Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was
not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American
commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions
began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south
of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that
Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands.
Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th
century. Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific
research on the continent. A number of countries have set up a range
of year-round and seasonal stations, camps, and refuges to support
scientific research in Antarctica. Seven have made territorial
claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. In order to
form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the
continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies
nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in
1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Antigua and Barbuda
The Siboney were the first to inhabit the
islands of Antigua and Barbuda in 2400 B.C., but Arawak Indians
populated the islands when COLUMBUS landed on his second voyage in
1493. Early settlements by the Spanish and French were succeeded by
the English who formed a colony in 1667. Slavery, established to run
the sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. The islands
became an independent state within the British Commonwealth of
Nations in 1981.
Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five
oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and
the recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (US
and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two
important seasonal waterways. A sparse network of air, ocean, river,
and land routes circumscribes the Arctic Ocean.
Argentina
In 1816, the United Provinces of the Rio Plata declared
their independence from Spain. After Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay
went their separate ways, the area that remained became Argentina.
The country's population and culture were heavily shaped by
immigrants from throughout Europe, but most particularly Italy and
Spain, which provided the largest percentage of newcomers from 1860
to 1930. Up until about the mid-20th century, much of Argentina's
history was dominated by periods of internal political conflict
between Federalists and Unitarians and between civilian and military
factions. After World War II, an era of Peronist authoritarian rule
and interference in subsequent governments was followed by a
military junta that took power in 1976. Democracy returned in 1983,
and has persisted despite numerous challenges, the most formidable
of which was a severe economic crisis in 2001-02 that led to violent
public protests and the resignation of several interim presidents.
The economy has recovered strongly since bottoming out in 2002.
Armenia
Armenia prides itself on being the first nation to formally
adopt Christianity (early 4th century). Despite periods of autonomy,
over the centuries Armenia came under the sway of various empires
including the Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman. During
World War I in the western portion of Armenia, Ottoman Turkey
instituted a policy of forced resettlement coupled with other harsh
practices that resulted in an estimated 1 million Armenian deaths.
The eastern area of Armenia was ceded by the Ottomans to Russia in
1828; this portion declared its independence in 1918, but was
conquered by the Soviet Red Army in 1920. Armenian leaders remain
preoccupied by the long conflict with Muslim Azerbaijan over
Nagorno-Karabakh, a primarily Armenian-populated region, assigned to
Soviet Azerbaijan in the 1920s by Moscow. Armenia and Azerbaijan
began fighting over the area in 1988; the struggle escalated after
both countries attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991.
By May 1994, when a cease-fire took hold, Armenian forces held not
only Nagorno-Karabakh but also a significant portion of Azerbaijan
proper. The economies of both sides have been hurt by their
inability to make substantial progress toward a peaceful resolution.
Turkey imposed an economic blockade on Armenia and closed the common
border because of the Armenian separatists' control of
Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding areas.
Aruba
Discovered and claimed for Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquired
by the Dutch in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated by
three main industries. A 19th century gold rush was followed by
prosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an oil refinery. The
last decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry.
Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986 and became a
separate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba's request in
1990.
Ashmore and Cartier Islands
These uninhabited islands came under
Australian authority in 1931; formal administration began two years
later. Ashmore Reef supports a rich and diverse avian and marine
habitat; in 1983, it became a National Nature Reserve. Cartier
Island, a former bombing range, became a marine reserve in 2000.
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the
world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than the
Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal
(Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of
Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US)
are important strategic access waterways. The decision by the
International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to
delimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion
of the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude.
Australia
Aboriginal settlers arrived on the continent from
Southeast Asia about 40,000 years before the first Europeans began
exploration in the 17th century. No formal territorial claims were
made until 1770, when Capt. James COOK took possession in the name
of Great Britain. Six colonies were created in the late 18th and
19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth of
Australia in 1901. The new country took advantage of its natural
resources to rapidly develop agricultural and manufacturing
industries and to make a major contribution to the British effort in
World Wars I and II. In recent decades, Australia has transformed
itself into an internationally competitive, advanced market economy.
It boasted one of the OECD's fastest growing economies during the
1990s, a performance due in large part to economic reforms adopted
in the 1980s. Long-term concerns include climate-change issues such
as the depletion of the ozone layer and more frequent droughts, and
management and conservation of coastal areas, especially the Great
Barrier Reef.
Austria
Once the center of power for the large Austro-Hungarian
Empire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat in
World War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 and
subsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria's
status remained unclear for a decade. A State Treaty signed in 1955
ended the occupation, recognized Austria's independence, and forbade
unification with Germany. A constitutional law that same year
declared the country's "perpetual neutrality" as a condition for
Soviet military withdrawal. The Soviet Union's collapse in 1991 and
Austria's entry into the European Union in 1995 have altered the
meaning of this neutrality. A prosperous, democratic country,
Austria entered the EU Economic and Monetary Union in 1999.
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan - a nation with a majority-Turkic and
majority-Muslim population - was briefly independent from 1918 to
1920; it regained its independence after the collapse of the Soviet
Union in 1991. Despite a 1994 cease-fire, Azerbaijan has yet to
resolve its conflict with Armenia over the Azerbaijani
Nagorno-Karabakh enclave (largely Armenian populated). Azerbaijan
has lost 16% of its territory and must support some 600,000
internally displaced persons as a result of the conflict. Corruption
is ubiquitous, and the government has been accused of
authoritarianism. Although the poverty rate has been reduced in
recent years, the promise of widespread wealth from development of
Azerbaijan's energy sector remains largely unfulfilled.
Bahamas, The
Lucayan Indians inhabited the islands when Christopher
COLUMBUS first set foot in the New World on San Salvador in 1492.
British settlement of the islands began in 1647; the islands became
a colony in 1783. Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973,
The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international banking
and investment management. Because of its geography, the country is
a major transshipment point for illegal drugs, particularly
shipments to the US and Europe, and its territory is used for
smuggling illegal migrants into the US.
Bahrain
In 1783, the al-Khalifa family captured Bahrain from the
Persians. In order to secure these holdings, it entered into a
series of treaties with the UK during the 19th century that made
Bahrain a British protectorate. The archipelago attained its
independence in 1971. Bahrain's small size and central location
among Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancing
act in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Facing declining
oil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing and
refining and has transformed itself into an international banking
center. King HAMAD bin Isa al-Khalifa, after coming to power in
1999, pushed economic and political reforms to improve relations
with the Shia community. Shia political societies participated in
2006 parliamentary and municipal elections. Al Wifaq, the largest
Shia political society, won the largest number of seats in the
elected chamber of the legislature. However, Shi'a discontent has
resurfaced in recent years with street demonstrations and occasional
low-level violence.
Bangladesh
Europeans began to set up trading posts in the area of
Bangladesh in the 16th century; eventually the British came to
dominate the region and it became part of British India. In 1947,
West Pakistan and East Bengal (both primarily Muslim) separated from
India (largely Hindu) and jointly became the new country of
Pakistan. East Bengal became East Pakistan in 1955, but the awkward
arrangement of a two-part country with its territorial units
separated by 1,600 km left the Bengalis marginalized and
dissatisfied. East Pakistan seceded from its union with West
Pakistan in 1971 and was renamed Bangladesh. A military-backed
caretaker regime suspended planned parliamentary elections in
January 2007 in an effort to reform the political system and root
out corruption; the regime has pledged new democratic elections by
the end of 2008. About a third of this extremely poor country floods
annually during the monsoon rainy season, hampering economic
development.
Barbados
The island was uninhabited when first settled by the
British in 1627. Slaves worked the sugar plantations established on
the island until 1834 when slavery was abolished. The economy
remained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses production
through most of the 20th century. The gradual introduction of social
and political reforms in the 1940s and 1950s led to complete
independence from the UK in 1966. In the 1990s, tourism and
manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
Belarus
After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR,
Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closer
political and economic ties to Russia than any of the other former
Soviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-state
union on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economic
integration. Although Belarus agreed to a framework to carry out the
accord, serious implementation has yet to take place. Since his
election in July 1994 as the country's first president, Alexandr
LUKASHENKO has steadily consolidated his power through authoritarian
means. Government restrictions on freedom of speech and the press,
peaceful assembly, and religion continue.
Belgium
Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830; it
was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. The country
prospered in the past half century as a modern, technologically
advanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensions
between the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and the
French-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years to
constitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognition
and autonomy.
Belize
Belize was the site of several Mayan city states until their
decline at the end of the first millennium A.D. The British and
Spanish disputed the region in the 17th and 18th centuries; it
formally became the colony of British Honduras in 1854. Territorial
disputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence of
Belize until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation
until 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. Current
concerns include an unsustainable foreign debt, high unemployment,
growing involvement in the South American drug trade, growing urban
crime, and increasing incidences of HIV/AIDS.
Benin
Present day Benin was the site of Dahomey, a prominent West
African kingdom that rose in the 15th century. The territory became
a French Colony in 1872 and achieved independence on 1 August 1960,
as the Republic of Benin. A succession of military governments ended
in 1972 with the rise to power of Mathieu KEREKOU and the
establishment of a government based on Marxist-Leninist principles.
A move to representative government began in 1989. Two years later,
free elections ushered in former Prime Minister Nicephore SOGLO as
president, marking the first successful transfer of power in Africa
from a dictatorship to a democracy. KEREKOU was returned to power by
elections held in 1996 and 2001, though some irregularities were
alleged. KEREKOU stepped down at the end of his second term in 2006
and was succeeded by Thomas YAYI Boni, a political outsider and
independent. YAYI has begun a high profile fight against corruption
and has strongly promoted accelerating Benin's economic growth.
Bermuda
Bermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked English
colonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape North
American winters first developed in Victorian times. Tourism
continues to be important to the island's economy, although
international business has overtaken it in recent years. Bermuda has
developed into a highly successful offshore financial center.
Although a referendum on independence from the UK was soundly
defeated in 1995, the present government has reopened debate on the
issue.
Bhutan
In 1865, Britain and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Sinchulu,
under which Bhutan would receive an annual subsidy in exchange for
ceding some border land to British India. Under British influence, a
monarchy was set up in 1907; three years later, a treaty was signed
whereby the British agreed not to interfere in Bhutanese internal
affairs and Bhutan allowed Britain to direct its foreign affairs.
This role was assumed by independent India after 1947. Two years
later, a formal Indo-Bhutanese accord returned the areas of Bhutan
annexed by the British, formalized the annual subsidies the country
received, and defined India's responsibilities in defense and
foreign relations. A refugee issue of over 100,000 Bhutanese in
Nepal remains unresolved; 90% of the refugees are housed in seven
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
camps. In March 2005, King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK unveiled the
government's draft constitution - which would introduce major
democratic reforms - and pledged to hold a national referendum for
its approval. In December 2006, the King abdicated the throne to his
son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel WANGCHUCK, in order to give him experience
as head of state before the democratic transition. In early 2007,
India and Bhutan renegotiated their treaty to allow Bhutan greater
autonomy in conducting its foreign policy, although Thimphu
continues to coordinate policy decisions in this area with New
Delhi. In July 2007, seven ministers of Bhutan's ten-member cabinet
resigned to join the political process, and the cabinet acted as a
caretaker regime until democratic elections for seats to the
country's first parliament were completed in March 2008. The king
ratified the country's first constitution in July 2008.
Bolivia
Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR,
broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history
has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and countercoups.
Democratic civilian rule was established in 1982, but leaders have
faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, and
illegal drug production. In December 2005, Bolivians elected
Movement Toward Socialism leader Evo MORALES president - by the
widest margin of any leader since the restoration of civilian rule
in 1982 - after he ran on a promise to change the country's
traditional political class and empower the nation's poor majority.
However, since taking office, his controversial strategies have
exacerbated racial and economic tensions between the Amerindian
populations of the Andean west and the non-indigenous communities of
the eastern lowlands.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of
sovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a declaration of
independence from the former Yugoslavia on 3 March 1992 after a
referendum boycotted by ethnic Serbs. The Bosnian Serbs - supported
by neighboring Serbia and Montenegro - responded with armed
resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and
joining Serb-held areas to form a "Greater Serbia." In March 1994,
Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from
three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/Croat
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, in
Dayton, Ohio, the warring parties initialed a peace agreement that
brought to a halt three years of interethnic civil strife (the final
agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton Peace
Accords retained Bosnia and Herzegovina's international boundaries
and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government charged
with conducting foreign, diplomatic, and fiscal policy. Also
recognized was a second tier of government comprised of two entities
roughly equal in size: the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska (RS). The
Federation and RS governments were charged with overseeing most
government functions. The Office of the High Representative (OHR)
was established to oversee the implementation of the civilian
aspects of the agreement. In 1995-96, a NATO-led international
peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia to
implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFOR
was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR)
whose mission was to deter renewed hostilities. European Union
peacekeeping troops (EUFOR) replaced SFOR in December 2004; their
mission is to maintain peace and stability throughout the country.
EUFOR's mission changed from peacekeeping to civil policing in
October 2007, with its presence reduced from nearly 7,000 to 2,500
troops.
Botswana
Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana
adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. Four decades of
uninterrupted civilian leadership, progressive social policies, and
significant capital investment have created one of the most dynamic
economies in Africa. Mineral extraction, principally diamond mining,
dominates economic activity, though tourism is a growing sector due
to the country's conservation practices and extensive nature
preserves. Botswana has one of the world's highest known rates of
HIV/AIDS infection, but also one of Africa's most progressive and
comprehensive programs for dealing with the disease.
Bouvet Island
This uninhabited volcanic island is almost entirely
covered by glaciers and is difficult to approach. It was discovered
in 1739 by a French naval officer after whom the island was named.
No claim was made until 1825, when the British flag was raised. In
1928, the UK waived its claim in favor of Norway, which had occupied
the island the previous year. In 1971, Norway designated Bouvet
Island and the adjacent territorial waters a nature reserve. Since
1977, it has run an automated meteorological station on the island.
Brazil
Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil
became an independent nation in 1822 and a republic in 1889. By far
the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil
overcame more than half a century of military intervention in the
governance of the country when in 1985 the military regime
peacefully ceded power to civilian rulers. Brazil continues to
pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of its
interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool,
it is today South America's leading economic power and a regional
leader. Highly unequal income distribution and crime remain pressing
problems.
British Indian Ocean Territory
Formerly administered as part of the
British Crown Colony of Mauritius, the British Indian Ocean
Territory (BIOT) was established as an overseas territory of the UK
in 1965. A number of the islands of the territory were later
transferred to the Seychelles when it attained independence in 1976.
Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of the six main island groups
comprising the Chagos Archipelago. The largest and most southerly of
the islands, Diego Garcia, contains a joint UK-US naval support
facility. All of the remaining islands are uninhabited. Between 1967
and 1973, former agricultural workers, earlier residents in the
islands, were relocated primarily to Mauritius, but also to the
Seychelles. Negotiations between 1971 and 1982 resulted in the
establishment of a trust fund by the British Government as
compensation for the displaced islanders, known as Chagossians.
Beginning in 1998, the islanders pursued a series of lawsuits
against the British Government seeking further compensation and the
right to return to the territory. In 2006 and 2007, British court
rulings invalidated the immigration policies contained in the 2004
BIOT Constitution Order that had excluded the islanders from the
archipelago, but upheld the special military status of Diego Garcia.
In 2008, the House of Lords, as the final court of appeal in the UK,
ruled in favor of the British Goverment by overturning the lower
court rulings and finding no right of return on the part of the
Chagossians.
British Virgin Islands
First inhabited by Arawak and later by Carib
Indians, the Virgin Islands were settled by the Dutch in 1648 and
then annexed by the English in 1672. The islands were part of the
British colony of the Leeward Islands from 1872-1960; they were
granted autonomy in 1967. The economy is closely tied to the larger
and more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar is
the legal currency.
Brunei
The Sultanate of Brunei's influence peaked between the 15th
and 17th centuries when its control extended over coastal areas of
northwest Borneo and the southern Philippines. Brunei subsequently
entered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royal
succession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. In
1888, Brunei became a British protectorate; independence was
achieved in 1984. The same family has ruled Brunei for over six
centuries. Brunei benefits from extensive petroleum and natural gas
fields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in Asia.