INDIANS IN AND AROUND YELLOWSTONE
A description of the Indian background is an integral part of all early
American history. An appreciation of the "Old West" is impossible
without an understanding of the Indian problem.
Yellowstone was not the original homeland of any distinct Indian tribe.
In comparatively recent time, probably about 1800, it became the refuge
for a small and degenerate band of Tukuarika, or sheep-eating Indians.
They had formerly lived in the Montana and Dakota country but had been
driven into seclusion by the powerful Blackfoot nation. The several
branches of Shoshones residing in Yellowstone environs were Bannocks,
Snakes, Tukuarikas, and Flatheads. The Crows came from other Indian
sources. All of these Indians possessed certain racial characteristics
of the red race. In view of various conflicting ideas, a few
observations about the people as a whole are expedient.
Indians are human beings possessing the sensibilities and emotions of
white men. However, their manner of living and conception of life has
been relatively low. Even so, it is difficult to generalize upon them as
a people. As Chief Washakie once said, "Indians very much like white
men--some good, some bad." It is generally conceded that they were
proud, so haughty in fact that they lacked that quality of mind so
essential to progress or adjustment, humility or teachability. They
could not learn because they would not admit that they lacked anything.
They were the "chosen people." Originally they looked upon the
hard-working white people as slaves and referred to them by no other
name.
As a rule Indian braves were arrogant lords, not to be degraded by
menial toil. It was enough for them to expose themselves to the
hardships of fighting and hunting. They would proudly bring home the
trophies of war and the hunt. They were also diligent in caring for
their weapons and horses in preparation for future exploits. Much
leisure time was expended upon personal ornamentation and in talking
about the news of the day and affairs of the tribe. The Indians'
inordinate pride was revealed in every movement. The men in particular
possessed a free and easy bearing. This natural grace of action was
probably facilitated by their practice of living in a semi-nude
condition.[63]
Indians were much more cunning and adroit than the wildest game. They
were fleet and stealthy, deceitful and cruel. To gain an advantage over
prey or an enemy by strategy was their greatest joy and constituted the
primary requisite for leadership. To be mentioned by one's tribesmen as
a great warrior or a cunning horse thief was the highest ambition of an
Indian, and many were past masters at both these hazardous hobbies. The
greatest among them was the one with the most "coups" to his credit,
such as scalps, stolen horses, and captured enemies. Making coups
entitled the brave to wear an eagle feather in his hair and emblazon it
upon his robe; by this token he was distinguished for heroic action.[64]
On the whole they were revengeful and vindictive. If an injury, real or
fancied, were done to them by a particular person, it was a solemn duty
to retaliate either against him or someone else. Many cases can be
adduced to sustain this principle. In 1809, a trapper named Carson
accepted a banter from a band of Arickaras to shoot among their enemy
Sioux, who were across the Missouri a half mile away. The reckless
trapper shot and killed one of the Sioux warriors. The following year
three white men were slain by the Sioux to expiate this crime. The
Indian code demanded blood for blood, the more the better. They were
seldom inclined toward chivalry; mercy had no part in their code. It was
hard, relentless, and primitive. By the strong hand they lived, and by
the strong arm only were they awed. Forays, feuds, battles, that was the
life! They painted, dressed, danced, and prayed for war.
And yet, in a way, they had poetic souls. The beauty and grandeur of
nature revealed itself in their dignified bearing. Many were majestic in
appearance, poised of manner, and eloquent in speech. Some of them were
gifted storytellers who entertained their hearers. Others were great
speakers who instructed them in the legendary lore of the tribe. Still
others were artists, musicians, skilled artisans in many lines; and
there were medicine men.
Tribal organization was based upon the family unit, which was
monogamous, except in the case of the chief men who usually had several
wives. The chief's lodge occupied a central position in the village,
with other leaders' abodes surrounding. The women, too, observed a style
of dress in keeping with their respective stations. Heredity in
leadership was unknown; men became chiefs by reason of their cunning and
courage in war, wisdom in council, and generosity toward the
tribesmen.[65]
In the matter of economics most mountain Indians were novices. It is
undoubtedly true that early American settlers received important initial
aid from the Indians in raising crops. They taught the whites how to
raise the very products that still constitute the backbone of American
production: maize, potatoes, tobacco, cotton, squash, and beans. But
instead of improving along with the settlers, they generally preferred
the ways of their fathers. They did not lack the means for the
production and preservation of food so much as the energy and ability to
anticipate future necessity.
In the Rocky Mountains, where nature was quite inhospitable (without
irrigation), the natives were even less thrifty than elsewhere. When
food was plentiful they would gormandize to the uttermost, living
contentedly. When confronted by famine they would languish in
starvation. Natural forces battered them roughly. There was fasting, but
there were buffalo brains and tongues too--earth's supreme dish!
[Illustration: W. S. Chapman
Mountain Indian clan.]
The women and girls were practically slaves to their husbands and
brothers. They were inured in hardships and possessed much forbearance
and self-denial. Their homemaking work was arduous. They dressed all
game and gathered nuts, berries, fuel, and roots. They made bows,
arrows, lodges, travois, and clothing. The packing and moving, striking
lodges and general routine was women's work.[66] There was never the
slightest disposition to complain among them; in fact, they were
inclined to despise a brave who departed from the usual patterns. He
would be called "old woman" and his squaw, if any, often received a
castigation. Maidens were required to be modest, wear robes at all
times, and look seriously upon life. Marriages were arranged by parents
with the consent of near relations. The desires of the young people were
given consideration, if reasonable, but the decision was made by the
girl's father.
Meat was the mainstay of life among Indians, and a considerable supply
was available before white men came. In spite of inadequate weapons, the
natives had numerous effective methods of securing wild game. Most
hunters were masters of what was called the cabalistical language of
birds and beasts. By this means they were able to approach many animals
closely and slay them. Bison were sometimes driven into natural arenas
where a gory slaughter ensued. Occasionally these great beasts were
maneuvered into runs, from which they were stampeded pellmell over a
precipice.[67] Generally they were simply chased and shot down at full
gallop. This procedure required great dexterity in loading and
discharging weapons. Of course the hunter's full attention was given to
the target because his hunting horse took care of himself. He
anticipated every move of the prey. With eyes flashing, nostrils
distended, and foam flowing from his mouth, the trained steed sprang
after the deceptive buffalo in swift execution of his master's will.
The war horse was even more highly prized than a hunter. Animals of
exotic appearance had double or treble value over ordinary steeds and
were claimed by the chiefs. The proud warrior went to as much pains to
adorn his horse as he did himself. Nothing could induce him to neglect
or mistreat his favorite.
In their palmy days, the Indians largely confined their efforts to
pursuit of big game. In later years they had reluctant recourse to
smaller animals. Rabbits were encircled--sometimes by a chain of fire.
Ground squirrels were drowned out, and all types of animal life were
utilized for food. The products of the buffalo, deer, elk, antelope,
goat, bear, beaver, and numerous small animals and fish gave them
strength for the pursuit of more game and the enemy. Many different
combinations of meat, roots, nuts, and berries were known to the
Indians. Pemmican was a mixture of pounded dried meat, grease, and
service berries. When properly prepared and packed in skins this food
would keep indefinitely.[68]
The camas and yamp plants were the Indian's bread. These roots are about
an inch in diameter, and they have a sweetish taste while fresh, but
they are more palatable when baked in earthen ovens. Either of these
roots contains nutriment sufficient to support life, and often mountain
Indians were obliged to subsist on this slender fare.
From a white man's viewpoint the dominant element in Indian religion was
superstition. A stark animism prevailed in every cult. They believed
that the different animals had either good or evil spirits and that they
should be revered or feared according to their nature. The sun in
particular was an object of worship. Each young man diligently sought
his own strong medicine. The ritual varied but usually involved
solitude, exertion, fasting, and extreme exposure. During this vigil the
youth received a new name and a symbol of power. In due time these signs
of maturity were manifest among the tribe and a status therein was
secured.
Illness and death were attributed to the influence of evil spirits. The
chief remedy for sickness was the sweat house. This was a mystic shrine
both for temporal and spiritual blessing. The health seekers would rub
their bodies with the tips of fir boughs, and thus the steam would
effectively penetrate their bodies in a few minutes. Several sweats,
each followed by a dip in a stream, constituted a bath, except when the
spiritual interest predominated. In that case the votary might remain in
the sweat house for hours or even days.
In respect to amusement Indians had unusual interest. That they were
stoical at all times is an erroneous idea. They laughed and joked and
engaged in many games.[69] Their singing was largely extemporaneous,
accompanied by instruments of the crudest type. A horse race had
tremendous appeal for the "bucks," who sometimes gambled away everything
they possessed, including their wives and children. In general, the
social life of Indians was notable for its excesses. Certain seasonal
festivals were held in which the element of worship was interwoven with
hilarity. Before going upon a hunt the Indians were wont to clothe some
of the hunters in hides of the game, buffalo, or elk. These "bucks"
would then cavort around in the manner of the game desired. In all this
there was an air of expectancy and supplication.
Smoking was another semi-sacred ceremony by which oaths and agreements
were secured. A ritual was usually observed. They relied heavily upon
innumerable supernatural symbols and routines.
Such were the general characteristics and customs possessed by all of
the mountain Indians. A marked degree of differentiation among them
would justify a brief description of each. Of course these differences
are only apparent to the discerning eye. Factors of physiognomy, dress,
and speech are recognizable upon close observation.[70] However, it is
not an easy matter to express these different characteristics in words.
The Bannocks (also Bannacks)-- This name is derived from the Shoshoni
word "bamp," which means "hair," and "nack," which signifies "a backward
motion." It is also said that these Indians made cakes from acorn flour,
pulverized grasshoppers, and currant jelly which so resembled the Scotch
bannock cake in shape and flavor that some Scotch trapper applied this
name to the tribe. There were approximately two thousand Bannocks in
1810, and they claimed the country southwest of Yellowstone. It was this
tribe which made a deep trail across Yellowstone in going to and
returning from their buffalo hunts. Bannocks were tall, straight,
athletic people, possessed of more physical courage than most Indians.
In a defensive way they were the most warlike of all Indians.
The Shoshoni or Snake Indians-- This tribe of natives lived in the upper
Snake River Valley. According to Alexander Ross, the Snake Indians were
so named because of their characteristic quick concealment of themselves
when discovered. "They glide with the subtility of the serpent."
However, Indians interpreted the word "Shoshoni" as meaning
"inland."[71] Father DeSmet stated: "They are called Snakes because in
their poverty they are reduced like reptiles to the condition of digging
in the ground and seeking nourishment from roots."[72] They lived in
peace with the Flatheads and Nez Percés in the north and were at war
with the Blackfeet, Crows, Bannocks, and Utahs. The Snakes were
dependable participants in the trappers' rendezvous so often held in the
Green River Valley in the second quarter of the nineteenth century.
TyGee was a leading chief during much of the nineteenth century. The
Targhee Forest was named after this Snake chieftain. They were a short,
very dark, heavy-set people, with small feet and hands but large chests
and shoulders. Their disposition was quite peaceful and friendly toward
other people, although they were very suspicious. They were excellent
horsemen and good fighters when aroused. The whole nation consisted of
about a thousand, but it was broken into bands, some of which were vital
and murderous while others, such as the "Diggers," were degraded and
impoverished. Their great and constant occupation was to obtain food,
and they were disposed to eat almost anything.
[Illustration: Photo by W. H. Jackson
_Family of Sheepeater Indians_]
Tukuarikas or Sheepeater Indians-- "Tuku" means "mountain sheep" and
"arika," "eat," or "Sheepeater." They were a slender, wiry people who
possessed neither ponies nor firearms but used bows and arrows
effectively. They wore furs and skins and lived among the rocks in the
Gardner River canyon in Yellowstone and in the Salmon River Mountains of
central Idaho. There were some two hundred Indians in the Yellowstone
tribe. Their main support was from game and fish. These Indians did not
possess any distinctive culture of their own, but, hermit-like, they
seemed concerned only to carry on by themselves until further notice.
The Flatheads-- This tribe lived in western Montana. The Flatheads
roamed the prairie between Glacier National Park and the Bitter Root
Range. Lake Flathead was their favorite rendezvous. These Indians
supposedly derived their name from an ancient practice of shaping or
deforming the head during infancy. However, in 1830, Ferris claimed that
not one living proof of that practice could be found among them. They
called themselves "Salish" and spoke a language remarkable for its
melody and simplicity. They were noted for humanity, forbearance, and
honesty. They were certainly one of the few tribes in the Rocky
Mountains who could boast that they never killed or robbed a white man
nor stole a single horse.
The Blackfeet-- This was a branch of the great Algonquian Nation. They
were the Ishmaelites of the west; indeed, they were the most "teutonic"
of all American Indians. Their hands were against every man, and the
hands of all men, both red and white, were against them.[73] Their
habitat was the Marias River Valley in Montana, but they were known as
the devils of the mountains and prairies. All who knew them agreed with
trader Bird's observation made to Kenneth McKenzie: "When you know the
Blackfeet as well as I do you will know that they do not need any
inducements to commit depredations." They were always hostile and
predatory, and their wanderings were most extensive. The tribal name,
meaning "Siksi," "black," and "kah," "foot," alluded to feet made black
by roving through the ashes of regions devastated by fires. The
Blackfeet were great meat eaters and because of their energy they were
generally well supplied. They had horses and guns from an early time,
and they wore leather clothing, often highly decorated with beadwork.
The Absaroka or Crow Nation-- Absaroka means sparrow hawk. The name was
derived from a species found in Mexico. Does that imply a southern
origin? Surely the name suggests their nefarious traffic in stolen
horses. They would steal them on one side of the range and dispose of
them on the other.[74] This was the strongest band of mountain Indians.
That is to say, Crowland was a transitional area that skirted the east
slope of the Rockies along the Yellowstone and Bighorn rivers.
Therefore, these people were masters of both plain and defile. They were
notorious travelers. They roved in several villages of six or seven
hundred each. In fact, the phrase "all-pervading Crows" implies the
character of their winging flight from mountain to prairie. Indeed, they
prided themselves upon their superiority over all other nations. The men
were tall, active, intelligent, and brave. They had a particular
penchant for adornment. Rows of elk's teeth trimmed their garments. Men
wore long hair; women, short. They referred to themselves as "Absaroka"
with great esteem. The tribal slogan was "Bac' dak Ko'm Ba wiky,"
meaning "While Crow live, Crow carry on."
They were a well-disciplined people. Women were given a voice in council
but were most noted for their industry and skill. According to Warren A.
Ferris, Crow women were notoriously unfaithful, which, if true, was
measurably contrary to the general condition among Indians. Among the
men lust for fame was the end and purpose of life. Crow war psychology
was a blend of cruelty, vanity, greed, foolhardiness, and magnificent
courage. Old Sapsucker was the most famous Crow Chieftain. He won this
distinction by many years of fighting. Horses were at once their passion
and glory. Even infants of two years could ride, while older youths rode
horses that careened and dashed up and down among the most dangerous
places. The nation of 3,500 people owned some 10,000 horses. Adult Crow
horsemen were unexcelled. They combined agility and dignity to an
unusual degree. Mounted on fine-mettled animals, without saddle or
bridle, and bounding bare-bodied over the prairie in the panoply of
speed and power, they were fine pictures to behold!
Crows made free booty of everything that chanced in their way. Horses in
particular were the objects of their depredations. They developed
astonishing skill and audacity in capturing them. As horse thieves they
were world-beaters. "No legislative body on earth ever made an
appropriation with half the tact, facility, and success." The following
represents the mature judgment of James Stuart:
One thing is certain: They can discount all the thieves I ever saw or
heard of; in short, they have to be seen to realize their superiority
over all thieves, either white, red, or black, in the world. They
would steal the world-renowned Arabs poor in a single hour.[75]
Other mountain Indians whose activities had less bearing upon the
Yellowstone area were the Herantsa or Gros Ventres. They referred to
themselves by the former name; whereas the latter was a French
designation. Of course, it was inappropriate because they did not have
large paunches. Their homeland was the Wind River range.
East of Wind River lies the Laramie Plains, and there lived a band named
Cheyennes. They were civil, well-behaved people, cleanly in their
persons and decorous in their habits. The men were tall and vigorous,
with aquiline noses and high cheek bones. Some were almost as naked as
ancient statues and might well have stood as models for that purpose.
East of the Crow and Cheyenne homelands ranged various divisions of the
great Siouan family. The Sioux of Dakota, Arapaho, Omaha, and Mandan
were the most distinct clans on the near-eastern slope of the Rockies.
These tribes were typical of the plains Indians and as mutually hostile
as any of the others.[76]
Indian proper names were more appropriate than those given by the
settlers. Some of the latter were commonplace, stupid, and, at times,
ribald. The aboriginal tribes sensed the magnificence of nature.
Therefore, their characterizations were both significant and euphonious.
Montana was derived from "Tay-a-be-shock-up," "country of the mountains"
or "land of the everlasting hills." Wyoming means "land of shining
prairies." Utah means "the home of the high-ups," and Idaho, "sun
descending upon the mountains."
All in all, the Indian regime of life was a curious blend of love and
hate, of work and warfare. Indian life had as many facets as there were
periods, places, and tribes involved.