At any time there are always some people who look back and say, 'Ah,
things are not what they were. There are no such men nowadays as there
used to be. The good old days are over. When I was young....' and so on.
Such men see in change nothing but evil. There is, to some minds,
a danger in every change: but there may be greater danger in standing
still.
The evils that men like the Gracchi saw in their own time made them
desire to see the life of Rome move forward to other and better ways.
A new world had opened round them: new ideas, new forces were making
themselves felt. Rome was no longer a small city, whose existence was
closed in by its own walls; it was the centre of a great dominion, and
touched the life of other peoples and nations at innumerable points. The
ways of the old could not be those of the new Rome. They saw the
difficulties and risks, but they saw too the promise of better things to
be won.
[Illustration: THE TOMB OF A ROMAN FAMILY:
to show simplicity of dress]
Very different was the outlook of a man like Marcus Porcius Cato. To him
the ancient ways alone seemed right. He modelled his own life and
actions so far as he could upon the heroes of the past, especially on
those like Cincinnatus, who were noted for their simplicity and
frugality. Cincinnatus, though he had held the highest offices in Rome,
was found driving his own plough by those who came from Rome in an hour
of peril to ask him to take over the highest power in the State. So Cato
kept his dress, the furnishings of his house and table, and everything
about him as plain as those he might have had in the days when every one
was poor. In his own record of his life he reports that he never wore a
garment that cost him more than a hundred drachmae; that even when
praetor or consul he drank the same wine as his slaves; that a dinner
never cost him from the market above thirty pence; and that he was thus
frugal for the sake of his country, that he might be able to endure the
harder service in war. He adds that having got, among some goods he was
heir to, a piece of Babylonian tapestry, he sold it immediately; that
the walls of his country houses were neither plastered nor white-washed;
that he never gave more for a slave than fifteen hundred drachmae, as
not requiring in his servants delicate shapes and fine faces but
strength and ability to labour, that they might be fit to be employed in
his stables, about his cattle or on such-like business; and that he
thought proper to sell them again when they grew old, that he might have
no useless persons to maintain. In a word he thought nothing cheap that
was superfluous, that what a man has no need of is dear even at a penny;
and that it is much better to have fields where the plough goes and
cattle feed, than gardens and walks that require much watering and
sweeping. This stern simplicity he carried throughout his life and in
words of eloquence (he was one of the most powerful speakers in Rome) he
tried to get others to imitate him.
[Illustration: PLOUGHING: a terra-cotta group]
Cato's own character was of remarkable firmness. He did not ask other
people to do what he would not do himself. He served in war again and
again, and distinguished himself as a soldier, though his harshness made
him detested by the peoples he conquered, for instance in Spain. But he
wanted every one to think and live in his way, and judged with cruel
severity those who thought or acted otherwise. The key to his character,
both its strength and its weakness, is given by Plutarch when he remarks
that 'Goodness moves in a larger sphere than justice.' Cato was just:
but his justice was often harsh, cruel, and ungenerous. Thus he left his
war-horse behind him when he left Spain, to save the public purse the
charge of his freight, just as he sold his slaves when they became too
old to work. In this we see carefulness and indifference to comfort and
luxury turning to parsimony and meanness. As Cato grew older he became
more and more fond of having money though not of spending it. He himself
had prospered in life and, as he grew older, became extremely rich both
from his farms and from lending money, at high interest, to shipping and
other companies. For those who did not succeed he had a very severe
judgement and small pity, as for those who gave way to any of the faults
from which he was free. He judged instead of understanding them. His
judgement was just but not sympathetic. His own account of the duties of
a bailiff and his wife gives an excellent idea of the man.
_The Duties of a Bailiff and his Wife_
These will be your duties as bailiff. Maintain strict discipline;
observe rest-days; do not lay hands on the property of another,
but keep a careful watch over your own. It is your business to
settle disputes in the household and to punish offences without
excessive severity. The household ought to be well cared for,
never suffering from cold or hunger, and should be sufficiently
employed; in which case it will be easier to stop unruliness and
dishonesty. If your conduct is good, your example will be
followed; if you are wronged, your master will inflict the
punishment. Reward merit, and thus encourage others to exert
themselves. Do not waste time in taking walks; always be sober,
and never go out to dinner. See that your master's orders are
carried out, and do not suppose that you are wiser than he is. His
friends should be your friends, and you should obey those whom you
are bidden to obey. Do not sacrifice at the cross-ways and on the
hearth of the homestead except at the great festival of the
_Lares_. Do not make an advance without your master's knowledge,
but exact all that is due to him. Never lend seed-corn,
provisions, meal, grain, wine, or oil to any one. There should be
two or three households to which you apply in times of need, and
which you similarly help; but no more. Be punctual in settling
accounts with your master. Special labour on the land, paid by the
day, should not be employed beyond the term agreed. Buy nothing
without your master's knowledge, nor, indeed, keep any transaction
from him. Let no one sponge upon you; consult no soothsayer,
augur, prophet, or Chaldaean. Do not stint the sowing; for the
result will be a poor crop. Acquaint yourself thoroughly with all
the work on the farm, and often do some yourself, as long as it
does not overtire you. Thus you will understand the feelings of
the workers and they, knowing this, will be more contented, while
you will enjoy better health, have less taste for idle walks, and
be more ready for sleep. Be first to get up in the morning, and
last to go to bed at night, taking care that the house is locked
up, that everyone is at rest in his proper place, and that the
animals have got their fodder.
You should take care, too, that your wife does not neglect her
duties. Make her fear you. Do not let her indulge in luxury. She
should see as little as possible of her neighbours and other
female friends; she should not entertain at home or go out to
dinner, or waste time in walks. Do not let her sacrifice, or
depute any one else to sacrifice, without the orders of her master
or mistress; for it must be understood that the master sacrifices
for all the household. She should be neat, and keep the house neat
and swept, and every day, before she goes to bed, she should see
that the hearth is clean and the ashes gathered on to the embers.
On days of festival, Kalends, Nones, or Ides, she should lay a
garland on the hearth and during the same days offer up prayer to
the Lar of the house for plenty. It is her business to see that
food is cooked for you and everybody else, and to keep a good
supply of poultry and eggs.
Cato, _De Re Rustica_, v. 1-5; cxliii. 1-2.
[Illustration: THE SHRINE OF THE LAR
from a house in Pompeii]
This same just but hard and ungenerous spirit is seen in Cato's public
life. As Censor he had the right to strike off the roll of senators men
who were in any respect unworthy. In doing this Cato was fearless. He
attacked the most popular men in Rome and did not yield an inch when
there was a howl against him. Public money was to him as sacred as
private, and ought, he held, to be husbanded in the same careful way.
Thus he attacked the brother of Scipio Africanus, because, as he said,
he had spent more than he ought on his campaigns. He admired Scipio
greatly. Cato was far too intelligent not to appreciate his high
qualities of mind and character: but he thought him a new and therefore
dangerous kind of man.
Fifty years after the battle of Zama the Carthaginians, who were not
allowed by the treaty to make war without the permission of Rome, sent
an appeal for protection against Masannasa, the King of Numidia, who had
gradually been encroaching on their territory. A Commission was sent out
from Rome to inquire, with Cato at its head. Cato came back possessed by
one idea, which never afterwards left him. 'Carthage must be destroyed.
Rome would not be safe until it was blotted out.' When it was pointed
out to him that the city was in no sense dangerous to Rome, that it had
practically no arms, absolutely no fleet, and had shown in fifty years
no sort of desire to attack Rome, was indeed too weak even to defend
itself against attack, Cato paid no heed. It did not stir him when
Scipio urged that to attack a defeated and helpless city was mean and
unworthy of Rome, that its greatness would not be increased by
destroying a beaten foe. Cato paid no heed. Carthage was rich and
flourishing: it might one day be a danger again. It was taking trade
that Rome might get, it possessed riches Rome might have. He was a
powerful and effective speaker and his name stood high in Rome. What he
said had a great influence because his character was deeply respected.
Though old, his red hair quite white, he had lost none of his vigour.
His dry humour could still make the Senate laugh, and his passionate
earnestness rouse them to anger. His grey eyes sparkled, his long white
teeth flashed when, day in, day out, whatever the main subject of his
speech, the inflexible old man always ended with the words, 'Carthage
must be destroyed'.
Cato had his way in the end. The Romans carried out the destruction of
Carthage (146). It was a mean and disgraceful act. The Carthaginians had
already submitted, without terms, to the mercy of the Roman people. When
the consuls arrived they first demanded that all arms should be
collected and given up: then that all the inhabitants should depart and
the city itself be removed. This was too much. The desperate people
resolved to resist, and resist they did with terrible and extraordinary
heroism.
Cato himself did not live through the siege: but he died knowing that
his fierce will had its way. Carthage was to be destroyed. As a city it
was to exist no longer.