CONCERNING DIFFERENT KINDS OF BREAD
The table given in the last chapter states the average composition
of ordinary white bread baked in the form of cottage loaves, and the
remarks on the various constituents of bread in the preceding pages
have for the most part referred to the same material, though many of
them may be taken to refer to bread in general. It will now be of
interest to inquire as to the variation in composition which is found
among the different kinds of bread commonly used in this country.
This enquiry will be most readily conducted by first considering the
possible causes which may affect the composition of bread.
The variation in the composition of bread is a subject which is taken
up from time to time by the public press, and debated therein with a
great display of interest and some intelligent knowledge. In most of
the press discussions in the past interest has been focussed almost
entirely on the effect of different kinds of milling. The attitude
commonly assumed by the food reform section of the contributors may be
stated shortly as follows: In the days of stone milling a less perfect
separation of flour and bran was effected, and the flour contained
more of the materials situated in the grain near the husk than do the
white flours produced by modern methods of roller milling. Again the
modern roller mills separate the germ from the flour, which the stone
mills fail to do, at any rate so completely. Thus the stone ground
flours contain about 80 per cent. of the grain, whilst the whole of the
flour obtained from the modern roller mill seldom amounts to much more
than about 72 per cent. The extra eight per cent. of flour produced
in the stone mills contains all or nearly all the germ and much of
the material rich in protein which lies immediately under the husk.
Hence the stone ground flour is richer in protein, and in certain
constituents of the germ, than white roller mill flour, and hence again
stone ground flour has a higher nutritive value. Roller mill flour has
nothing to commend it beyond its whiteness. It has been suggested that
millers should adopt the standard custom of producing 80 per cent. of
flour from all the wheat passing through their mills and thus retain
those constituents of the grain which possess specially great nutritive
value.
It would probably be extremely difficult to produce 80 per cent. of
flour from many kinds of wheat, but for the present this point may
be ignored, whilst we discuss the variation in the actual chemical
composition of the flour produced as at present and on the 80 per cent.
basis. In comparing the chemical composition of different kinds of
flour it is obvious that the flours compared must have been made from
the same lot of wheat, for as will be seen later different wheats vary
greatly in the proportions of protein and other important constituents
which they contain. Unfortunately the number of analyses of different
flours made from the same lots of wheat is small. Perhaps the best
series is that published by Dr Hamill in a recent report of the Local
Government Board. Dr Hamill gives the analyses of five different grades
of flour made at seven mills, each mill using the same blend of wheats
for all the different kinds of flour. Calculating all these analyses
to a basis of 10 per cent. of protein in the grade of flour known as
patents, the figures on the opposite page were obtained, which may be
taken to represent with considerable accuracy the average composition
of the various kinds of flours and offals when made from the same wheat.
Description of flour Protein Phosphoric acid
or offal per cent. per cent.
Flours:
Patents 10·0 0·18
Straight grade, about 70 per cent. 10·6 0·21
Households 10·9 0·26
Standard flour, about 80 per cent. 11·0 0·35
Wholemeal 11·3 0·73
Offals:
Germ 24·0 2·22
Sharps 14·5 1·66
Bran 13·5 2·50
Accepting these figures as showing the relative proportions of protein
and phosphoric acid in different flours as affected by milling only,
other sources of variation having been eliminated by the use of the
same blend of wheat, it appears that the flours of commercially higher
grade undoubtedly do contain somewhat less protein and phosphoric
acid than lower grade or wholemeal flours. Taking the extreme cases
of patents and wholemeal flours, the latter contains one-ninth more
protein and four times more phosphoric acid than the former, provided
both are derived from the same wheat.
In actual practice, however, it generally happens that the higher
grade flours are made from a blend of wheats containing a considerable
proportion of hard foreign wheats which are rich in nitrogen, whilst
wholemeal and standard flours are usually made from home grown wheats
which are relatively poor in nitrogen. From a number of analyses of
foreign and home grown wheats it appears that the relative proportions
of protein is about 12½ per cent. in the hard foreign wheats as
compared with 10 per cent. in home grown wheats. Thus the presence
of a larger proportion of protein in the hard wheats used in the
blend of wheat for making the higher grade flours must tend to reduce
the difference in protein content between say patents and wholemeal
flours as met with in ordinary practice. Furthermore much of the bread
consumed by that part of the population to whom a few grams per day
of protein is of real importance is, or should be, made, for reasons
of economy, from households flour, and the disparity between this
grade of flour and wholemeal flour is much less than is the case with
patents. It appears, therefore, on examining the facts, that there is
no appreciable difference in the protein content of the ordinary white
flours consumed by the poorer classes of the people and wholemeal flour
or standard flour.
In the above paragraphs account has been taken only of the total amount
of protein in the various kinds of bread and flour. It is obvious,
however, that the total amount present is not the real index of
food-value. Only that portion of any article of diet which is digested
in the alimentary canal can be absorbed into the blood and carried
thereby to the tissues where it is required to make good wear and tear.
The real food-value must therefore depend not on the total amount of
foodstuff present but on the amount which is digestible. The proportion
of protein which can be digested in the different kinds of bread
has been the subject of careful experiments in America, and lately
in Cambridge. The method of experimenting is arduous and unpleasant.
Several people must exist for a number of days on a diet consisting
chiefly of the kind of bread under investigation, supplemented only by
small quantities of food which are wholly digestible, such as milk,
sugar and butter. During the experimental period the diet is weighed
and its protein content estimated by analysis. The excreta are also
collected and their protein content estimated by analysis, so that
the amount of protein which escapes digestion can be ascertained.
The experiment is then repeated with the same individuals and the
same conditions in every way except that another kind of bread is
substituted for the one used before. From the total amount of protein
consumed in each kind of bread the total amount of protein voided
in the excreta is subtracted, and the difference gives the amount
which has been digested and presumably utilised in the body. From
these figures it is easy to calculate the number of parts of protein
digested for every 100 parts of protein eaten in each kind of bread.
This description will have made evident the unpleasant nature of such
experimental work. Its laboriousness will be understood from the fact
that a series of experiments of this kind carried out at Cambridge last
winter necessitated four people existing for a month on the meagre
diet above mentioned, and entailed over 1000 chemical analyses.
The following table shows the amounts of protein digested per 100 parts
of protein consumed in bread made from various kinds of flour, as based
on the average of a number of experiments made in America, and in the
experiments at Cambridge above referred to.
Kind of flour from Percentage of Amount of protein digested
which bread the grain per 100 parts eaten
was made contained in American Cambridge
the flour experiments experiments
Patents 36 -- 89
Straight grade 70 89 --
Standard 80 81 86
Brown 88 -- 80
Brown 92 -- 77
Wholemeal 100 76 --
The American and the Cambridge figures agree very well with each other,
and this gives confidence in the reliability of the results. It appears
to be quite certain therefore that the protein in bread made from the
higher grade flours is very considerably more digestible than that
contained in bread made from flours containing greater amounts of husk.
The percentages following the names of the various grades of flour in
the first column of the table indicate approximately the proportion
of the whole grain which went into the flour to which the figure is
attached. Looking down these figures it appears that the digestibility
of the protein decreases as more and more of the grain is included in
the flour. It follows, therefore, that whilst by leaving more and more
of the grain in the flour we increase the percentage of protein in the
flour, and consequently in the bread, at the same time we decrease
the digestibility of the protein. Apparently, too, this decrease in
digestibility is proportionally greater than the increase in protein
content, and it follows therefore that breads made from low grade
flours containing much husk will supply less protein which is available
for the use of the body, although they may actually contain slightly
more total protein than the flours of higher grade.
When all the facts are taken into account it appears that the
contention of the food reformers, that the various breads which contain
those constituents of the grain which lie near the husk are capable of
supplying more protein for the needs of the body than white breads,
cannot be upheld. From statistics collected by the Board of Trade some
few years ago as to the dietary of the working classes it appears that
the diet of workers both in urban and in rural districts contains
about 97 grams of total protein per head per day. This is rather under
than over the commonly accepted standard of 100 grams of protein which
is supposed to be required daily by a healthy man at moderate work.
Consequently a change in his diet which increased the amount of protein
might be expected to be a good change. But the suggested change of
brown bread for white, though it appears to increase the total protein,
turns out on careful examination to fail in its object, for it does not
increase the amount of protein which can be digested.
From the same statistics it appears that the diet of a working man
includes on the average about 1¼ lb. of bread per day. This amount of
bread contains about 60 grams of protein, or two-thirds of the total
protein of the diet. Now it was pointed out in the last chapter that
the protein of wheat was very rich in glutaminic acid, a constituent
of which animals require comparatively small amounts. It is also
correspondingly poor in certain constituents which are necessary to
animals. Apparently therefore it would be better to increase the diet
in such cases by adding some constituent not made from wheat than by
changing the kind of bread. From the protein point of view, however we
look at it, there appears to be no real reason for substituting one or
other of the various kinds of brown bread for the white bread which
seems to meet the taste of the present day public.
But important as protein is it is not everything in a diet. As we have
already pointed out the food must not only repair the tissues, it must
also supply fuel. It has been shown also that the fuel-value of a food
can be ascertained by burning a known weight and measuring the number
of units of heat or calories produced. Many samples of bread have been
examined in this way in the laboratories of the American Department of
Agriculture, and it appears from the figures given in their bulletins
that the average fuel value of white bread is about 1·250 calories per
pound, of wholemeal bread only 1·150 calories per pound. These figures
are quite in accord with those which were obtained in Cambridge in
1911, in connection with the digestion experiments already described,
which were also extended so as to include a determination of the
proportion of the energy of the bread which the diet supplied to the
body. The energy or fuel-value of the diet was determined by measuring
the amount of heat given out by burning a known weight of each of
the kinds of bread used in the experiment. The energy which was not
utilised by the body was then determined by measuring how much heat was
given out by burning the excreta corresponding to each kind of bread.
The following table gives side by side the average results obtained in
several such experiments in America and in Cambridge.
The agreement between the two sets of figures is again on this point
quite satisfactory. It is evident that a greater proportion of the
total energy of white bread can be utilised by the body than is the
case with any of the breads made from flours of lower commercial grades
which contain more husk. In fact it appears that the more of the outer
parts of the grain are left in the flour the smaller is the proportion
of the total energy of the bread which can be utilised. Combining this
conclusion with the fact that brown breads contain on the average less
total energy than white breads, there can be no doubt that white bread
is considerably better than any form of brown bread as a source of
energy for the body.
Kind of flour from Percentage of Amount of energy utilised
which the bread the grain per 100 units in food
was made contained in American Cambridge
the flour experiments experiments
Patents 36 96 96
Straight grade 70 92 --
Standard 80 87 95
Brown 88 -- 90
Brown 92 -- 89
Wholemeal 100 82 --
There is one more important substance in respect of which great
superiority is claimed for brown breads, namely phosphoric acid. From
the table on page 122 there can be no doubt that flours containing more
of the outer parts of the grain are very much richer in phosphoric
acid than white flours, and the disparity is so great that after
allowing for the larger proportion of water in brown breads they
must contain far more of this substance than do white breads. In the
Cambridge digestibility experiments quoted above the proportion of the
phosphoric acid digested from the different breads was determined. It
was found that for every 100 parts of phosphoric acid in white bread
only 52 parts were digested, and that in the case of the brown breads
this proportion fell to 41 parts out of 100. Again, as in the case of
protein and energy, the phosphoric acid in white bread is more readily
available to the body than that of brown bread, but in this case the
difference in digestibility is not nearly enough to counterbalance
the much larger proportion of phosphoric acid in the brown bread.
There is no doubt that the body gets more phosphoric acid from brown
bread than from the same quantity of white bread. But before coming
to any practical conclusion it is necessary to know two things, how
much phosphoric acid does a healthy man require per day, and does his
ordinary diet supply enough?
From the Board of Trade statistics already quoted it appears that,
on the assumption that the average worker eats white bread only, his
average diet contains 2·4 grams of phosphoric acid per day, which would
be raised to 3·2 grams if the white bread were replaced by bread made
from 80 per cent. flour containing ·35 per cent. of phosphoric acid.
Information as to the amount of phosphoric acid required per day by
a healthy man is somewhat scanty, and indicates that the amount is
very variable, but averages about 2½ grams per day. If this is so,
the ordinary diet with white bread provides on the average enough
phosphoric acid. Exceptional individuals may, however, be benefited by
the substitution of brown bread for white, but it would probably be
better even in such cases, for the reasons stated when discussing the
protein question, to raise the phosphorus content of their diet by the
addition of some substance rich in phosphorus but not made from wheat.
Finally comes the question of the variation in the composition of
bread due to the presence or absence of the germ. The first point in
this connection is to decide whether germ is present in appreciable
proportions in any flour except wholemeal. The germ is a soft moist
substance which flattens much more readily than it grinds. Consequently
it is removed from flour by almost any kind of separation, even when
very coarse sieves are employed. If this contention is correct no flour
except wholemeal should contain any appreciable quantity of germ, and
it is certainly very difficult to demonstrate the presence of actual
germ particles even in 80 per cent. flour. Indirect evidence of the
presence of germ may, however, be obtained as already explained by
estimating by chemical analysis the proportion of fat present in
various flours. The figures for such estimations are given by Dr Hamill
in the report of the Local Government Board already referred to. They
show that the percentages of fat in different grades of flours made
from the same blends of wheat are on the average of seven experiments
as follows: patents flour ·96: household flours 1·25: 80 per cent.
or standard flour 1·42. These figures show that the coarser flours
containing more of the whole grain do contain more germ than the flours
of commercially higher grade, in spite of the fact that it is difficult
to demonstrate its presence under the microscope.
Remembering, however, that the whole of the germ only amounts to about
1½ per cent. of the grain, it is clear that the presence or absence of
more or less germ cannot appreciably affect the food-value as measured
by protein content or energy-value. It is still open to contention that
the germ may contain some unknown constituent possessing a peculiar
effect on nutrition. Such a state of things can well be imagined in the
light of certain experimental results which have been obtained during
the last few years.
It has been shown for instance by Dr Hopkins in Cambridge, and his
results have been confirmed at the Carnegie Institute in America, that
young rats fail to thrive on a diet composed of suitable amounts of
purified protein, fat, starch, and ash, but that they thrive and grow
normally on such a diet if there is added a trace of milk or other
fresh animal or vegetable substance far too small to influence either
the protein content or the energy-value. Another case in point is the
discovery that the disease known as beri beri, which is caused by a
diet consisting almost exclusively of rice from which the husk has been
removed, can be cured almost at once by the administration of very
small doses of a constituent existing in minute quantities in rice
husk. The suggestion is that high grade flours, like polished rice, may
fail to provide some substance which is necessary for healthy growth,
a substance which is removed in the germ or husk when such flours are
purified, and which is present in flours which have not been submitted
to excessive purification.
The answer is that no class in Great Britain lives on bread
exclusively. Bread appears from the government statistics already
quoted to form only about half the diet of the workers of the country.
Their diet includes also some milk, meat, and vegetables, and such
substances, according to Dr Hopkins’ experiments, certainly contain the
substance, whatever it may be, that is missing from the artificial diet
on which his young rats failed to thrive.
One last point. It will have been noticed in the figures given
above that the variations in protein content, digestibility, and
energy-value, between different kinds of bread are usually not
very large. There is, however, one constituent of all breads whose
proportions vary far more widely, namely water. During last summer the
author purchased many samples of bread in and around Cambridge, and
determined the percentage of water in each sample. The samples were all
one day old so that they are comparable with one another. The results
on the whole are a little low, probably because the work was done
during a spell of rather dry weather, when the loaves would lose water
rapidly.
The average figures are summarised below:
Percentage
of water
Cottage loaves made of white flour 31·7
Tinned loaves made of white flour 32·7
Small fancy loaves made of white flour 33·7
Tinned loaves made of “Standard” flour 35·9
Tinned loaves made of brown or germ flour 40·0
The figures speak for themselves. There must obviously be more actual
food in a cottage loaf of white flour containing under 32 per cent.
of water than in any kind of Standard or brown loaf in which the
percentage of water is 36 to 40. It is quite extraordinary that no one
who has organised any of the numerous bread campaigns in the press
appears to have laid hold of the enormous variation in the water
content of different kinds of bread, and its obvious bearing on their
food-value.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The reader who wishes further information on any of the numerous
subjects connected with the growth, manipulation and composition of
breadstuffs is referred to the following publications, to which among
others the author is much indebted. The list is arranged, as far as
possible, in the same order as the chapters of the book.
CHAPTER I.
The Book of the Rothamsted Experiments, by A. D. Hall. (John
Murray, 1905.)
The Feeding of Crops and Stock, by A. D. Hall. (John Murray,
1911.)
Fertilizers and Manures, by A. D. Hall. (John Murray, 1909.)
The Soil, by A. D. Hall. (John Murray, 1908.)
Agriculture and Soils of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, by A. D.
Hall and E. J. Russell. (Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.)
Some Characteristics of the Western Prairie Soils of Canada,
by Frank T. Shutt. (_Journal of Agricultural Science_, Vol.
III, p. 335.)
Dry Farming: its Principles and Practice, by Wm Macdonald. (T.
Werner Laurie.)
Profitable Clay Farming, by John Prout. (1881.)
Continuous Corn Growing, by W. A. Prout and J. Augustus
Voelcker. (_Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England_, 1905.)
CHAPTER II.
The Wheat Problem, by Sir W. Crookes. (John Murray, 1899.)
The Production of Wheat in the British Empire, by A. E.
Humphries. (_Journal of the Royal Society of Arts_, Vol.
LVII, p. 229.)
Wheat Growing in Canada, the United States, and the Argentine,
by W. P. Rutter. (Adam and Charles Black, 1911.)
Agricultural Note-Book, by Primrose McConnell. (Crosby,
Lockwood and Son, 1910.)
CHAPTER III.
Agricultural Botany, by J. Percival. (Duckworth and Co., 1900.)
The Interpretation of the Results of Agricultural Experiments,
by T. B. Wood, and Field Trials and their interpretation,
by A. D. Hall and E. J. Russell. (_Journal of the Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries_, Supplement No. 7, Nov. 1911.)
Heredity in Plants and Animals, by T. B. Wood and R. C.
Punnett. (_Journal of the Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland_, Vol. XX, Fifth Series, 1908.)
Mendelism, by R. C. Punnett. (Macmillan and Co., 1911.)
Mendel’s Laws and Wheat Breeding, by R. H. Biffen. (_Journal of
Agricultural Science_, Vol. I, p. 4.)
Studies in the Inheritance of Disease Resistance, by R. H.
Biffen. (_Journal of Agricultural Science_, Vol. II,
p. 109; Vol. IV, p. 421.)
The Inheritance of Strength in Wheat, by R. H. Biffen.
(_Journal of Agricultural Science_, Vol. III, p. 86.)
Variation, Heredity, and Evolution, by R. H. Lock. (John
Murray, 1909.)
Minnesota Wheat Breeding, by Willet M. Hays and Andrew Boss.
(McGill-Warner Co., St Paul.)
The Improvement of English Wheat, by A. E. Humphries and R. H.
Biffen. (_Journal of Agricultural Science_, Vol. II,
p. 1.)
Plant Breeding in Scandinavia, by L. H. Newman. (The Canadian
Seed Growers Association, Ottawa, 1912.)
CHAPTERS IV, V, AND VI.
The Technology of Bread Making, by W. Jago. (Simpkin, Marshall
and Co., 1911.)
Modern Development of Flour Milling, by A. E. Humphries.
(_Journal of the Royal Society of Arts_, Vol. LV, p.
109.)
Home Grown Wheat Committee’s Reports. (59, Mark Lane, London,
E.C.)
The Chemistry of Strength of Wheat Flour, by T. B. Wood.
(_Journal of Agricultural Science_, Vol. II, pp. 139,
267.)
CHAPTERS VII AND VIII.
Composition and Food Value of Bread, by T. B. Wood. (_Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England_, 1911.)
Some Experiments on the Relative Digestibility of White and
Whole-meal Breads, by L. F. Newman, G. W. Robinson, E. T.
Halnan, and H. A. D. Neville. (_Journal of Hygiene_, Vol.
XII, No. 2.)
Nutritive Value of Bread, by J. M. Hamill. (_Local Government
Board Report_, Cd. 5831.)
Bleaching and Improving Flour, by J. M. Hamill and G. W. Monier
Williams. (_Local Government Board Report_, Cd. 5613.)
Diet of Rural and Urban Workers. (_Board of Trade Reports_, Cd.
1761 and 2337.)
Bulletins of the U.S.A. Department of Agriculture. (Division
of Chemistry 13; Office of Experiment Stations 21, 52, 67, 85,
101, 126, 156, 185, 227.)
INDEX
Aerated bread, 104
Amino-acids, 116
Ash of bread, 119
Baking, 63, 91
Baking powders, 102
Biffen’s new varieties, 49, 59
method, 41, 46, 58
Bread, amount in diet, 127
composition of, 109
variations in, 120
water in, 135
Break rolls, 81
Breeding of wheat, 29, 35, 40
Burgoyne’s Fife, 59
Climate suitable for wheat, 2, 28
Clover as preparation for wheat, 8
Colloids, 67
Continuous growth of wheat, 7
Crookes, Sir W., shortage of nitrogen, 5
Cropping power of wheats, 32
Cross-breeding, 40
Digestibility of bread, 124
Dressing wheat, 16
Dry farming, 10
Elements required by wheat, 2
Energy-values, 111
Fat in bread, 113
Fermentation in dough, 94
Fibre, 114
Field plots, accuracy of, 32
Fife wheat, 47, 57
Flour, composition of, 122
grades of, 88, 122
self-rising, 102
Food-value of various breads, 120
of starch, etc. in bread, 110
Foreign wheat growing, 21
Fuel-values, 111
Futures, 26
Germ, food-value of, 132
in milling, 89
in bread, 114, 132
Gluten, 63
properties of, 68
Grades of flour, 88, 122
of wheat, 23
Home Grown Wheat Committee, 53, 56
Hopkins’ work, 132
Hybridisation, 40
Improvers, flour, 100
Indigestible matter in bread, 114
Inheritance in wheat, 41
Johannsen, 37
Judging wheats, 60
Lawes and Gilbert, 4
Liebig, 3
Little Joss wheat, 51
Manuring wheat, 3, 7
Markets, home, 16
foreign, 22, 27
Market quotations, 19
Mendel’s laws, 40
Milling, history of, 74, 77
effect of, on flour, 122
Mineral manures, 3
Minnesota experiments, 36
Natural moisture in wheat, 52
Nitrogen, cost of, in manures, 4
fixation, 8
for wheat, 4
from air, 6
scarcity of, 5
synthetic, 6
Ovens for baking, 99
Patents flour, 88
Pedigree in wheat, 39
Phosphates in bread, 119
in diet, 131
in flour, 70
Plots for yield testing, 32
Protein, cost of, in diet, 116
in bread, 115
Prout’s system of farming, 7
Pure-line theory, 37
Purification of flour, 86
Rainfall for wheat, 2
Red Fife, 47
Reduction rolls, 87
Roller mill, 79
Rotation of crops, 9
Rothamsted experiments, 4
Rust-proof wheat, 51
Sale of bread, 105
of wheat, 16
Scaling loaves, 96
Selection for cropping power, 35
Self-rising flour, 102
Separation of flour, 85
Semolina, 86
Sheep-folding, 10
Soils for wheat, 2
“Standard” flour, 135
Starch in bread, 110
Stone mill, 75
Strength of flour, cause of, 62
of flour, test for, 66, 72
of wheat or flour, 53
Strong wheats, characters of, 60
value of, 59
Sugar in bread, 112
Synthetic nitrogenous manures, 6
Thrashing wheat, 15
Turbidity test for strong wheats, 73
Variety of wheat, choice of, 28
testing, 32
Virgin soils, 5
Water in bread, 109, 135
Weak wheats, characters of, 61
Weights and measures, 17
Yeast, growth in dough, 94
Yield of wheat, conditions of, 28
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Life in the Medieval University. By R. S. Rait, M.A.
_ECONOMICS_
Cash and Credit. By D. A. Barker, I.C.S.
_LAW_
The Administration of Justice in Criminal Matters (in England
and Wales). By G. Glover Alexander, M.A., LL.M.
_BIOLOGY_
The Coming of Evolution. By Prof. J. W. Judd, C.B., F.R.S.
Heredity in the Light of Recent Research. By L. Doncaster, M.A.
Primitive Animals. By Geoffrey Smith, M.A.
The Individual in the Animal Kingdom. By J. S. Huxley, B.A.
Life in the Sea. By James Johnstone, B.Sc.
The Migration of Birds. By T. A. Coward.
Spiders. By C. Warburton, M.A.
House Flies. By C. G. Hewitt, D.Sc.
Earthworms and their Allies. By F. E. Beddard, F.R.S.
_ANTHROPOLOGY_
The Wanderings of Peoples. By Dr A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.
Prehistoric Man. By Dr W. L. H. Duckworth.
_GEOLOGY_
Rocks and their Origins. By Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole.
The Work of Rain and Rivers. By T. G. Bonney, Sc.D.
The Natural History of Coal. By Dr E. A. Newell Arber.
The Natural History of Clay. By Alfred B. Searle.
The Origin of Earthquakes. By C. Davison, Sc.D., F.G.S.
_BOTANY_
Plant-Animals: a Study in Symbiosis. By Prof. F. W. Keeble.
Plant-Life on Land. By Prof. F. O. Bower, Sc.D., F.R.S.
Links with the Past in the Plant-World. By Prof. A. C. Seward.
_PHYSICS_
The Earth. By Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.
The Atmosphere. By A. J. Berry, M.A.
The Physical Basis of Music. By A. Wood, M.A.
_PSYCHOLOGY_
An Introduction to Experimental Psychology. By Dr C. S. Myers.
The Psychology of Insanity. By Bernard Hart, M.D.
_INDUSTRIAL AND MECHANICAL SCIENCE_
The Modern Locomotive. By C. Edgar Allen, A.M.I.Mech.E.
The Modern Warship. By E. L. Attwood.
Aerial Locomotion. By E. H. Harper, M.A., and Allan E.
Ferguson, B.Sc.
Electricity in Locomotion. By A. G. Whyte, B.Sc.
The Story of a Loaf of Bread. By Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A.
Brewing. By A. Chaston Chapman, F.I.C.
SOME VOLUMES IN PREPARATION
_HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY_
The Aryans. By Prof. M. Winternitz.
The Peoples of India. By J. D. Anderson.
Prehistoric Britain. By L. McL. Mann.
The Balkan Peoples. By J. D. Bourchier.
The Evolution of Japan. By Prof. J. H. Longford.
The West Indies. By Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G.
The Royal Navy. By John Leyland.
Gypsies. By John Sampson.
English Monasteries. By A. H. Thompson, M.A.
A Grammar of Heraldry. By W. H. St John Hope, Litt.D.
Celtic Art. By Joseph Anderson, LL.D.
_LITERARY HISTORY_
The Book. By H. G. Aldis, M.A.
Pantomime. By D. L. Murray.
Folk Song and Dance. By Miss Neal and F. Kitson.
_PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION_
The Moral and Political Ideas of Plato. By Mrs A. M. Adam.
The Beautiful. By Vernon Lee.
_ECONOMICS_
The Theory of Money. By D. A. Barker.
Women’s Work. By Miss Constance Smith.
_EDUCATION_
German School Education. By Prof. K. H. Breul, Litt.D.
The Old Grammar Schools. By Prof. Foster Watson.
_PHYSICS_
Beyond the Atom. By Prof. J. Cox.
The Sun. By Prof. R. A. Sampson.
Wireless Telegraphy. By C. L. Fortescue, M.A.
Röntgen Rays. By Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S.
_BIOLOGY_
Bees and Wasps. By O. H. Latter, M.A.
The Life-story of Insects. By Prof. G. H. Carpenter.
The Wanderings of Animals. By H. F. Gadow, M.A., F.R.S.
_GEOLOGY_
Submerged Forests. By Clement Reid, F.R.S.
Coast Erosion. By Prof. T. J. Jehu.
_INDUSTRIAL AND MECHANICAL SCIENCE_
Coal Mining. By T. C. Cantrill.
Leather. By Prof. H. R. Procter.
Cambridge University Press
C. F. Clay, Manager
London: Fetter Lane, E.C.
Edinburgh: 100, Princes Street
Transcriber's Note:
Page 11, 12. “Olland” defined in 1863 by John Morton thus:
Olland (Nors., Suff.) arable land which has been laid down to clover or
grass, for two years.
Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.
End of Project Gutenberg's The Story of a Loaf of Bread, by Thomas Barlow Wood