All Israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "And
thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for
ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I may be
glorified".
1. Rabbi (1) said, "which is the right course that a man should choose
for himself? (2) That which is a pride to him who pursues it and
which also brings him honor from mankind. Be as scrupulous about a
light precept as about a grave one, for thou knowest not the grant of
reward for each precept. Reckon the loss incurred by the fulfilment
of a precept against the reward secured by its observance (3), and the
gain gotten by a transgression against the loss it involves. Consider
three things, that thou mayest not come within the power of sin (4).
Know what is above thee--a seeing eye, and a hearing ear, and all thy
deeds written in a book" (5).
(1) Rabbi Judah (135-220 C.E.), son of Simeon (chapter I, 18),
was known as "Rabbi," as a mark of distinction, owing to the
fact that he was the chief reviser and compiler of the
_Mishnah_. Earlier compilers of the _Mishnah_ had been
Hillel, Akiba, and R. Meir. Rabbi Judah was also known as
_Rabbenu_ (our Master), _ha-Nasi_ (the Prince), and
_ha-Kodesh_ (the Holy). He is said to have died[*] on the day
that Akiba met his death at the hands of the Romans. See
Danziger, _Jewish Forerunners of Christianity_, pp. 242-274,
Myers, _Story of the Jewish People_, I, 210-222, and Strack,
_Einleitung in den Talmud_, p. 96. [* a prior owner of the
source text annotated it by crossing out "died" and writing in
"been born".]
(2) Maimonides interprets this verse as meaning to pursue a
medium course between two equally bad extremes, the _too much_
and the _too little_. On this subject, see his celebrated
fourth chapter of the _Shemonah Perakim_ (_The Eight
Chapters_) on the "mean"; ed. Gorfinkle, p. 54, _et seq._
(3) _I.e._, the loss in this world as against the reward in
the future world. On the Rabbinic idea of reward and
punishment, see Schechter, _Aspects_, pp. 162-163, and
Herford, _Pharisaism_, p. 267 _et seq._
(4) Cf. chapter III, 1. No deeds, great or small, are lost
sight of by God.
(5) On the divine books or book, see Exodus XXXII, 35.
Malachi III, 16, and Daniel VII, 10, etc. The heavenly "Book
of Life" is prominently mentioned in the ritual of the New
Year and the Day of Atonement, especially in the celebrated
prayer, _U-netanneh Tokef_ of Rabbi Amnon of Mayence. The New
Year's greeting, "May you be inscribed for a happy year!" is
evidence of the popularity of the idea of a divine book in
which the fate of a man is written. See the _Jewish
Encyclopedia_, art. _Book of Life_.
2. Rabban Gamaliel, the son of Rabbi Judah, the Prince, said,
"Excellent is the study of _Torah_ combined with some worldly pursuit
(6), for the effort demanded by them both makes sin to be forgotten.
All study of _Torah_ without work must at length be futile, and leads
to sin (7). Let all who are employed with the congregation act with
them for Heaven's sake, for then the merit of their fathers sustains
them, and their righteousness endures for ever (8). And as for you
(God will then say), 'I account you worthy of great reward, as if you
had wrought it all yourselves.' 3. Be on your guard against the
ruling power (9); for they who exercise it draw no man near to them
except for their own interests; appearing as friends when it is to
their own advantage, they stand not by a man in the hour of his need."
4. He used to say, "Do His will as if it were thy will. Nullify thy
will before His will, that He may nullify the will of others before
thy will."
(6) The expression _Talmud Torah_ (lit., "study of the Law")
means the study of all sacred learning. The word _Torah_,
here, is to be construed in its broadest sense. See chapter
I, n. 4. Such study was one of the duties to which no limit
was fixed (_Peah_ I, 1). The expression [derech eretz] means
"good manners" (chapter III, 21), or "worldly business," or
"care" (chapter III, 6), according to the context. Study
combined with some trade or profession is, according to R.
Gamaliel, the proper thing. See chapter IV, n. 24.
(7) Cf. _Kiddushin_, 29a, "He who does not teach his son a
trade teaches him to be a thief."
(8) In every community, the work and goodness of past
generations live in the present, and the good that the
community does in the present will live on in the future. On
the "merit of the fathers" ([z'chut avot]), see Schechter,
_Some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology_, chapter XII, especially
pp. 175-177, where this passage is quoted.
(9) This verse is directed toward the leaders of the
community. Cf. above, chapter I, 10.
5. Hillel (10) said, "Separate not thyself from the congregation (11);
trust not in thyself until the day of thy death (12); judge not thy
neighbor until thou art come into his place; and say not anything
which cannot be understood at once, in the hope that it will be
understood in the end (13); neither say, 'When I have leisure I will
study'; perchance thou wilt have no leisure." 6. He used to say, "An
empty-headed man cannot be a sin-fearing man, nor can an ignorant
person (14) be pious, nor can a shamefaced man (15) learn, nor a
passionate man (16) teach, nor can one who is engaged overmuch in
business grow wise (17). In a place where there are no men, strive to
be a man" (18). 7. Moreover, he once saw a skull floating on the
surface of the water. He said to it, "Because thou didst drown
(others) they have drowned thee, and at the last they that drowned
thee shall themselves be drowned" (19). 8. He used to say, "The more
flesh, the more works; the more property, the more anxiety; the more
women, the more witchcraft; the more maid-servants, the more lewdness;
the more men-servants, the more robbery; the more _Torah_, the more
life (20); the more schooling, the more wisdom; the more counsel, the
more understanding; the more charity, the more peace. He who has
acquired a good name has acquired it for himself; he who has acquired
for himself words of _Torah_ has acquired for himself life in the
world to come" (21).
(10) The chain of traditional sayings is continued here from
chapter I, 14, with other maxims of Hillel. See
_Introduction_, p. 17.
(11) _I.e._, share its weal and woe. Cf. _Taanit_, 11a, "He
who does not join the community in times of danger and trouble
will never enjoy the divine blessing."
(12) One should constantly be on guard against oneself. The
_Talmud_ (_Berachot_, 29a) illustrates this saying by
referring to a certain Jochanan, who, after having been
high-priest for eighty years, became a heretic.
(13) This verse may be variously translated and interpreted.
Its translation here is in accordance with the interpretation
of Maimonides. Do not express yourself in such a way that
your words may be understood only after careful study and deep
thought, but let them be clear and intelligible.
(14) The word [bur (bet-vov-resh)] means "uncultivated"
([sadeh bur] "an uncultivated field"). It is used of an
ignorant, uncultured, mannerless person, possessing no moral
or spiritual virtues. Taylor translates it by "boor." [am
ha'aretz], literally "people of the land," "country people,"
is applied to an individual who may possess good manners, and
may be literate, but who has no religious knowledge, nor
training, nor does not observe religious customs. Taylor
renders it "vulgar." Mayer Sulzberger maintains that this
term was applied to an assembly of representatives of the
people constituting a body similar to the modern Parliament,
and divided into a lower and upper house. See his "_The Am
Ha-aretz, The Ancient Hebrew Parliament._" On the _Am
ha-aretz_ and his opposite the _chaber_, see Schurer,
_History_, II, ii, pp. 8, 9 and pp. 22 _et seq._, also
Herford, _ibid._ pp. 46-47.
(15) _I.e._, he who is ashamed to ask questions for fear of
exposing his ignorance.
(16) He who has no patience to answer all the questions of his
pupils.
(17) Cf. chapter IV, 12. One of the qualifications necessary
for the acquirement of the _Torah_ is moderation in business.
(18) Do not boldly push yourself forward; but where there is
no one to fill the position of teacher or leader, or to be the
head of the community, and you have the qualifications, do not
shrink from being the man.
(19) Retribution is sure. Cf. _Sanhedrin_, 100a and _Sotah_,
9b, "with what measure a man measures, is it measured unto
him."
(20) Cf. Prov. III, 1 and 2.
(21) The expression "the world to come" may mean the Messianic
days, the time after the Messianic era, the days after the
resurrection or the spiritual hereafter. Maimonides discusses
at length the various theories, in _Perek Chelek_ (Commentary
on _Sanhedrin_, X, 1), which has been translated into English
by J. Abelson, in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_ (London), vol.
XXIX, p. 28 _et seq._ See also _The Hebrew Review_ (London,
1840), p. 254 _et seq._ Consult Schurer, _History_, II, ii,
92.
9. Rabban Jochanan, the son of Zakkai (22) received (the tradition)
from Hillel and Shammai. He used to say, "If thou hast learnt much
_Torah_, ascribe not any merit to thyself, for thereunto wast thou
created."
(22) Rabban Jochanan ben Zakkai was known as the least of the
disciples of Hillel. He was a contemporary of the historian
Josephus. Escaping in a coffin from Jerusalem, when it was
besieged by the Roman general Vespasian, and predicting the
latter's elevation to the imperial dignity, Jochanan was
allowed by Vespasian to go to Jabneh (Jamnia), where he
founded the celebrated academy which became the centre of
learning in Palestine, as Jerusalem had previously been. He
was the most important scribe in the first decade after the
destruction of the Temple (70 C.E.). See Strack, _Einleitung
in den Talmud_, p. 86 _et seq._, Bacher, _Agada der Tanaiten_,
pp. 25-46, Myers, _Story of the Jewish People_, I, pp.
151-160, and Danziger, _Jewish Forerunners of Christianity_,
pp. 55-72.
10. Rabban Jochanan, the son of Zakkai, had five disciples (23), and
these are they: Rabbi Eliezer, the son of Hyrcanus; Rabbi Joshua, the
son of Hananiah (24); Rabbi Jose, the Priest; Rabbi Simeon, the son of
Nataniel; and Rabbi Eleazar, the son of Arach. 11. He used thus to
recount their praise: "Eliezer, the son of Hyrcanus, is a cemented
cistern, which loses not a drop (25); Joshua, the son of Hananiah,
happy is she that bare him (26); Jose, the Priest, is a pious man
(27); Simeon, the son of Nataniel, is a fearer of sin; Eleazar, the
son of Arach, is like a spring flowing with ever-sustained vigor"
(28). 12. He used to say, "If all the sages of Israel were in one
scale of the balance, and Eliezer, the son of Hyrcanus, in the other,
he would outweigh them all." Abba Saul (29) said in his name, "If all
the sages of Israel were in one scale of the balance, and Eliezer, the
son of Hyrcanus, also with them, and Eleazar, the son of Arach, in the
other scale, he would outweigh them all." 13. He said to them, "Go
forth and see which is the good way to which a man should cleave." R.
Eliezer said, "A good eye" (30); R. Joshua said, "A good friend"; R.
Jose said, "A good neighbor" (31); R. Simeon said, "One who foresees
the fruit of an action" (32); R. Eleazar said, "A good heart."
Thereupon he said to them, "I approve of the words of Eleazar, the son
of Arach, rather than your words, for in his words yours are included"
(33). 14. He said to them, "Go forth and see which is the evil way
that a man should shun." R. Eliezer said, "An evil eye" (34); R.
Joshua said, "A bad friend"; R. Jose said, "A bad neighbor"; R. Simeon
said, "One who borrows and does not repay--it is the same whether one
borrows from man or the Omnipresent (35); as it is said, 'The wicked
borroweth and payeth not again, but the righteous dealeth graciously
and giveth'" (36); R. Eleazar said, "A bad heart." Thereupon he said
to them, "I approve of the words of Eleazar, the son of Arach, rather
then your words, for in his words yours are included."
(23) Of special excellence.
(24) On the life of R. Joshua (40-130 C.E.), see Bacher,
_ibid._, 129-194, Myers, _ibid._, 161-170, Danziger, _ibid._,
122-151.
(25) He forgets nothing he has learned. On R. Eliezer, see
Danziger, _ibid._, 91-121.
(26) When yet a child in the cradle, his mother took him into
the synagogue that he might thus early hear the words of the
_Torah_.
(27) A _chasid_ ([chasid]), "saint," is one who does more than
the strict letter of the law requires. See Schechter,
_Studies_, II, pp. 148-181, _idem_, _Aspects_, p. 209, Rawicz,
_Commentar des Maimonides_, pp. 95-96, and Gorfinkle, _The
Eight Chapters_, pp. 60-62.
(28) "A welling spring" (Taylor).
(29) He lived in the first half of the second century, C.E.
(30) _I.e._, an eye that looks upon people with benevolence
and kind feelings, free from envy and ill-will.
(31) A good friend is one who induces his associate to study
_Torah_, and who reproves him when he sees him doing wrong.
The passage means not so much to gain a good friend as to _be_
a good friend.
(32) One who balances the present against the future.
(33) The heart was considered the seat of all moral and
spiritual functions. See Schechter, _Aspects_, p. 255 _et
seq._
(34) Denotes niggardliness, envy, or jealousy.
(35) _I.e._, one who lacks foresight and incurs
responsibilities he is unable to meet borrows from God, as all
wealth belongs to Him, and men are merely His stewards. The
word [makom], literally "place," "space," was used to
designate Jerusalem, or the Temple, as being _the_ place where
God's spirit dwells; or it may also refer to the divine court
of the _Sanhedrin_. It then came to be used as an appellative
for God. As Schechter remarks, "The term is mainly indicative
of God's ubiquity in the world and can best be translated by
'Omnipresent.'" See Hoffmann, _Sanhedrin_ VI, note 56,
Taylor, _Sayings_, p. 53, note 42, and Schechter, _Aspects_,
pp. 26-27, where the literature on this subject is given. See
also Friedlander, _The Jewish Religion_, p. 287, and the
Jewish Encyclopedia_, art. _Names of God_.
(36) Psalm XXXVII, 21.
15. They each said three things. R. Eliezer said, "Let thy friend's
honor be as dear to thee as thine own (37); be not easily excited to
anger; and repent one day before thy death" (38). And (he further
said), "Warm thyself by the fire of the wise, but beware of their
glowing coals, lest thou be burnt, for their bite is the bite of the
fox, and their sting is the scorpion's sting, and their hiss is the
serpent's hiss, and all their words are like coals of fire" (39). 16.
R. Joshua said, "The evil eye, the evil inclination (40), and hatred
of his fellow-creatures (41), put a man out of the world." 17. R.
Jose said, "Let the property of thy friend be as dear to thee as thine
own; prepare thyself for the study of _Torah_, since the knowledge of
it is not an inheritance of thine, and let all thy deeds be done in
the name of God" (42). 18. R. Simeon said, "Be careful in reading the
_Shema_ (43) and the _Amidah_ (44); and when thou prayest, consider
not thy prayer as a fixed (mechanical) task, but as (an appeal for)
mercy and grace before the All-present, as it is said, 'For he is
gracious and full of mercy, slow to anger, and abounding in
loving-kindness, and repenteth him of the evil' (45); and be not
wicked in thine own esteem" (46). 19. R. Eleazar said, "Be diligent
in studying _Torah_, and know what answer to give to the unbeliever
(47); know also before whom thou toilest, and who thy Employer is, who
will pay thee the reward of thy labor."
(37) Cf. chapter IV, 15.
(38) Man should repent every day of his life, for he knows not
on what day he may die (_Shabbat_, 153a).
(39) One who wishes to warm himself remains a certain distance
away from the fire; if he approaches too near, he is burned;
so, do not endeavor to become too intimate with the wise, as
their opinion of you may change to your detriment. The
"bite," the "sting," and the "hiss" represent the terribleness
of the looks of the wise who have been angered.
(40) Passion, evil nature, or evil inclination.
(41) Misanthropy.
(42) In making man's highest ideal the comprehension of God,
Maimonides, in the _Shemonah Perakim_, supports his view by
referring to the latter part of this verse. He says, "The
sages of blessed memory, too, have summed up this idea in so
few words and so concisely, at the same time elucidating the
whole matter with such complete thoroughness, that when one
considers the brevity with which they express this great and
mighty thought in its entirety, about which others have
written whole books and yet without adequately explaining it,
one truly recognizes that the Rabbis undoubtedly spoke through
divine inspiration. This saying is found among their
precepts, and is, 'Let all thy deeds be done in the name of
God.'" See Gorfinkle, _The Eight Chapters_, p. 73.
(43) This prayer consists of three portions of the Pentateuch
(Deut. VI, 4-9; XI, 13-21; Num. XV, 37-41), and gets its name
from the initial word of the first portion. It is appointed
to be read twice daily, in the morning and in the evening. On
the time when the _Shema_ is to be read, see _Berachot_ I, 1.
See Schurer, _History_, II, ii, 77, 83, _et seq._;
Friedlander, _Jewish Religion_, pp. 430, 435; _Jewish
Encyclopedia_, art. _Shema_, and Adler, in the _Jewish Review_
(London, 1910), vol. I, number 2, p. 159.
(44) An important part of the ritual said at the daily
morning, afternoon, and evening service, and also at the
additional service on Sabbaths and holy days, is known as (1)
_Tefillah_ (prayer)_, or (2) _Shemoneh Esreh_ (eighteen), or
(3) _Amidah_ (standing). It is known as _Tefillah_ because it
is considered the prayer _par excellence;_ as _Shemoneh Esreh_
because originally it consisted of eighteen prayers (now
nineteen); and as _Amidah_ (by Sephardic Jews) because it must
be said standing. The _Shema_ and the _Shemoneh Esreh_ have
been appropriately styled the "two pillars of the fabric of
the liturgy." See Schurer, _ibid._; Friedlander, _ibid._, pp.
430, 437; in the _Jewish Encyclopedia, art. _Shemoneh Esreh_;
Schechter, _Studies_, II, pp. 67068; Adler, _ibid._, p. 159;
and Herford, _ibid._, pp. 298-299.
(45) Joel II, 13.
(46) Do not do what your conscience tells you is wrong, even
though it does not appear to others as such; or, do not sin in
secret, thinking that you will escape punishment because
others do not see you.
(47) _Apikuros_ is a term originally used to designate a
follower of the philosopher Epicurus, whose axiom was that
"happiness or enjoyment is the _summum bonum_ of life."
Later, this word was used by the Rabbis to designate a
free-thinker, a heretic, an unbeliever, or a despiser of the
Law, Jewish or non-Jewish. Josephus (_Antiquities_, X, 11, 7,
ed. Whiston-Margoliouth, p. 300) describes the Epicureans as
those "who cast providence out of human life, and do not
believe that God takes care of the affairs of the world, nor
that the universe is governed and continued in being by that
blessed and immortal nature, but say that the world is carried
along of its own accord without a ruler and a curator."
Maimonides, in his commentary on _Sanhedrin_, X, 1, derives
the word from the Hebrew, [hefkeir (hey-fey-kuf-resh)],
"freedom," and defines it as one who refuses obedience to the
Law. Schechter (_Studies in Judaism_, I, p. 158) says, "It
implies rather a frivolous treatment of the words of Scripture
and tradition." See the _Jewish Encyclopedia_ art.
_Apikuros_, and Barton, _Ecclesiastes_, p. 41. This verse may
also be rendered, "Study _Torah_, and also know ([v'da
(vov-daled-ayin)]) how to answer an unbeliever," meaning that
first one should study _Torah_ and _Talmud_, and then give his
time to learning other knowledge, so as to be able to refute
those who stray from the truth.
20. Rabbi Tafron (48) said, "The day is short, the task is great (49),
the laborers are sluggish, the reward is much, and the Master of the
house (50) is urgent." 21. He also used to say, "It is not thy duty
to complete the work, but neither art thou free to desist from it; if
thou hast studied much _Torah_, much reward will be given thee; and
faithful is thy Employer to pay thee the reward of thy labor; and know
that the grant of reward unto the righteous will be in the time to
come" (51).
Rabbi Chanania, the son of Akashia, said, "The Holy One, blessed be
He, was pleased to make Israel worthy; wherefore He gave them a
copious _Torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'It pleased the
Lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _Torah_ and make it
honorable'".
(48) A contemporary of Jochanan ben Zakkai's five disciples
and of Akiba. See Bacher, _ibid._, pp. 348-358, and Meyer,
_ibid._, p. 179.
(49) The day, _i.e._, the life of man, is brief. Art is long,
but life is short.
(50) _I.e._, God.
(51) A man cannot finish the work of the world, yet he must
not yield to idleness and despair, but must do his share to
the best of his ability. His reward will come in the future.