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NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND ITS PRODUCTS

by

W. BEVAN

Director of Agriculture, Cyprus

1919

All Rights Reserved

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

I. GENERAL 3

Geographical Features, 3; Climate and Rainfall, 4;

Administration, 5; Weights, Measures and Currency,

5

II. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 6

General, 6; Land Tenure and Labour, 6; Tithes and

Taxation, 7; Credit and Agricultural Societies, 8;

Irrigation, 8; Agricultural Implements, 10; The

Agricultural Department, 12; Fungoid Diseases and

Insect Pests, 14

III. LIVE STOCK 16

Cattle, 16; Sheep, 17; Goats, 18; Pigs, 19; Camels,

20; Horses, 20; Donkeys, 20; Jennets and Mules,

21; Poultry, 22; Preserved Meats, etc., 23

IV. DAIRY PRODUCE 23

Milk, 23; Cheese, 24; Butter, 27; Xynogala or

Yaourti, 27; Trachanas, 28; Kaimaki or Tsippa, 28

V. CROPS AND OTHER PRODUCE OF THE LAND 28

CEREALS 28

Wheat, 31; Barley, 32; Oats, 34; Rye, 35; Maize

(Indian Corn), 35; Dari or Millet (Sorghum

vulgare), 35

FRUITS 35

Vines and Wines, 36; Citrus fruits, 43; Fig (_Ficus

Carica_), 44; Cherries, 45; Banana, 46; Azarol

Hawthorn, 46; Melons, 47; Date Palm, 47

NUTS 48

Hazelnuts and Cobnuts or Filberts, 48; Walnuts,

49; Almonds, 49; Spanish Chestnut, 50; Pistacia

spp., 50

VEGETABLES 52

Beans and Peas, 53; Potatoes, 55; Kolakas (_Colocasia

antiquorum_), 56; Onions, 56

FODDERS AND FEEDING STUFFS 57

Carob Tree, 57; Lucerne (_Medicago sativa_), 61;

Vetch (_Vicia Ervilia_), 62; Chickling Vetch

(_Lathyrus sativus_), 62; Vetch (_Vicia sativa_), 62;

Tares (_Vicia tenuifolia var. stenophylla_), 63; Milk

Vetch (_Astragalus_), 63; Moha, Sulla (_Hedysarum_),

63; Teosinte (_Reana luxurians_), 64; Sudan-grass,

64; Teff-grass (_Eragrostis abyssinica_), 64; Mangold

Wurzel, 64; Prickly Pear (_Opuntia_), 65

SPICES 65

Coriander Seed, 65; Aniseed, 66; White Cumin

Seed, 66; Black Cumin Seed, 67

ESSENTIAL OILS AND PERFUMES 67

Origanum Oil, 67; Marjoram Oil, 69; Laurel Oil, 69;

Otto of Roses, 69; _Acacia Farnesiana_, 70

OILS AND OIL SEEDS 71

Olives, 71; Sesame Seed, 74; Ground Nut, Peanut

or Monkey Nut (_Arachis hypogaea_), 75,; Castor-oil

Seed, 76

FIBRES 77

Cotton, 77; Flax and Linseed, 82; Wool, 83; Hemp,

84; Silk, 85; Mulberry, 91; Agaves and Aloes, 91;

Broom Corn, 92

TOBACCO 92

TANNING MATERIALS AND DYE-STUFFS 96

Sumach, 97; Valonea, 98; Acacia Barks, 98;

Madder, 99

DRUGS AND OTHER PRODUCTS 99

Liquorice Root, 99; Pyrethrum, 100; Squill, 101;

Colocynth, 101; Asphodel, 102

VI. MINOR AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 102

Bee-keeping, 102; Basket-making, 104; Fruit and

Vegetable Preserving, 104

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

SKETCH MAP OF CYPRUS, SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS AND FORESTS 2

PLATE

I. FIG. 1. PLOUGHING ON A MOUNTAIN-SIDE WITH NATIVE PLOUGH 10

I. FIG. 2. NEWLY-PREPARED BEDS IN EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS 10

II. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS 12

III. FIG. 1. NATIVE BULL 16

III. " 2. NATIVE RAM 16

IV. " 1. CYPRUS PONY 20

IV. " 2. CYPRUS DONKEYS 20

V. " 1. CARTING CORN 29

V. " 2. THRESHING CORN WITH NATIVE THRESHING BOARD 29

VI. PRUNED OLIVE-TREES AT METOCHI OF KYKOS 72

VII. FIG. 1. CYPRIOT EARTHENWARE BEEHIVES 103

VII. " 2. SHIPPING FRUIT AT LARNACA 103

NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND ITS PRODUCTS[1]

BY W. BEVAN

_Director of Agriculture, Cyprus_

The intention of these notes is to make available to those interested in

the agriculture of Cyprus some of the information scattered in various

reports, leaflets and correspondence not readily accessible to the

general public.

It has long been a matter of regret to the writer that the valuable

stores of information collected with so much care and ability by the

late Mr. Panayiotis Gennadius, formerly Director of Agriculture in

Cyprus, through having been published in Greek only, have remained

beyond the reach of many who might otherwise have derived benefit from a

study of his works. His writings on the general agriculture of the "Near

East" are voluminous and comprehensive, and show an intimate knowledge

of the subject as well as of the practices and customs of agriculturists

in these regions. The results of his labours are mainly embodied in his

_Helleniki Georgia_ and his _Phytologikon Lexicon_, both of which are

works of recognised authority. During his eight years (1896-1903) spent

in Cyprus Mr. Gennadius devoted himself specially to a study of the

agricultural conditions and needs of the Island, and the notes and

reports made by him have been, to a large extent, taken as the basis of

the present Notes.

During the sixteen years since he left the Island many changes have

taken place, and the more receptive and enlightened attitude of the

rising generation of farmers has helped to bring about various

improvements, and a greater readiness has been shown to adopt modern

methods. In compiling the present Notes I have drawn freely from the

articles which have appeared for many years in the _Cyprus Agricultural

Journal_ (formerly _Cyprus Journal_), the official publication of the

Agricultural Department, and which I have edited; I have also taken

advantage of the very admirable and reliable information contained in

the _Handbook of Cyprus_, edited by Messrs. Lukach and Jardine.

[Illustration: SKETCH MAP Of CYPRUS SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS &

FORESTS]

I am greatly indebted to the willing assistance of Mr. Procopios

Symeonides, Inspector of Agriculture, whose thorough acquaintance with

local conditions and usages has enabled him to contribute much useful

and informative material. I have also to offer my acknowledgments to

Messrs. M. G. Dervishian, C. Pelaghias, Z. Solomides, G. Frangos, A.

Klokaris, A. Panaretos and others who have kindly supplied me with data

of various kinds.

It will scarcely be necessary to add that little more than a summary of

the agricultural practice and resources of the Island has here been

attempted, and in no sense does it pretend to be anything more. The aim

has been to give the reader a general idea of what Cypriot agriculture

is and, to some extent, what it is capable of doing.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: Reprinted from the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE,

1919.]

I. GENERAL

_Geographical Features_

The Island of Cyprus is situated in the innermost basin of the

Mediterranean Sea; about 40 miles distant from the Asia Minor coast on

the north, and about 60 miles from Syria on the east, and 238 miles from

Port Said to the south. It is the third largest island in the

Mediterranean, ranking next to Sicily and Sardinia. The larger part of

the Island is in the form of an irregular parallelogram, 100 miles long

and from 30 to 60 miles broad; while on the north the eastern extremity

runs out beyond this into a peninsula 40 miles long by 5 to 6 miles

broad. The total area is 3,584 sq. miles. The main topographical

features are the northern and southern mountain ranges running east and

west and enclosing the great plain of the Messaoria. The mountains of

the northern range are of an altitude ranging from 2,000 ft. to over

3,000 ft., the highest point being Buffavento, 3,135 ft.; those of the

southern range are more lofty and culminate in Mt. Olympus, 6,406 ft.

above sea-level. The rivers are nearly all mountain torrents, and are

dry from about July to November or December.

The area of cultivated land is approximately 1,200,000 acres, and that

of the uncultivated land 1,093,760 acres, of which about 450,000 are

forest land and 320,000 are susceptible of cultivation. The Messaoria

plain is the great corn-growing area.

_Climate and Rainfall_

There are considerable extremes of temperature in the plains. In summer

it is very hot and dry with temperature ranging during June to September

from 80 deg. to 110 deg. Fahr., while in winter slight frosts not infrequently

occur. The climate is more equable, but also more humid, along the

coasts. In the plains there is, during the greater part of the year, a

marked variation between the day and night temperatures.

Official records show that for a period of thirty-two years up to 1915

the average rainfall for hill and plain for the whole Island

approximated to 20 inches. Up to 1902 records were kept only in the six

district towns, but since then there have been some fifty recording

stations. The mean rainfall during the winter months for the twelve

years ended 1914 was 18.55 inches. That for the whole year during the

latter period was 21.18 inches.

The incidence of rainfall, apart from its volume, is of importance. It

is on the rainfall of the six winter months, October to March, that the

prosperity of the Island depends, and any shortage during this period

cannot be balanced by heavier summer rains, which are more liable to

cause harm than good, by damaging the corn lying on the threshing-floors

and by causing sudden floods.

Much importance attaches to the rains in March, without which the grain

crop, however ample the earlier rains may have been, will not be

satisfactory, as described in a maxim which I have attempted to render

in English.

If twice in March it chance to rain,

In April once, a shower in May,

In weight in gold of man and wain,

The farmer's crops are sure to pay.

If roads are dry at Christmas time,

But Epiphany finds both mud and slime,

And at Carnival they still hold many a pool,

The farmer finds his barns quite full.

_Administration_

The Island is administered by a High Commissioner. There is an Executive

Council and a Legislative Council consisting of six official members and

twelve elected members, of whom three are elected by the Moslem and nine

by the non-Moslem inhabitants. The Island is divided into six districts,

in each of which the Executive Government is represented by a

Commissioner.

_Weights, Measures and Currency_

Nearly everything except corn, wine, oil, carobs, cotton and wool is

sold by the oke.

An oke, dry measure, equals 400 drams, or 2-4/5 lb.

The liquid oke is reckoned as equivalent to a quart.

Grain is measured by the kile, regarded as equal to a bushel.

Wool, cotton and oil are sold by the litre of 2-4/5 okes, but commonly

reckoned as 2-1/2 okes.

Carobs are sold by the Aleppo cantar of 180 okes. This cantar is further

divided into 100 litres of 1 oke and 320 drams each.

Wine is sold by the kartos = 4 okes, the kouza = 8 okes, and the gomari

= 128 okes.

1 kile of wheat weighs 20 to 22 okes.

1 kile of barley weighs 14 to 18 okes.

1 kile of oats weighs 13 to 14 okes.

1 kile of vetches weighs 23 to 24 okes.

1 sack of straw weighs about 40 okes.

1 camel-load of straw weighs about 200 okes, consisting of 2 sacks, each

weighing about 100 okes.

_Measures of Length_

Metron or metre.

Yarda or yard.

Pic = 2 ft. or two-thirds of a yard.

Inch = English measure.

The land measure is the donum (called by the villagers "scala"), but it

is very uncertain, and varies in different parts of the Island. As

recognised by law, 1 donum, called "tappoo donum," equals 60 pics = 40

yards square = 1,600 square yards, or 14,400 sq. ft.; 3.025 of these

donums go to the acre. There is also a farmer's, or "reshper" donum,

which is commonly used by agriculturists and is equal to about 1-1/2

Government donums. For general purposes a legal donum is about one-third

and a Cypriot farmer's donum about one-half of an acre. "Stremma" is

also a synonym for the farmer's donum, or scala, although its actual

measure is very much less.

_Currency_

L1 = 20 shillings or 180 copper piastres.

1 shilling = 9 copper piastres.

1 cp. (copper piastre) = 40 paras.

II. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS

_General_

Agriculture is the main industry of the Island, which is favourably

situated for the markets of Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor, although the

former is practically the only buyer of its perishable produce. During

recent years the Cypriot agriculturist has come to realise more and more

the value of the Egyptian market and a considerable trade with that

country has grown up.

_Land Tenure and Labour_

The small farmer mostly cultivates his own land, whereas the large

landowner rarely does. The metayer, or metairie, system is fairly

common, and has much to recommend it when honourably carried out by both

parties, but it is open to very serious abuse.

Under this system the one party, or contractor, gives the seed and often

lends the cattle. A valuation of the latter is made at the time of

entering into the agreement, and a re-valuation is made on termination,

any depreciation being made good by the other party, or metayer. The

latter finds the necessary labour and feeds the animals and pays an

agreed rate for their hire. The crops, after deduction of Government

tithe, are usually divided equally between both parties, but the

conditions vary according to circumstances and the nature of the crops

grown.

If cultivated land be given to the partner, such land must be returned

to the contractor in the same state of cultivation as received, or the

contractor, at his option, may claim the return of the seed his partner

received with it.

There are also a considerable number of leaseholders paying a fixed

rent. The monasteries are the largest landowners, and both cultivate

their own land and let out portions to the monks or to private farmers.

Much land is also held by the Church, and this is frequently let out on

a yearly lease, with the result that it is badly farmed and speedily

worked out.

The country is rather sparsely populated by about 275,000 inhabitants,

and although the cultivators are laborious when working for themselves

and when free from the hands of the usurers, they are still very

backward in their methods and appliances. A less conservative attitude

has of late been observed, and a greater readiness has been manifested

in seeking and following the advice of the Agricultural Department.

There is a great amount of indebtedness among the peasantry and usurious

practices abound. This undoubtedly checks progress, as few of the

smaller farmers are free agents. The matter has lately been the subject

of a special Commission appointed by Government. Laws have this year

(1919) been passed by the Legislative Council dealing with usury and

indebtedness.

_Tithes and Taxation_

The tithe, which forms the principal source of Government revenue, is

one-tenth of the produce of the land on wheat, barley, oats, vetches,

rye and favetta, measured on the threshing-floors and delivered in kind

at the Government Grain Stores. Certain allowances are made to the

tithe-payers for transport. In the case of carobs, which are also

subject to this tax, the tithe is taken in money from exporters at the

Custom House at the rate of 9 cp. (1s.) per cantar from the districts of

Nicosia, Larnaca and Limassol, and 8 cp. per cantar from the other three

districts.

There are certain export dues, in lieu of tithe, payable on the

following commodities: Aniseed 33 cp., cotton 55 cp., linseed 18 cp.,

mavrokokko (black cummin) 7 cp., and raisins 10 cp. per 100 okes; silk

cocoons 6-3/4 cp., wound silk 18 cp., silk manufactured by other than

hand looms 18 cp. per oke.

An annual tax is levied of 3-3/4 cp. per head on every sheep and of 5

cp. per head on every goat one year old and upwards, and of 4-1/2 cp.

per head on every pig over three months old.

_Credit and Agricultural Societies_

The spirit of co-operation has hitherto been singularly lacking, but

there are signs that a change is in progress and that, with proper

guidance, the cultivators will ere long come to realise the advantages

of combined effort in the production and distribution of their crops.

The establishment of village co-operative Credit Societies has long been

advocated, but although a law was passed in 1913 for this purpose, there

has so far been little practical outcome. Co-operation in its full

modern significance is not yet understood; but one or two little village

co-operative banks have nevertheless been started and show encouraging

results.

There are also a few small village agricultural societies springing up,

which, if properly conducted, may prove the pioneers of a general

movement in this direction. The existence of such societies would

greatly facilitate the work of the Agricultural Department, which would

be able to influence and assist farmers through their societies, whereas

now it is often not possible to reach them individually.

_Irrigation_

The most common method of raising water is by means of primitive

water-wheels or "alakatia," often described as "Persian wheels" and

resembling the "sakia" of Egypt. By these the water is carried in

earthenware cups attached to the rim of a large vertical wooden wheel

fixed in the mouth of a well and made to revolve by a mule or donkey by

means of a horizontal wheel and beam, or by modern air-motor. Myrtle

branches are mostly employed for attaching the cups to the wheels, as

these are pliable and resist the action of water.

These "alakatia" were formerly made entirely of wood, but in the

nineties, iron ones ("noria") were introduced from Greece, and these

have become fairly general, and are gradually supplanting the older

types. They have the advantage of being more durable and lighter to

work. Good iron wheel wells are now locally made. Water-wheels of this

description cannot be used for raising water from a depth of more than

ten fathoms below the surface of the ground.

Of late years a large number of air-motors of Canadian pattern have been

introduced and are found satisfactory.

There is abundant evidence in the remains of old disused Venetian wells

and cisterns that in pre-Turkish times, when the country was far more

densely populated than at present, a larger quantity of underground

water was utilised than now. Abundant subterranean water for

agricultural and gardening purposes is to be found in almost all the

coast lands as well as in many parts of the interior. Such waters are

either brought to the surface along subterranean channels or by means of

wells, and, for the most part, have their origin in the mountain ranges,

specially in the southern range, which is the rainy region of the

Island.

Artesian well-boring experiments have been made in recent years in

different parts of the Island, but without substantial results. In the

Famagusta district large reservoirs were constructed several years ago

for impounding the surplus water of the rivers of Pedias and Ialias, but

these have only been very partially successful as the water is mostly

lost before it reaches them.

A satisfactory solution of the water problem is of supreme importance to

the Island. There are large fertile areas which every year remain

fallow, but which, if capable of irrigation, would grow excellent cotton

and other summer crops, thus providing a better system of rotation.

Vegetable growing and fruit culture could then also be very greatly

extended.

_Agricultural Implements_

_Ploughs._--The old wooden plough of the East is still the common plough

of the country (see Plate I, fig. 1). Efforts were made from 10 to 15

years ago to introduce iron ploughs by selling them through the

Agricultural Department at half the cost price and even less.

High-water mark was reached in 1908 when 102 of these ploughs were so

sold. These were much approved of, and the further sale was then left in

the hands of merchants. The demand at once fell off and since then only

a few have been introduced. For a year or two a certain number of iron

ploughs of Russian make were imported and sold through the Jewish

settlement at Margo.

There is now a considerable demand which it may be possible to satisfy

when normal conditions are resumed. There is some prejudice against

English-made ploughs on the score of weight, as they are mostly heavier

than those of French, Russian, Greek and American make.

_Harrow._--The native harrow, "saraclo," is a wooden beam about 10 ft.

long by 12 to 18 in. broad and 3 in. thick, on which the labourer stands

as it is drawn over the newly sown land. It is ineffective inasmuch as

it does not break the clods, but merely presses them into the ground.

Iron-toothed harrows and spring-toothed harrows have been lent by the

Department for demonstration purposes to different persons, and these,

particularly the second kind, have found favour and are likely to be in

demand for covering the sown seed. The usual method is to cover the seed

with the native plough, but the European harrow is seen to do the work

more effectively and with a great economy of time.

Among the more common agricultural tools of native pattern are the

following (see Plate II):

_Tsappa_ (hoe).--The wider tool, 5 in. to 6 in., is mostly for garden

use; the narrow tsappa, about 3 in. wide, is for field work.

_Skalistiri._--A kind of small tsappa, 2 in. wide, having two prongs 4

in. to 5 in. long at the opposite end. It is mostly used for hoeing

vegetables.

[Illustration: PLATE I.

Fig. 1.--Ploughing on a Mountain-side with Native Plough.

Fig. 2.--Newly-prepared Beds in Experimental Gardens.]

_Xinari_ (axe or hatchet).--One end of the implement is a sort of

hoe, and the other end is shaped like a mattock. Used for cleaning off

weeds, shrubs, etc., from the fields; also for cutting or splitting

wood.

_Kouspos._--These are of two kinds. The larger is used like a tsappa,

but in stony or rocky places; the smaller is the tool used by

well-sinkers. It can be conveniently handled in a confined space.

_Karetta_ or _Cart_.--This has almost entirely superseded the old

Cypriot type of cart, but the latter may yet be seen very occasionally

in the Karpas and possibly in the Paphos district. It is still in use in

some parts of Anatolia. In its construction no iron nails are needed.

_Doukani._--The common threshing-board (see under "Cereals," p. 29).

This is the primitive implement handed down from classic times and

generally seen throughout the East (see Plate V, fig. 2).

_Thernatchin._--A wooden shovel used for winnowing grain. It is deeply

serrated, or divided, into 5 or 6 triangular-shaped teeth.

_Arvalin._--A corn sieve. A goat's or sheep's skin, perforated with

holes, is stretched across a round wooden frame, 12 in. to 18 in. in

diameter. Instead of a skin, leather thongs or gut are stretched,

crosswise on the frame. Perforated tin is now sometimes employed. These

sieves are used for cleaning grain after winnowing.

_Arkon._--Another kind of sieve, similar to the above, but with smaller

holes for sifting fine seeds, dust, etc. Mostly made of skin, but now

tin is being used.

_Patourin._--A similar sieve, used for still finer work.

_Skala._--An iron dibber, fitted with two wooden handles, used for

planting vine cuttings.

Some advance has been made of late in cleaning the land, but foul land

is pretty general. Squills, thistles, thorny bushes, and so forth

abound; these are mostly deeply rooted, drought-resistant plants, and

the labour required for uprooting them is not forthcoming.

There are a fair number of reaping machines now in use, but little care

is bestowed on them, and when slightly out of order they are often put

aside as useless. More enlightened ideas are now prevailing, and the

abundant crops of the last few years have created a strong desire for

more reapers and also for threshing machines, of which there are at

present barely half a dozen in the Island.

_The Agricultural Department_

The Agricultural Department was established on a small scale in 1896,

under the direction of Mr. P. Gennadius. It continued much on its

original lines until 1912, when its establishment was enlarged, and the

Government Farm and the Veterinary Branch were attached to the

Department, and again in 1914 it underwent a further slight extension

which was necessarily checked by the war. There is now a staff of

inspectors, district overseers and agricultural demonstrators who are

occupied in continually travelling in the country, advising and giving

practical assistance to cultivators, lecturing on village wine-making,

poultry-keeping, bee-keeping, on the action to be taken against various

pests and so forth.

There are some eight Government Nursery Gardens in the districts from

which large numbers of trees, plants and seeds are issued. A system of

Model Orchards and Vineyards, newly started, is giving satisfactory

results. These are intended to assist those engaged in the production of

fruit and vegetables, for which an unlimited market is close at hand in

Egypt.

Seventy School Gardens are in existence throughout the Island under the

guidance and control of the Department. By their means many young fruit

trees and other plants and seeds are annually distributed at low rates,

better methods of cultivation and new kinds of vegetable and fodder

plants are being made known, and the village boys are being taught

something about the work on which they will later depend for their

livelihood.

[Illustration: PLATE II.

_Agricultural Implements._

1, Arvalin for barley and oats. 2, Arvalin for wheat and vetches. 3,

Shovel for winnowing. 4, Thernatchin. 5, Arkon. 6, Patourin. 7, Tsappa,

narrow, for field use. 8, Tsappa, wide, for garden use. 9, Xinari. 10,

Kouspos. 11, Skalistiri.]

An Agricultural School for the sons of farmers was opened at Nicosia in

1913 under the direction of the Agricultural Department. Some twenty to

twenty-five lads between sixteen and twenty years of age, both Greeks

and Moslems, receive a two-year course of instruction with a view to

fitting them to cultivate their own properties later. A few of the more

promising students have been retained as student-labourers in the

Department, after the termination of their school course, and of

these again a few have been given minor appointments in the Department.

A scheme for training young Cypriots abroad, which was in abeyance

during the war, makes it possible to give the more capable of these some

further training in Europe in the higher branches of agriculture. It is

hoped, by this means, to form a group of native experts from among whom

the technical staff of the Department can be recruited.

The Government Farm, Athalassa, though somewhat ill-placed for purposes

of education and demonstration, has done good work in improving the live

stock of the country, as evidenced at the Animal Shows held every year.

Periodical auction sales of Athalassa stock take place in the different

districts.

During the three years 1915-18, there were reared at the Farm and

distributed 41 cattle, 264 sheep, 8 donkeys, 332 pigs and 2 mules,

besides a considerable head of poultry.

The total value of the live and dead stock was estimated on March 31,

1918, at L3,128.

For breeding purposes there were 6 stallion horses, 8 jack donkeys, 8

bulls and 7 boars in 1917-18 stationed either at Athalassa or at the

stud stables which have been established in the districts. Some 30 cast

army mares have been obtained free of cost from the Remount Department,

Egypt, and have been lent out on contract to farmers for mule breeding.

During 1917-18 the Farm produced 169 cheeses and 1,036-1/2 lb. of

butter. In the winter of 1917-18 some 314 donums of land were under

cultivation, the chief crops being barley, oats, wheat and gavetta

(_Lathyrus sativus_).

The Veterinary Establishment provides for 1 Veterinary Surgeon, 2 Stock

Inspectors and 1 Veterinary Compounder. There is a good deal of endemic

contagious disease among the flocks and herds of the Island, mainly

anthrax and goat- and sheep-pox, and the Veterinary staff is kept busy.

Cattle plague is unknown in the Island.

Cattle breeding should become a paying industry when once the lesson of

proper feeding and management has been learnt (hitherto sadly neglected

by the Cypriot farmer), since Egypt provides a ready and remunerative

market.

Perhaps no work is of more importance than that of combating the

numerous insect and other pests which every year cause heavy loss to the

agricultural community. The addition of an Entomological Laboratory and

the appointment of an Entomologist have enabled the Department to afford

relief to many cultivators, and a small but active entomological staff

are constantly engaged on various pest campaigns.

The Department possesses a small but well-equipped Chemical Laboratory

under the charge of an Agricultural Chemist. In the absence of any law,

the Department has, in the interests of importers and agriculturists

alike, offered its services for analysing and reporting upon samples,

sealing bags and giving advice as to the use of the different types, and

this action has been readily availed of. This in itself, however, is not

enough to check malpractices or safeguard the cultivators.

For the last four years the Department has had trial plots in which new

varieties of cereals and fodder plants have been experimentally grown

(see Plate I, fig. 2). The seed has been obtained from England, South

Africa, India and Australia, but so far none of the varieties have been

found in any marked degree superior to the native kinds. One or two

varieties introduced two years ago are promising, and when fully

acclimatised may be worth the attention of farmers. Experimental sowings

are often made in the villages when it is desired to bring any

particular crop to the notice of the agricultural classes.

The _Cyprus Agricultural Journal_, published quarterly in English, Greek

and Turkish, is the official organ of the Agricultural Department.

_Fungoid Diseases and Insect Pests_

The Cypriot agriculturist has to contend against the attacks of many

species of insects and a number of fungoid pests. Little could be done

to bring these under control until, in 1914, an Entomological Branch of

the Agricultural Department was established. Much valuable research and

descriptive work had been carried out by Mr. Gennadius, but no organised

field work could be undertaken until the last three or four years.

A detailed description of the numerous pests cannot here be given, but

the more important ones are enumerated below. Happily Cyprus is one of

the few Mediterranean countries which has not been invaded by

Phylloxera.

_Cereals._--_Aecophora temperatella_ (Limassol district only), smut and

rust, hessian fly (occasionally), grain weevils (_Calandra granaria_),

grain moth (_Sitotroga cerealella_).

_Carobs._--_Cecidomyia ceratoniae_, scale (_Aspidiotus ceratoniae_)

_Myelois ceratoniae,_ borer (_Cossus liniperda_), _Oidium ceratoniae_.

_Olives._--_Capnodium_, scale (_Lecanium oleae_ and _Aspidiotus oleae_),

aphis (_Psylla oleae_), olive fly (_Dacus_ sp.), _Tinea oleela_ and

various borers.

_Citrus and other Fruit Trees._--Gummosis (Citrus and all stone fruits);

scale (all); ermin moth (apples, pears and plums); downy plant louse,

_Schizoneura lanigera_ (apples); aphides (almond, peach, plum and

apricot); _Tingis pyri_ (pears and apples); codlin moth, _Carpocapsa

pomonella_ (apples, pears, quinces and walnuts); peach leaf curl,

_Exoascus deformans_ (peaches); black aphis (peaches); Mediterranean

fruit fly, _Ceratitis capitata_ (all); mites, _Acarus_ sp. (all);

various borers, thrips, and barkbeetle (_Scolytids_).

_Vines._--_Oidium Tuckeri_, _Peronospora_, anthracnose, _Cladosporium,_

root rot, _Zygaena ampelophaga_, thrips, _Cochylis_, _Lita solanella_.

_Vegetables.--Peronospora infestans_ (potatoes), _Cladosporium_,

_Altica_, aphides, mole crickets.

Much damage is done to carobs by the large rat, _Mus Alexandrinus_.

The large fruit-eating bat is a great pest. Hornets attack all kinds of

fruits and cause much loss.

The chief cotton enemies are the cotton boll worm (_Earias insulana_),

aphides and _Capnodium_.

Locusts are no longer the formidable plague they were in the eighties.

They are limited almost to the Famagusta district, where they annually

breed and do a certain amount of damage to early cotton and to vegetable

crops. If not vigilantly kept under control they would quickly multiply

and become a serious danger.

III. LIVE STOCK

_Cattle_

The cattle of the country have been bred, until the last two or three

years, exclusively for draught purposes. Cattle breeding as a business

is unknown. Farmers, as a rule, aim only at raising a calf or two every

year in order to maintain one or more yokes of oxen. Some of the draught

animals are very fine (see Plate III, fig. 1, and Plate V, fig. 1).

These belong mostly to the monasteries; one animal exhibited at a recent

show measured over 17 hands. The race is presumably the result of many

crossings with imported breeds, but has acquired a definite type. The

cows are in colour and conformation not unlike Jerseys, but larger and

without the udder development of that breed. The oxen have mostly a more

or less pronounced hump, possibly acquired through many generations of

progenitors used exclusively for draught purposes. In some of the best

bulls this hump is particularly marked.

In 1912 some Devon bulls and cows were imported and a herd of this breed

was started at the Government Farm, Athalassa. An impetus was thus given

to breeding dairy cows, and a number of half- and three-quarter-bred

cows are now to be found, which command high prices for milking

purposes. The Devon bulls, however, have never come into favour among

farmers for raising draught cattle.

There was a fair export of cattle to Egypt before the war, a good

proportion of the animals being consigned to the Serum Institute, Cairo,

as Cyprus cattle, alone among the cattle in this part of the Levant,

have so far been free from plague.

The number of horned cattle in 1917 is officially given as 48,761.

The exports for the five years preceding the war were:

Year. Number. Value.

L

1909 2,357 11,314

1910 4,240 20,218

1911 9,664 44,871

1912 5,751 34,303

1913 3,017 20,110

[Illustration: PLATE III.

Fig. 1.--Native Bull.

Fig. 2.--Native Ram.]

There can be no question that if more attention were paid to growing

fodder crops, cattle breeding could be greatly increased, and a good

trade with Egypt might be done.

The establishment of the Athalassa Stock Farm has had a most useful

influence on the improvement of the live stock of the Island.

Beef has only lately become an article of food for the country people,

and is still so only on a small scale. The townspeople, having become

Europeanised to a greater degree than formerly, are now becoming beef

consumers, and the high price of beef has had a stimulating effect upon

breeding for the butchers. Before the British occupation the killing of

an ox for eating purposes was considered by many villagers an act of

sacrilege.

_Sheep_

Sheep rearing is an important industry in Cyprus. The sheep are of the

fat-tailed species and are allied, though superior to, the Afrikander

sheep. The total number of sheep in the Island in 1917 was 255,150.

They feed almost entirely by grazing, and wander, under the charge of

shepherds, over considerable areas in search of food, frequently in

company with goats. They are valued chiefly for their milk and meat;

their wool, though of moderate quality, is small in quantity. (See also

under "Dairy Produce," p. 23.)

Large numbers of sheep are killed annually for local consumption, and

there is a regular export to Egypt, as shown by the following pre-war

figures:

Year. Number. Value.

L

1904 13,923 10,544

1905 8,816 7,572

1906 5,427 5,470

1907 2,859 2,699

1908 849 835

1909 976 716

1910 3,905 3,064

1911 18,143 12,311

1912 17,611 13,731

1913 7,920 6,724

Sheep-folding is practically unknown, and no crops are specially grown

as food for sheep. Occasionally they may get a little rovi (vetch), rovi

straw, lentil straw, favetta, pea-haulm or (in the hills) mavrachero

(tares). They suffer in years of drought, but on the whole thrive

wonderfully well on very scanty pasturage.

Good work has been done of late years in the improvement of Cyprus sheep

at the Government Athalassa Farm, and ewes and rams from the farm flock

are much sought after by sheep-owners, many of whom are making efforts

to ameliorate the breed. The question of providing suitable forage also

is not being lost sight of.

_Goats_

The goat has been a cause of much controversy for many years and a

source of discord between farmer and shepherd. Owing to the absence of

farm boundaries the herds of goats (and sheep) continually trespass on

the cultivated areas, and the shepherds are at little pains to restrain

them when there is a chance of the animals getting a good meal. Large

sums in the aggregate are paid by way of fines and damages, but the

shepherds evidently find that even so it is profitable to continue such

practices.

In consequence of the serious harm done every year in the State forests

by these animals, a law "For the gradual exclusion of goats from the

Island" was passed in 1913 and came into operation on August 1 that

year.

As the subjoined table shows, the number of goats has decreased, but it

is doubtful how far this is due to the law, and how far to the losses

from goat-pox, which is very prevalent, and to the shipments for

military purposes during the war:

Year. Head.

1880 210,736

1890 237,475

1900 243,397

1910 276,794

1913 (when the law was passed) 242,524

1918 191,017

The goat is in many respects well suited to the Island, and provides the

villager with milk, cheese, meat, boots and manure. The animals cost

very little to keep--even apart from their depredations--and thrive,

especially in the hills, under conditions unsuited to sheep and cattle.

They are, however, great enemies to agriculture and forestry, and if

they are to be preserved in the Island, it is essential that both they

and the shepherds be brought under strict control.

In Cyprus most of the goats have very short hair, which cannot be shorn.

From this fact, and from the external shape of the animal, one may infer

that it is either a variety of the Anatolian breed modified by local

influences, or a hybrid of the Numidic and Anatolian breeds (see Plate

III, fig. 2). The Anatolian goat has long and more or less thick hair,

especially on the shoulders, sides and thighs, which, clipped in the

spring, yields a not insignificant income for the goat-breeder

(Gennadius).

The Cyprus goat gives on an average 150 drams of milk per day during a

period of say 150 days, or say, 50 to 60 okes per annum.

A good proportion have kids twice a year, and many give birth to twins.

The price of a goat varies considerably in different districts, and

before the war was from about 8_s._ to 20_s._ or 25_s._

_Pigs_

The Paphos district and the Karpas end of the Famagusta district are

specially given to pig raising; but this animal is to be found fairly

well distributed all over the Island. The native pig is of inferior

quality, but a noticeable improvement, not only in pig breeding but in

pig rearing, has resulted from the introduction by Government of the

Large Black breed from England in 1907. This breed has become well

established at the Government Farm, Athalassa, and the progeny is now

well spread over the Island. The improvement resulting from crossing

with Government stock has been so unmistakable that there is now great

competition for them at all auction sales and high prices are given.

This increase in outlay on the part of farmers has led to greater care

in the feeding and management. They find that well-bred pigs come more

quickly to maturity, and that it pays to feed them well and not leave

them to forage for themselves as formerly. Excellent pork and bacon are

now procurable during the winter, and it may be hoped that pig breeding

in Cyprus has a good future before it.

The number of pigs counted in the spring of 1914 was 38,850, the third

highest number on record. Since then, owing to the prohibition of

export, breeding has been checked and the number declined, but now it

appears to be again on the upward grade.

Before the war there was an average annual export of about 2,000

animals; but there is now a better local market than formerly.

_Camels_

Camels are still used to a fair extent, and the breed is good, but owing

to the improvement in the roads and increased facilities for more rapid

transport, these animals are less in demand than formerly.

_Horses_

The native breed of horse is best seen in the Paphos pony, which though

small, about 13 hands, is remarkably strong and hardy (see Plate IV,

fig. 1). It is said that some eighty years or so ago the breed was

improved by the introduction of two Arab stallions from Turkey. A useful

stamp of pony mare is also to be found in the Karpas. A marked

improvement in the quality of the local horses took place from the

importation, some years ago, of English pony stallions; and more

recently a further advance has resulted from the addition to the

Government stud of the two famous English thoroughbred stallions

"Temeraire," by Greyleg out of Tereska by Isonomy out of Violetta by

Hermit, and "Huckle-my-buff," by Isinglass out of Snip by Donovan out of

Isabel (dam of St. Frusquin).

_Donkeys_

The Cyprian donkey at its best is a fine animal (see Plate IV, fig. 2).

It is the common beast of burden of the villager, and is capable of

carrying a load of from 160 to 224 lb.

A large number of donkey stallions have been exported to India,

Uganda, South Africa, Syria and Egypt from time to time, and the local

breed has no doubt suffered owing to the best jacks having left the

country. Although the villagers depend so much upon these animals, very

little care is taken by them, either in the matter of breeding, feeding

or proper management. The animals are mostly worked far too early, and

underfed, and the majority are consequently undersized and of poor

quality. Where good jacks are used, the progeny is generally

satisfactory, and at shows and fairs some fine specimens are usually

brought in. Owing to the increasing demand for jennets, the village

breeder is inclined to put his she-donkey to a pony stallion rather than

to a jack-donkey. The donkey mares range from 13 to 13.2 hands, with

girth measurement of 58 in. to 60 in. and shank 6-1/2 in. They have

great room, and are well shaped with a straight back and good quarters.

[Illustration: PLATE IV.

Fig. 1.--Cyprus Pony.

Fig. 2.--Cyprus Donkeys.]

It has been recommended that every encouragement should be given to the

production of good donkeys, from which the best mares could be selected

for mating with suitable pony stallions, such as the Exmoor and Welsh

cob, for the breeding of jennets; and at the same time an improvement in

the jacks would naturally follow.

_Jennets and Mules_

"Owing to the excellence of the Cyprus donkeys and the poor class of

Cyprus horses, the superiority of the 'jennet' (the result of mating the

pony stallion with the donkey mare) is very patent over the 'mule' (the

product of the donkey jack and the pony mare). The jennet of from 13.1

hands to 14.1 is doubtless the most paying animal that the Cyprus

villager or landowner can produce, and its excellence for army or

general pack purposes cannot be surpassed in any country in the world.

Therefore, in my opinion, it is to this class of animal that the most

encouragement in breeding should be given. To maintain the excellence of

the Cyprus jennet every help should be given to the breeding of big

donkeys, so that the plentiful supply of donkey mares of from 12.3 to

13.3 hands is available for mating with suitable imported pony

stallions, which should be placed by the Government at the breeders'

disposal."[2]

Both jennets and mules, indiscriminately called "mularia," are largely

used for transport purposes throughout the Island, and perform

practically all the carting work of the country, but, as explained, the

jennet is regarded as greatly the superior animal.

_Poultry_

The ordinary barn-door fowl is met with in Cyprus, as everywhere else.

The local breed is a mixture of all the various races which have been

imported by private persons for many years past. The most general types

met with resemble the Leghorn and Ancona breeds.

The Island, owing to its climate and its corn production, is admirably

suited to the poultry industry, and a sure and profitable market in

Egypt can always be relied on. Something has been done of late years by

the introduction of Wyandottes, Langshans and Orpingtons which have been

bred by the Agricultural Department.

Proper poultry management among the villagers is practically unknown,

and until regulations can be made enforceable by law for the control of

poultry diseases and for the disposal of diseased carcases, poultry

keepers will continue to suffer heavy losses and the industry will not

prosper.[3] Lectures on poultry-keeping have been instituted in the

districts by the Agricultural Department, and it is hoped that these may

arouse some interest and lead to improvement.

Given the necessary guidance and control, the industry should have a

good future before it.

Turkeys are very plentiful and, except in the hills, are seen in nearly

every village. There are three varieties--the bronze, by far the most

general, the white, and a dark brown kind which is not common.

Ducks and geese do well at Kythrea, but elsewhere are little seen. At

this village, however, they are largely bred.

Pigeons also are fairly abundant, and as they mostly feed on a

neighbour's corn, they are considered profitable birds to keep.

_Preserved Meats, etc._

A good deal of meat and fat is pickled, dried and smoked for consumption

by the native population.

Hams and sausages are much eaten, the latter especially in the Karpas.

Among the various kinds of preserved meats may be specially mentioned

that known as "apokti." This is the salted and dried flesh of the

he-goat, which, when cooked, is much appreciated by the villagers. The

meat is sometimes minced, and after the addition of ground origanum

leaves and spearmint, is placed in jars and slowly cooked. It is said

that from 3,000 to 5,000 he-goats are annually slaughtered for making

"apokti."

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 2: Report by Captain Goodchild, Remount Department, E.E.F.,

when visiting Cyprus in 1916 and 1917 to purchase mules and donkeys for

army purposes.]

[Footnote 3: Legislation in this direction has been effected during the

session of the Legislative Council just ended. (Law No. VII of 1919.)]

IV. DAIRY PRODUCE

_Milk_

Sheep and goats' milk is principally used for cheese and butter making.

Fresh milk of any kind is not much consumed by the native population,

although within the last few years the more well-to-do townspeople have

taken to drinking cows' milk, when obtainable, and it is in growing

demand in some country parts for invalids when prescribed by the local

doctor.

The flavour of sheep and goats' milk is a good deal affected by the

herbage or shrubs on which they feed, and thus varies according to

locality. A characteristic odour is imparted, for instance, by the

alnifolia oak (_Quercus alnifolia_) and the cistus, which are common in

many parts of the Island, and the cheese and butter produced from such

milk are in better demand in the local markets. The places in which this

quality of milk is chiefly produced are the Paphos District, the

neighbourhood of Kykko and Trooditissa in the Troodos mountains, and

Akanthou to the north-east of the Island.

A considerable impetus has been given to the production and consumption

of fresh cows' milk by the establishment of a herd of Devon dairy cows

at the Government Farm, Athalassa. Cows of Athalassa strain fetch high

prices, as much as L80 having been given recently for a cow and several

others have changed hands at L50 to L60.

_Cheese_