marked. Various
twills are often combined with each other and with plain weave, making a
great variety of texture. Numerous uneven twills are made, two over and
three under, etc., etc.
[Sidenote: Sateen Weave]
In the sateen weave, nearly all of either the warp or the filling
threads are on the surface, the object being to produce a smooth surface
fabric like sateen. With this weave it is possible to use a cotton warp
and silk filling, having most of the silk appear on the surface of the
fabric.
[Illustration: TEXTILE DESIGN
_A_--On cross-section paper; _B_--Graphic diagram.]
[Sidenote: Rib and Basket Weaves]
The rib and basket weaves are derivatives of the plain weave, two or
more threads replacing the single strand. In the rib weave, either the
warp or the filling threads run double or more, thus making a corded
effect. In the basket weave, both warp and filling are run double or
treble, giving a coarse texture. This weave is sometimes called the
panama weave.
[Sidenote: Double Cloth]
In the thicker fabrics like men's suitings and overcoatings, there may
be a double series of warp threads, only one series appearing on the
face of the goods, and in the still thicker fabrics, there may be a
double set of both warp and filling threads, making double cloth, the
two sides of which may be entirely different in color and design.
[Sidenote: Velvet]
In weaving plush, velvet and velveteen, loops are made in the filling or
warp threads which are afterwards cut, producing the pile.
BLEACHING, DYEING, PRINTING, FINISHING
When the cloth comes from the loom it is by no means ready for the
market. Nearly all kinds are washed and pressed and in some classes of
goods the finishing process is very elaborate.
BLEACHING AND DYEING
The fiber may be dyed in a loose or unspun state, as is customary with
wool; after it has been spun and is in the form of yarn, as in the case
of silk and linen; and when it has been woven to form cloth, as is most
commonly the case with cotton.
[Sidenote: Madder Bleach]
The bleaching of cotton involves a number of steps, the most thorough
process being called the "madder bleach," in which the cloth is (1) wet
out, (2) boiled with lime water, (3) rinsed, (4) treated with acid, (5)
rinsed, (6) boiled with soap and alkali, (7) rinsed, (8) treated with
bleaching powder solution, (9) rinsed, (10) treated with acid, (11)
finally rinsed again. All this is done by machines and hundreds of yards
go through the process at a time. The product is a pure white cloth
suitable for dyeing light shades and for white goods. When cloth is to
be dyed a dark shade the treatment is less elaborate.
[Sidenote: Singeing and Shearing]
If the cloth is to be printed for calicoes, before bleaching it is
singed by passing through gas flames or over a red hot plate and then
sheared in a shearing machine constructed somewhat on the principle of
the lawn mower, the cloth being run close to the rapidly revolving
knives.
Although cotton is usually dyed in the piece, it may be dyed in the form
of yarn, as for ginghams, and sometimes before being woven, in the loose
state.
[Sidenote: Mordant Colors]
Cotton is more difficult to dye than wool or silk. Although there are
now what are called "direct" cotton colors, the usual process is to
first treat the cotton goods with a "mordant"--various salts of
aluminum, chromium, iron, tin and copper, fixing these on the fiber by
means of tannin or alkali. The mordanted cloth is then entered into the
dye bath and boiled for an hour or longer, until the desired shade is
obtained or the dye bath exhausted. The salts of aluminum are used as
mordants for the lighter shades, the salts of chromium for the medium
shades, and iron for the dark shades. In general, chromium mordants give
the fastest dyes.
[Sidenote: Aniline Dyes]
The discovery of the so-called aniline dyes has greatly increased the
variety of colors available. Although some of the first aniline dyes to
be made were not fast to washing or to light and they thus received a
bad reputation, they are now to be obtained which compare favorably in
fastness with the natural dye stuffs such as cochineal, madder, etc.,
provided sufficient time and care are given to dyeing. The chief trouble
is that in the endeavor to furnish cheap goods, processes are hurried
and results are unsatisfactory.
[Sidenote: Home Dyeing]
Home dyeing is practically confined to the use of direct aniline colors.
These are put up in small quantities and sold in many places. Directions
for their use are given on the packages. The chief precautions are to
have the goods perfectly clean and thoroughly wet before entering into
the dye bath (this is by no means as easy as one might think), and to
keep the goods in motion while dyeing so as to prevent unevenness of
shade. Wool and silk dyes cannot be used for cotton and linen, nor the
reverse. Of course cloth already colored cannot be dyed a lighter shade
of the same color and the original shade must be very light to enable
one to change the color, say from red to blue, etc. The original color
always modifies that of the dye somewhat and it is best to experiment
first with a small portion of the dye and cloth. Rather dark shades are
apt to be most successful.
[Sidenote: Natural Dyestuffs]
Indigo for blue, madder for Turkey red, logwood with fustic for black,
cutch or gambia for browns on cotton are about all the natural dyestuffs
which are used to any extent commercially at the present time. The
artificial product alizerin, the active principle of madder, has about
superseded the natural dyestuff, and artificial indigo is gaining on the
natural product.
Linen is bleached and dyed in much the same manner as cotton, although
the process is more difficult. The process of bleaching weakens linen
more than cotton.
[Sidenote: Dyeing Woolen and Silk]
Woolen and silk may be dyed directly with a great variety of dyes
without the addition of a mordant, although they are often mordanted.
Both must be well washed or scoured before dyeing. When white or
delicate shades on woolen or silk are desired they are bleached. The
bleaching is usually done with sulphurous acid gas, the cloth or yarn
being exposed in a damp condition to the fumes of burning sulphur.
Were it not for the expense, hydrogen peroxide would be the ideal
bleaching agent for the animal fibers.
PRINTING
A great variety of colored designs are produced on the loom by using
different colored warp and filling yarns and different weaves, but in
all these the designs are easily made only in somewhat rectangular
patterns.
[Sidenote: Block and Machine Printing]
Print goods have doubtless evolved from the decoration of fabrics with
the brush. Block printing was first used, the design being engraved in
relief on blocks of wood. These are dipped in the colored paste, spread
thinly, and applied to successive portions of the cloth by hand. These
blocks are now replaced in the printing machine by engraved copper
rolls, the design being such that it is repeated once or a number of
times in each revolution of the cylinder. There is a printing roll for
each color of the design. Sometimes both the background and the design
are printed on the cloth, but the more common process is for the design
only to be printed on the cloth which may be dyed afterwards. In the
paste of the printed design there is some chemical which prevents the
portions printed from taking the dye, consequently these remain white or
a different color. This is called the "resist" process. Another process
is to first dye the cloth and then print on some chemical which, when
the calico is steamed, discharges the color. This is called the
"discharge" process. Sometimes this weakens the goods in the places
where the color has been discharged.
[Sidenote: Fixing the Print]
The color paste used for printing contains both the dye and the mordant.
After the calico has been printed it is steamed to develop and fix the
color, washed, sometimes very slightly bleached, to clear the whites,
and usually given a sizing of starch or gum, and then pressed and dried
by passing over slowly revolving, steam-heated drums.
In general print goods are not so fast to washing and to light as those
that have been dyed in the regular way, although the better grades are
reasonably fast.
Prints are sometimes made in imitation of the more costly gingham or
other goods in which the color design is made in the weaving. It is easy
to detect the imitation as the design of printed fabrics does not
penetrate to the back of the cloth.
[Sidenote: Warp Printing]
Sometimes the warps are printed before the cloth is woven, thus giving
very pretty indefinite designs, especially in silk.
FINISHING
[Sidenote: Burling and Mending]
The finishing of woolen and worsted goods has much to do with their
appearance. No cloth comes from the loom in a perfect condition,
therefore inspection is the first process. Loose threads and knots are
carefully cut off by the "burler" and imperfections in the weaving
rectified by the "menders." The goods may now be singed and sheared.
[Sidenote: Fulling]
[Sidenote: Flocks]
Woolens, and sometimes worsteds, are next "fulled" or felted by being
run round and round in a machine while moistened with soap. The friction
of the cloth on itself produces some heat which, with the moisture and
soap, causes the goods to shrink in length and width while increasing in
thickness. During this process, "flocks" are often added, especially for
smooth finished woolen goods. These flocks are fine fibers of wool
obtained from the shearing machine or made by cutting up old woolen
cloth. They are felted with the fibers of the goods and add weight and
firmness.
[Sidenote: Raising the Nap]
After the fulling, the goods is washed to remove the soap, dyed, if
desired, and often "speck dyed" with a special dye which colors the bits
of burs, remaining in the cloth, but not the wool. The next process is
the "gigging" which raises the nap. The cloth is run close to rapidly
revolving "teazels" and also may be run through a napping machine. It
may be sheared again and then steamed and pressed. This is but a brief
outline; there are generally more processes.
Woolen cloth coming from the loom may be so treated in the finishing
room as to produce fabrics entirely different in appearance. One of the
chief objects of the finishing is to give to the cloth as fine an
appearance as possible to attract the buyer. Much of the fine finish
disappears through wear, especially with inferior goods made from poor
materials. The wearing quality of the goods is primarily dependent upon
the strength and quality of the fibers of which it is made, so that the
yarn of the filling and the warp should be examined when selecting
materials. In general hard twisted yarn will give the better wearing
cloth.
FABRICS
The present day shops offer such a great variety of fabrics that only a
few of the most important can be mentioned here.
COTTON GOODS
Cotton is cool and heavy, is a non-conductor of heat, crushes easily,
but like all vegetable fibers it may be laundered without injury to the
fibers. Cotton does not take the darker dyes as well as animal fibers
and for this reason it does not combine satisfactorily with wool. As an
adulterant it wears shabby and loses its brightness. It is only when
cotton does not pretend to be anything else that it is our most useful
and durable textile. The readiness with which cotton takes the lighter
dyes and improved methods of ginning, spinning, and weaving have made
cotton goods superior to any other for summer use.
[Sidenote: Muslin]
Muslin, calico, and gingham must always head the list of cotton goods.
Muslin is coarse and fine, bleached, unbleached, and half bleached,
twilled or plain weave. Under the head of muslin brought to a high
degree of perfection in weave and finish will be found dimity, mull,
Indian lawn, organdie, Swiss, and Madras, and a host of others equally
beautiful. Madras muslin has a thin transparent ground with a heavily
raised pattern woven of a soft, thick thread unlike the ground work.
Waste is used for the pattern. Organdie muslin is soft, opaque, white,
or colored, with raised dots of pattern and plain weave. Dimity has a
fine cord running with the selvage.
Gingham is a smooth, close cotton usually woven in checks or stripes.
The yarn is dyed before being woven, making the cloth alike on both
sides, and the weave is either plain or twilled. Ginghams are also woven
of silk and cotton mixed or of silk and ramie.
Cretonne, chintz, dress linings, crape, velveteen, and lace are made of
cotton.
Flannelette, which is woven to imitate flannel, is soft and light and is
preferred by many who find woolen irritating. It does not shrink as
woolen does and is made in beautiful, soft colors and the best grades do
not fade. For nightdresses, underwear, and sheets, during cold weather
this inexpensive fabric is unequaled.
Among the heavier cotton fabrics may be mentioned denim and ticking
which are now printed in beautiful designs and colors and used for
interior decoration as well as for clothing and bedding.
The great variety of fibers, the many different ways of preparing each
for manufacture, the differences in the preparatory processes in
spinning, weaving, or in any of the later processes of finishing produce
the varied appearance of the finished product in cotton as in other
fabrics.
LINENS
Linen is one of the oldest textiles; it was used by the early Egyptians
for the priests' garments and for the wrappings of mummies. Many
housekeepers think that there is no material for sheets and pillow cases
comparable to linen, but it is not an ideal dressing for beds, for in
spite of its heavier body, it wrinkles and musses much more readily than
good cotton. For table service, however, for the toilet, and for minor
ornamental purposes linen has no equal. Its smoothness of texture, its
brilliancy which laundering increases, its wearing qualities, its
exquisite freshness, make it the one fabric fit for the table.
[Sidenote: Table Linen]
Table linen is woven plain and figured, checked and diapered. In the
figured or damask cloth the patterns stand out distinctly. This is due
to the play of light and shade on the horizontal and vertical lines. In
some lights the pattern is scarcely noticeable. When buying a cloth, let
it be between the observer and the light, for in this position the
pattern will show to the best advantage. There is a certain amount of
shade on all horizontal lines or of shadow cast by them, while the
vertical lines are illuminated, thus although the warp and woof threads
are of the same color, the pattern seems to stand out from the
background.
Linen should not be adulterated. It should be for use and not for show,
for use brightens and whitens it.
Linen adulterated with cotton becomes fuzzy through wear because of the
much shorter cotton fibers. The tendency can often be seen by rolling
the goods between the thumb and fingers.
Crash of different widths and quality furnishes tea towels, "huck,"
damask and other weaves come in various widths and may be purchased by
the yard. Russia crash is best for kitchen towels.
WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS
[Sidenote: Standard Goods]
The many grades of wool with the great variety of weaves and finish make
an almost infinite variety of woolen and worsted fabrics. New goods are
constantly being put upon the market, or old goods with new names.
Standard goods, such as serges, cashmere, Henrietta cloth, and covert
cloth, are always to be found in the shops. These are all twilled goods.
The serges are woven of combed wool and are harsh, tough, springy,
worsted fabrics of medium and heavy weight, with a distinct twill,
rather smooth surface, and plainer back. There are also loosely woven
serges. Cashmere and Henrietta cloth have a fine, irregular twill--the
finest made. They are woven with silk, wool, and cotton warp, but the
latter gives an inferior textile.
[Sidenote: Tweeds]
Tweeds and homespuns are names given to coarse cloth of which the wool
is spun by hand and woven on hand looms. These goods vary according to
the locality in which they are made. The wool is mixed without regard to
color, the yarn being spun and twisted in the most primitive manner,
giving the cloth an uneven, unfinished appearance. These are among the
best wearing cloths on the market and are especially suitable for suits
that will receive hard wear. Scotland and Ireland are famous for their
tweeds and homespuns and what are known as the "cottage industries" have
been recently revived in those countries as the products of their hand
looms have become deservedly popular abroad.
[Sidenote: Harris Tweeds]
The "Harris Tweeds," made on the Island of Lewis and Harris, north of
Scotland, are in the old style by the "crofters." After weaving the
goods are "waulked"--milled or felted--with the bare feet, accompanied
by singing the waulking song and beating time with the feet. The dyeing
is done in pots in the old-fashioned way and until recently the
dyestuffs were obtained from mosses, lichens, heather, broom, and other
plants. Now, however, some of the best aniline dyes are being used. A
peculiar characteristic of the Harris tweed is the peat smoke smell
caused by the fabric being woven in the crofters' cottages, where there
is always a strong odor of peat "reek" from the peat which is burned for
fuel. The ordinary so-called Harris tweeds sold in this country are made
on the southern border of Scotland, in factories, and are but imitations
of the real Harris tweeds.
The light colored tweeds--natural color of wool--come from the island of
St. Kilda. This island stands out in mid ocean, barren and wild, devoid
of plants or shrubs of any kind for making dyes. The crofters content
themselves without dyestuffs. The industry is maintained by nobility to
help the islanders and the fabrics are fashionable and high priced.
Covert cloth is a twilled woven cloth of great beauty and durability. It
is rather heavy, of hard finish and is used for jackets and winter
suits. To this list of woolen goods may be added the crape cloth with
crinkled, rough surface, nun's veiling, flannel which is woven in a
variety of ways, broadcloth, wool canvas, and poplins. This list
includes only a few of the fabrics manufactured, but these are always to
be found on the market, are always good in color and are the best of all
wool textiles for wear.
[Sidenote: Mohair]
[Sidenote: Alpaca]
Mohair is a material made from the hair of the angora goat, woven with
silk, wool, worsted, or cotton warp. It is a dust-shedding material,
does not shrink, and bears hard wear well. Alpaca, on account of its
softness, elasticity, and exemption from shaggy defects, combines
admirably with cotton in the manufacture of fine goods, which attains
almost the glossy brightness of silk. The yarn is used for weaving
alpaca linings and light coatings for warm climates.
SILKS
Many silks can be washed without injury to the fibers, but they cannot
be boiled without destroying the luster. Silks may be had in various
widths and endless variety of weaves. Many are reversible.
[Sidenote: Loading Silk]
Silks are adulterated with cotton and ramie fibers. The chemicals used
in "loading" or "dynamiting" to give the weight lost by cleaning or
removing the gum from the raw silk give to the cheaper grades the
stiff, harsh feeling and cause the splitting and cracking of the silk,
hence the quality of the fiber should be considered when selecting a
silk, not the weight. Taffeta is often heavily loaded.
Foulard and surah are twilled silks. Corded silks are woven with a cord
running from selvage to selvage. To this class belong the grosgrains,
Ottoman, faille Francaise--a silk resembling grosgrain, but softer and
brighter. Irish poplins and bengalines have wool for the filling instead
of silk.
[Sidenote: Wash Silks]
Great improvement has been made in the manufacture of wash silks. They
are fine in color and have a glossy surface. Pongee is a beautiful,
durable silk in different shades of natural color. It is woven in
different widths. This silk is especially valuable for underwear. The
first cost is greater, but it outwears muslin or linen. It is also used
for children's garments and for outside wraps. For many purposes, no
better textile can be found.
Crepe de Chine is an incomparable textile possessing as much softness as
strength. It is always supple, never creases, launders well, and comes
in the most beautiful soft shades as well as in black and dark colors.
Satin is distinguished by its glossy, lustrous surface, obtained in the
weaving.
[Sidenote: Piled Fabrics]
Piled fabrics are rich, thick materials made of silk, wool, mohair, and
cotton, comprising the velvets, velveteens, plushes, corduroys, and
wilton and velvet carpets. The soft, raised pile is first woven in
loops--Brussels carpet is a good example--and the loops are cut. The
back of the goods is plain.
[Sidenote: Velvet]
Velvet has always and justly been regarded as the most beautiful of
textiles. No matter how fashions change in regard to other materials,
velvet never loses its vogue. For robes and cloaks, for mantles and
jackets, for hats and bonnets, for trimming and decoration, velvet has
been popular for a greater period than the life of any living mortal,
but never before has it been so cheap, so varied and so beautiful as it
is now. One can in the passing throng of pedestrians on any crowded
street see the use and abuse of this noble material. There is scarcely
an article of dress into whose composition it does not enter and it is
worn upon all occasions. Many things have brought about this result. The
tendency of fashion is towards the decorative and picturesque and in
these qualities velvet excels all other fabrics. Silk waste and thread
are cheaper than ever before so that velvet costs much less than
formerly. The men behind the looms have evolved more designs and
novelties in the making of velvet than has ever been known and colors
beautiful in themselves are seemingly enhanced when applied to velvet.
[Sidenote: Velveteen]
All that has been said in favor of velvet applies equally as well to the
best velveteen,--in fact it is a textile of even greater value and
beauty than velvet. The best grades are not cheap, but they wear better
than silk velvet, are fine and silky, excellent in color and sheen,
launder well, and do not press-mark as does silk velvet. Velveteen takes
the dye so beautifully and finishes so well that it has taken rank with
our best standard fabrics. It is made entirely of cotton. It varies in
width but is always wider than velvet.
[Sidenote: Widths of Fabrics]
A knowledge of the various widths of textiles is important in buying.
Transparent fabrics are usually wider than heavier goods made of the
same fiber. Muslin is wider than calico or ordinary print, and thin silk
fabrics such as mull and chiffon are wider than velvet.
In wool dress goods various distinct widths are known as single--thirty
and thirty-six inches--double fold (forty-five and fifty-four inches),
etc. Silk, velvet, and velveteen are single width. The velvet ranges
from eighteen to twenty-four inches in width and velveteen twenty-seven.
Bodice linings vary from thirty-five to thirty-eight inches; skirt
linings come in both single and double fold.
Household linen including bedding varies in width from one yard to two
and one-fourth and two and one-half yards for sheeting and from
thirty-eight to fifty-four inches for pillow case muslin.
Table linen is woven in both square and circular cloths of various
sizes, and napkins vary in width from the small sizes to a yard square.
No fixed widths can be given for any textile as width often changes with
the weave.
NAMES OF FABRICS
Textiles usually take their names from the country, city, port, or
province from whence they originated; from the names of the makers; and
methods of weaving, dyeing, ornamentation, etc. The fixing of
localities, methods, etc., is oftentimes guesswork. The textiles of
to-day bearing the same name as those of the middle ages have nothing in
common. Buckram was originally made in and called from Bokkara. In the
middle ages it was costly, fine, and beautiful, used for church
vestments, veils for covering lecterns, cathedral flags, and in the 16th
century for the lining of velvet gowns. The coarse, heavy, plain-woven
linen or cotton material known as buckram today is used for stiffening,
etc.
[Sidenote: Fustian]
Fustian, a kind of corduroy or velveteen, was originally woven at Fustat
on the Nile. The warp was stout linen, the woof of cotton so twilled and
cut that it gave a low thick pile. Chaucer's knight in the fourteenth
century wore fustian. In the fifteenth century Naples was famous for the
weaving of fustians.
A cloth made in France at a town called Mustrevilliers was known as
"mustyrd devells."
[Sidenote: Damask]
China is supposed to be the first country to weave patterned silks.
India, Persia, Syria, and Byzantine Greece followed. Those were known as
"diaspron" or diaper, a name given them at Constantinople. In the
twelfth century, the city of Damascus, long famed for her beautiful
textiles, outstripped all other places for beauty of design and gave the
Damascen or damask, so we have in modern times all fabrics whether of
silk, cotton, wool, or linen, curiously woven and designed, known as
damask, and diaper, which means pattern, is almost forgotten, or only a
part of the elaborate design on damask. Bandekin, a costly cloth, took
its name from Bagdad. Dorneck an inferior damask woven of silk, wool,
linen, thread and gold, was made in Flanders at the city of Dorneck.
[Sidenote: Muslin]
From the Asiatic city Mosul came the muslin used then as it is now
throughout the world. So skilled were its weavers that the threads were
of hair-like fineness. This was known as the invisible muslin, the
weaving of which has become a lost art. To this beautiful cloth were
given many fanciful and poetic names. It was woven with strips of gold
and silver.
[Sidenote: Calico]
Calico derives its name from the city of Calicut in India. The city is
scarcely known to-day; it was the first Indian city visited by
Europeans.
In the thirteenth century Arras was famous for its areste or tapestry,
"the noblest of the weaving arts"; in it there is nothing mechanical.
Mechanical weaving repeats the pattern on the cloth within comparatively
narrow limits and the number of colors is in most cases limited to four
or five.
Silks and cottons are distinguished through their colors and shades.
Tarsus was a purple silk. Other cities gave their name to various
shades, according as they were dyed at Antioch, Alexandria, or at
Naples. Watered or moire silk takes its name from the finish.
From "canabis," the Latin name for hemp or flax, we have the word
"canvas" to mean any texture woven of hempen thread.
To this list of fabrics might be added many others of cotton, linen,
wool, and silk with new names, closely resembling the old materials,
having greater or less merit.
The following lists of fabrics and terms may be helpful for reference:
Art linen--With round, hard twisted threads.
"Albert cloth"--Named for England's prince, is a reversible
all-wool material each side of different colors and so finished
that no lining is required. It is used chiefly for overcoats and
better known as "golf cloth," "plaid back," etc.
Armure--A cloth woven in miniature imitation of feudal metal armor
plates, heraldic devices, diamonds, birdseye, and seeded effects.
Astrakhan--A woolen or silk material with a long and closely curled
pile in imitation of the fur from which it is named.
Backed-cloth worsteds or other fabrics which are woven with an
extra layer of warp or other filling underneath the face, usually
for increased weight and bulk.
Batiste--The French word for lawn, fine white cotton or linen
fabric. Sometimes printed.
Batting or padding, cotton or wool prepared in sheets for quilting
or interlining.
Beaver--Similar to Kersey, but with a longer nap, soft, thick nap
inside.
Bedford cord--A closely woven woolen or cotton cloth having a
raised corded surface similar to pique, used for women's suits.
Bonde--A loosely woven fabric with a curly, hairy surface, usually
made with a jersey or stockinet body.
Bourette--An effect of weaving produced by fancy yarns showing in
lumps at intervals over the face of the cloth; used for women's and
children's suits.
Beverteen--A heavy cotton cloth used for men's hunting garments.
Broadcloth--A fine woolen cloth with a glossy finished surface, the
better grades being woven with a twilled back. It takes its name
from its width. It is used for men's and women's wear.
Buckram--A coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton material used
for stiffening.
Buckskin--A stout doe skin with a more defined twill.
Butternut--The coarse brown twilled homespun cloth woven of wool
prior to the Civil War--colored brown with dye from the butternut
or walnut tree; used for men's wear and for decorative purposes.
Cambric--Fine white linen, also made in cotton in imitation.
Camel's hair--A beautiful, soft, silky fabric, usually woven like
cheviot of hair of camel and goat.
Canvas--A linen, cotton, silk, or wool cloth of different weaves
and widths, used for many purposes--clothing, as a background for
embroidery, hangings, spreads, etc.
Canton flannel--A stout, twilled cotton cloth with a nap on one or
both sides, used for clothing and decorative purposes.
Cassimere--A general term for all-wool fabrics woven either plain
or twilled, coarse or fine, of woolen yarn. The pattern is always
woven plain and distinct and the cloth is never napped.
Castor Beaver--A heavy, milled, face-finished, all-wool cloth
lighter in weight than ordinary beaver.
Chinchilla--A thick, heavy, double woven fabric with a long napped
surface curled up into little tufs in imitation of chinchilla fur;
used for coats.
Clan Tartan--The plaids of the various highland clans of Scotland.
Clay--A name given to serges, worsteds, and diagonals woven after a
process of J. & P. Clay of Haddersfield, England.
Coating--Those woolen and worsted fabrics most especially adapted
to men's dress and overcoats.
Corduroy--A thick cotton pile material, corded or ribbed on the
surface; used for men's, women's and children's wear.
Corkscrew-worsted goods--So-called from its fancied resemblance to
the twists of the corkscrew.
Cotton worsted--All cotton or part cotton worsted-wove cloth.
Cottonade--Stout cotton cloth in imitation of woolen or worsted;
used for men's trousers.
Covert--A twill-woven cloth sometimes with full face, sometimes
sheared to imitate whipcord.
Crape cloth--A stout worsted fabric with surface in imitation of
silk crape, used for dress coats.
Crash--A strong, course linen cloth of different widths, used for
towels, suits, table linen, hangings, bed spreads; in fact, there
is no end to the uses to which this textile can be adapted.
Cravenette--Cloths treated and finished before weaving by an
improved process which renders them rainproof. A secret process
owned by the Cravenette Company and by Priestly & Company of
England and the United States.
Crepe--A light weight silk, silk and wool, or all wool or cotton
cloth of irregular weave.
Diagonal--A worsted cloth with prominent diagonal ridges.
Doeskin--A compact twilled woolen, soft and pliable.
Drap D'Alma--A fine, close, flat-ribbed, twilled fabric of wool or
silk and wool, finished on but one side.
Drap D'Ete--A fine, light worsted fabric woven in longitudinal
cords.
Drilling--General term for various cotton stuffs used for lining
men's wear, and general purposes.
Empress cloth--A heavy dress goods with napped or corded surface,
named for the Empress Eugenia; sometimes called Electrol cloth or
Beretz.
Etamine--A light woolen cloth similar to batiste and nun's cloth,
used for women's and children's wear.
Faille Francaise--A soft, lustrous silk of wider cord than
grosgrain, but narrower than ottoman.
Farmer Satin--A lining of cotton chain or warp and wool filling,
finished with a high lustre, also called Italian cloth.
Flannel--A soft, light weight woolen fabric of which the yarn is
but lightly twisted, plain weave or twilled; used for clothing etc.
Flannelette--A half cotton or all cotton flannel-like fabric.
Frieze--A thick, shaggy, heavy nap woolen overcoat cloth.
Gingham was first manufactured in Gonghamp in France and was known
as Madras gingham. Seersucker gingham was originally a thin linen
fabric made in the East Indies. Zephyr gingham is a soft fine
variety of Scotch and French ginghams, are superior qualities,
heavier in weight.
Fur Beaver--A long napped cloth imitation fur.
Grass cloth--A fine, smooth, linen woven in checks of blue and
white, red and white, etc., used for dish towels; also a thin dress
material of ramie and cotton, etc.
Grenadine--A thick silk gauze, either plain with a solid design or
pattern upon it or combined in stripes with other weaves, as satin,
moire, etc.
Grosgrain--A close-woven, finely ribbed or corded silk with but
little lustre.
Haircloth--A cloth woven of horse hair, from which it takes its
name, for weft with cotton or linen warp; used for facings,
linings, furniture cover, etc.
Holland--A stout, plain-wove, unbleached, linen cloth used for
linings, window shades, etc.
Homespun--A cloth woven on hand looms or made in imitation of such
cloth for both men's and women's wear.
Hop-sacking--A plain woven canvas dress fabric of wool.
Huchaback--A corruption of huckster-back, meaning originally
pedler's ware--Toweling made of all linen, linen and cotton, cotton
and wool, either by the yard or as separate towels; the part wool
huck always separate towels.
Irish linen--Full bleached, fine, plain woven linen used for
shirts, collars, cuffs, etc., of different widths.
Jersey cloth--Woolen stockinette.
Kaikai--A thin Japanese silk.
Kersey--A heavy, closely woven cloth with a smooth face and glossy
finish.
Kerseymere--A fine, twilled, woolen cloth of peculiar texture, one
thread of warp and two of wool being always above.
Khaki--A light, yellow-brown colored cotton cloth used for army
service in hot countries.
Ladies' cloth--A fine, wide, wool flannel, slightly napped, similar
to broadcloth.
Lusterine--A thin, twilled, cotton lining finished with high lustre
in imitation of silk.
Marseilles--A sort of figured pique, used for women's and
children's clothes and for men's coats.
Matelasse--A silk and wool or all wool brocade, usually for coats.
Melton--A stout woolen cloth, fulled, sheared, and finished without
a nap; like Kersey, but without a gloss.
Merino--A thin woolen fabric made of the fine wool of the marion
sheep, generally used for women's and children's wear, vestings,
and underclothing.
Mohair--A shiny fabric of great durability, made from the wool of
the Angora goat; used for both men's and women's clothing.
Moire--The water effect produced on silk, moreen, and like fabrics.
The finest watered silks are known as Moire Antique. Moreen is a
woolen or mixed fabric to which the same process has been applied.
Moleskin--A medium heavy twilled cotton cloth, napped inside; used
for men's wear and ornamental purposes.
Muslin--A cotton fabric of various classes and names; bleached and
unbleached, half bleached, cambric, book muslin, long cloth, mull,
organdie, lawns, etc.; used for all purposes.
Nankeen--A peculiar fabric of a pale dull yellow or orange color,
woven out of the fibrous tissue which lies between the outer and
sap-wood of a tree or shrub that grows in the East Indies and
especially in China. The name is derived from the city of Nankin.
An imitation is made out of cotton, colored with Annato. The
genuine nankeen is never more than eighteen or twenty inches wide
and is used for light summer clothing.
Overcoating--Fabrics woven especially for overcoats--covert,
kersey, melton, beaver, frieze, vicuna, whipcord, cheviot,
chinchilla, etc., made of both wool and worsted.
Pique--A heavy cotton cloth having a surface that is corded or
having a raised lozenge pattern; used for women's and children's
suits, men's vests, etc.
Prunella--Lasting cloth.
Sateen--A close twilled cotton fabric, soft and glossy, used for
lining.
Satin--A silk fabric having a high lustre on its face.
Satinet--A cheap clothing material similar to cassimere, made with
a cotton warp and a filling of short, inferior, shoddy wool which
is mixed with enough long wool to enable it to be spun and woven in
a way to bring that filling to the surface of the cloth; afterwards
fulled, sheared, and the pattern printed on the face.
Serge--A lining of cotton or linen warp and a wool or mohair
filling, woven three-leaf twill.
Serge--A fine, diagonal, twilled, worsted--both all worsted and
with a worsted warp and woolen filling; used for men's and women's
suits.
Shetlands--Very shaggy overcoatings, named from the Shetland pony,
the coat of which it is supposed to imitate in appearance.
Shoddy--Waste thrown off in spinning--shredded rags, and bits of
cloth manipulated into new cloth.
Sicilian--A mohair fabric.
Silesia--A light, close-woven, fine twilled cotton fabric used for
dress linings, etc.
Stockinet--A plain, elastic texture made on a knitting frame, used
for underwear, etc.
Surah--A twilled silk similar to serge; first made in Surat, India.
Tricot--A double-twill cloth having both a warp and filling effect.
Tweed--Much like homespun in appearance, both being either twilled
or plain. They are made from rough worsted yarn spun at home. In
tweed the yarn is harder twisted, giving a more distinct twill. It
is generally more compact, less rough, and better finished than
homespun.
Uniform cloth--Cloth suitable for uniforms, usually a stout,
fulled, woolen cloth, similar to kersey.
Venetian--A cloth milled and cropped bare in finish.
Vicuna--A soft twilled cloth similar to cheviot, made of the Andes
vicuna, hence its name.
Whipcord--A worsted cloth having a small, prominent twill.
Yacht cloth--A flannel heavier than ordinary serge or flannel.
* * * * *
Cord--The general term is applied to any fabric in which the lines
run in the same direction as the selvage.
Count--In spinning, the number given to any thread or yarn, except
silk, to indicate its relative fineness, based on the number of
yards required to weigh one pound.
Felt--A cloth of wool, hair, fur, etc., not woven, but felted
together; used for hats, slippers, boot tops, etc.
Flock--Finely divided woolen waste used in finishing cheap woolens.
Kemps--Fibers or hair like structure that sometimes come in wool,
always in goat hair. They do not take the dye.
Mercerized--A term applied to cotton fabrics of which the yarn is
chemically treated with a strong solution of caustic soda, giving
the appearance of silk, more or less permanent; named after Mercer,
discoverer of the process.
Mill ends--Trade term referring to short lengths, seconds, damaged
pieces, etc., of cloth, embroideries, etc., that accumulate in
mills and shops and are usually sold at a nominal price.
Narrow cloth--Trade term for fabrics less than 29 inches wide.
Wider cloths are called broad cloths.
Oil-boiled--Trade term for colors so treated to insure permanence.
Oiled silk--The plain silk boiled in oil. Silk boiled in oil and
dried, becoming translucent and waterproof; used as a perspiration
guard.
Pepper-and-salt--A black and white or grayish mixture, effected in
weaving.
Rubber cloth--Usually cotton sheeting or drilling with a coating of
rubber on one side; used as a protective cloth for various
purposes.
Shepherd check--Tiny checks, usually black and white.
Twilled--Woven in such a manner as to produce lines or ribs
diagonally or across the surface of the fabric.
Woolens--Name of fabrics or carded wool, usually soft woven.
Worsteds--Fabrics made of combed wool, usually hard woven. The
combing is the process of arranging the fibers of wool, mohair,
cotton, linen, into a parallel condition, preparatory to spinning
into a smooth, even and regular yarn. The perfected application of
the combing principle.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON TEXTILES
Historical and Art
Arts and Crafts Essays $1.00
Morris, Crane, et al. Postage .10
Colonial Days in Old New England 1.25
Alice Morse Earle. Postage .12
The Primitive Family 1.25
Starcke. Postage .12
Man Before Metals 1.75
Joly. Postage .14
Origin of Inventions 1.50
Mason. Postage .16
Woman's Share in Primitive Culture 1.75
Mason. Postage .16
Textiles--The Lesser Arts 1.00
William Morris. Postage .10
Industrial Evolution of the United States 1.25
Carroll D. Wright. Postage .16
Technical Books
Through a special arrangement with the American School of Correspondence
we are able to lend or sell to our students some of their textile books,
which are technical though simple. Price 50 cents per part, postage 4c.
Textile Chemistry and Dyeing. 4 Parts.
Part I. Textile Fibers.