With commendable energy the newly organized Society set about the
accomplishment of the task before it. Plans were discussed during the
summer, and in November two agents, Samuel J. Mills and Ebenezer
Burgess, sailed for Africa to explore the western coast and select a
suitable spot. They were cordially received in England by the officers
of the African Institution, and by Earl Bathurst, Secretary of State for
the Colonies, who provided them with letters to Sierra Leone. Here they
arrived in March, 1818, and were hospitably received, every facility
being afforded them to prosecute their inquiries, though marked
unwillingness to have a foreign colony established in the vicinity was
not concealed. Their inspection was carried as far south as Sherbro
Island, where they obtained promises from the natives to sell land to
the colonists on their arrival with goods to pay for it. In May they
embarked on the return voyage. Mills died before reaching home. His
colleague made a most favorable report of the locality selected, though,
as the event proved, it was a most unfortunate one.
After defraying the expenses of this exploration the Society's treasury
was practically empty. It would have been most difficult to raise the
large sum necessary to equip and send out a body of emigrants; and the
whole enterprise would have languished and perhaps died but for a new
impelling force. Monroe, who ever since his correspondence with
Jefferson in 1800, had pondered over "the vast and interesting objects"
which colonization might accomplish, was now by an interesting chain of
circumstances enabled to render essential aid.
Though the importation of slaves had been strictly prohibited by the Act
of Congress of March 2, 1807, no provision had been made for the care of
the unfortunates smuggled in in defiance of the Statute. They became
subject to the laws of the State in which they were landed; and these
laws were in some cases so devised that it was profitable for the dealer
to land his cargo and incur the penalty. The advertisements of the sale
of such a cargo of "recaptured Africans" by the State of Georgia drew
the attention of the Society and of Gen. Mercer in particular to this
inconsistent and abnormal state of affairs. His profound indignation
shows forth in the Second Annual Report of the Society, in which the
attention of the public is earnestly drawn to the question; nor did he
rest until a bill was introduced into the House of Representatives
designed to do away with the evil. This bill became a law on March 3,
1819.
Provision was made for a more stringent suppression of the slave trade:
new cruisers were ordered and bounties awarded for captures; but the
clause which proved so important to the embryo colony was that dealing
with the captured cargoes:
"The President of the United States is hereby authorized to make such
regulations and arrangements as he may deem expedient for the
safe-keeping, support, and removal beyond the limits of the United
States, of all such negroes, mulattoes, or persons of color as may be so
delivered and brought within their jurisdiction; and to appoint a proper
person or persons residing upon the coast of Africa as agent or agents
for receiving the negroes, mulattoes, or persons of color, delivered
from on board vessels seized in the prosecution of the slave trade by
commanders of the United States armed vessels." The sum of $100,000 was
appropriated for carrying out the provisions of the Act. President
Monroe determined to construe it as broadly as possible in aid of the
project of colonization. After giving Congress, in his message,
December 20, 1818, fair notice of his intention, no objection being
made, he proceeded to appoint two agents, the Rev. Samuel Bacon, already
in the service of the Colonization Society, and John P. Bankson as
assistant, and to charter the ship Elizabeth. The agents were instructed
to settle on the coast of Africa, with a tacit understanding that the
place should be that selected by the Colonization Society; they were to
provide accommodations sufficient for three hundred, supplying
provisions, clothing, tools, and implements. It is important to note the
essential part taken by the Government in the establishment of the
colony, for this is often said to be purely the result of private
enterprise; the inference tending to free the United States from any
responsibility for the protection of its feeble offspring. It is true
according to the letter, that the Government agency was separate from
the colony: the agents were instructed "to exercise no power founded on
the principle of colonization, or other principle than that of
performing benevolent offices;" and again, "you are not to connect your
agency with the views or plans of the Colonization Society, with which,
under the law, the Government of the United States has no concern," Yet
as a matter of fact the agency and colony were practically identical;
and for years the resources of the Government were employed "to colonize
recaptured Africans, to build homes for them, to furnish them with
farming utensils, to pay instructors to teach them, to purchase ships
for their convenience, to build forts for their protection, to supply
them with arms and munitions of war, to enlist troops to guard them, and
to employ the army and navy in their defence,"[7] These words of one
unfriendly to the colony forcibly show the extent to which our national
government was responsible for the experiment.
When the Elizabeth was chartered the Society was notified that the
Government agency was prepared to transport their first colonists; or
more literally "agreed to receive on board such free blacks recommended
by the Society as might be required for the purpose of the agency." For
the expenses of the expedition $33,000 was placed in the hands of Mr.
Bacon. Dr. Samuel A. Crozier was appointed by the Society as its agent
and representative; and eighty-six negroes from various
states--thirty-three men, eighteen women, and the rest children, were
embarked. On the 6th of February, 1820, the Mayflower of Liberia weighed
anchor in New York harbor, and, convoyed by the U.S. sloop-of-war Cyane,
steered her course toward the shores of Africa. The pilgrims were kindly
treated by the authorities at Sierra Leone, where they arrived on the
ninth of March; but on proceeding to Sherbro Island they found the
natives had reconsidered their promise, and refused to sell them land.
While delayed by negotiations the injudicious nature of the site
selected was disastrously shown. The low marshy ground and the bad water
quickly bred the African fever, which soon carried off all the agents
and nearly a fourth of the emigrants. The rest, weakened and
disheartened were soon obliged to seek refuge at Sierra Leone.
In March, 1821, a body of twenty-eight new emigrants under charge of
J.B. Winn and Ephraim Bacon, reached Freetown in the brig Nautilus. Winn
collected as many as he could of the first company, also the stores sent
out with them, and settled the people in temporary quarters at Fourah
Bay, while Bacon set out to explore the coast anew and secure suitable
territory. An elevated fertile and desirable tract was at length
discovered between 250 and 300 miles S.E. of Sierra Leone. This was the
region of Cape Montserado. It seemed exactly suited to the purposes of
the colonists, but the natives refused to sell their land for fear of
breaking up the traffic in slaves; and the agent returned discouraged.
Winn soon died, and Bacon returned to the United States. In November,
Dr. Eli Ayres was sent over as agent, and the U.S. schooner Alligator,
commanded by Lieutenant Stockton, was ordered to the coast to assist in
obtaining a foothold for the colony. Cape Montserado was again visited;
and the address and firmness of Lieutenant Stockton accomplished the
purchase of a valuable tract of land.
The cape upon which the settlers proposed to build their first
habitations consists of a narrow peninsula or tongue of land formed by
the Montserado River, which separates it from the mainland. Just within
the mouth of the river lie two small islands, containing together less
than three acres. To these, the Plymouth of Liberia, the colonists and
their goods were soon transported. But again the fickle natives repented
the bargain, and the settlers were long confined to "Perseverance
Island," as the spot was aptly named. Space forbids entering on the
interesting details of the difficulties they successfully encountered.
After a number of thrilling experiences the emigrants, on April 25,
1822, formally took possession of the cape, where they had erected rude
houses for themselves; and from this moment we may date the existence of
the colony. Their supplies were by this time sadly reduced; the natives
were hostile and treacherous; fever had played havoc with the colonists
in acclimating; and the incessant downpour of the rainy season had set
in. Dr. Ayres became thoroughly discouraged, and proposed to lead them
back to Sierra Leone. Then it was that Elijah Johnson, an emigrant from
New York, made himself forever famous in Liberian history by declaring
that he would never desert the home he had found after two years' weary
quest! His firmness decided the wavering colonists; the agents with a
few faint-hearted ones sailed off to America; but the majority remained
with their heroic Negro leader. The little band, deserted by their
appointed protectors, were soon reduced to the most dire distress, and
must have perished miserably but for the arrival of unexpected relief.
The United States Government had at last gotten hold of some ten
liberated Africans, and had a chance to make use of the agency
established for them at so great an expense. They were accordingly sent
out in the brig Strong under the care of the Rev. Jehudi Ashmun. A
quantity of stores and some thirty-seven emigrants sent by the
Colonization Society completed the cargo. Ashmun had received no
commission as agent for the colony, and expected to return on the
Strong; under this impression his wife had accompanied him. But when he
found the colonists in so desperate a situation he nobly determined to
remain with them at any sacrifice. He visited the native chiefs and
found them, under cover of friendly promises, preparing for a deadly
assault on the little colony. There was no recourse but to prepare for a
vigorous defense. Twenty-seven men were capable of bearing arms; and one
brass and five iron fieldpieces, all dismantled and rusty, formed his
main hope. Ashmun at once set to work, and with daily drills and
unremitting labor in clearing away the forest and throwing up
earthworks, succeeded at last in putting the settlement in a reasonable
state of defense. It was no easy task. The fatiguing labor, incessant
rains, and scanty food predisposed them to the dreaded fever. Ashmun
himself was prostrated; his wife sank and died before his eyes; and soon
there was but one man in the colony who was not on the sick-list. At
length the long-expected assault was made. Just before daybreak on the
11th of November the settlement was approached by a body of over eight
hundred African warriors. Stealthily following the pickets as they
returned a little too early from their watch, the savages burst upon the
colony and with a rush captured the outworks. A desperate conflict
ensued, the issue of which hung doubtful until the colonists succeeded
in manning their brass field-piece, which was mounted upon a raised
platform, and turning it upon the dense ranks of the assailants. The
effect at such short range was terrible. "Every shot literally spent its
force in a solid mass of living human flesh. Their fire suddenly
terminated. A savage yell was raised, ... and the whole host
disappeared."[8] The victory had been gained at a cost of four killed
and as many seriously wounded. Ammunition was exhausted; food had given
out. Another attack, for which the natives were known to be preparing,
could scarcely fail to succeed. Before it was made, however, an English
captain touched at the cape and generously replenished their stores. On
the very next evening, November 30, the savages were seen gathering in
large numbers on the cape, and toward morning a desperate attack was
made on two sides at once. The lines had been contracted, however, and
all the guns manned, and the well-directed fire of the artillery again
proved too much for native valor. The savages were repulsed with great
loss. The unusual sound of a midnight cannonade attracted the Prince
Regent, an English colonial schooner laden with military stores and
having on board the celebrated traveller Captain Laing, through whose
mediation the natives were brought to agree to a peace most advantageous
to the colonists. When the Prince Regent sailed, Midshipman Gordon, with
eleven British sailors volunteered to remain, to assist the exhausted
colonists and guarantee the truce. His generosity met an ill requital;
within a month he had fallen victim to the climate with eight of the
brave seamen. Supplies were again running low, when March brought the
welcome arrival of the U.S. ship Cyane. Captain R.T. Spence at once
turned his whole force to improving the condition of the colonists.
Buildings were erected, the dismantled colonial schooner was raised and
made sea-worthy, and many invaluable services were rendered, until at
length a severe outbreak of the fever among the crew compelled the
vessel's withdrawal. It was too late, however, to prevent the loss of
forty lives, including the lieutenant, Richard Dashiell, and the
surgeon, Dr. Dix.
On the 24th of May, 1823, the brig Oswego arrived with sixty-one new
emigrants and a liberal supply of stores and tools, in charge of Dr.
Ayres, who, already the representative of the Society, had now been
appointed Government Agent and Surgeon. One of the first measures of the
new agent was to have the town surveyed and lots distributed among the
whole body of colonists. Many of the older settlers found themselves
dispossessed of the holdings improved by their labor, and the colony was
soon in a ferment of excitement and insurrection. Dr. Ayres, finding his
health failing, judiciously betook himself to the United States.
The arrival of the agent had placed Mr. Ashmun in a false position of
the most mortifying character. It will be remembered that in sympathy
for the distress of the colony he had assumed the position of agent
without authority. In the dire necessity of subsequent events he had
been compelled to purchase supplies and ammunition in the Society's
name. He now found, himself superseded in authority, his services and
self-sacrifice unappreciated, his drafts[9] dishonored, his motives
distrusted. Nothing could show more strongly his devotion and
self-abnegation than his action in the present crisis. Seeing the colony
again deserted by the agent and in a state of discontent and confusion,
he forgot his wrongs and remained at the helm. Order was soon restored
but the seeds of insubordination remained. The arrival of 103 emigrants
from Virginia on the Cyrus, in February 1824, added to the difficulty,
as the stock of food was so low that the whole colony had to be put on
half rations. This necessary measure was regarded by the disaffected as
an act of tyranny on Ashmun's part; and when shortly after the complete
prostration of his health compelled him to withdraw to the Cape De Verde
Islands, the malcontents sent home letters charging him with all sorts
of abuse of power, and finally with desertion of his post! The Society
in consternation applied to Government for an expedition of
investigation, and the Rev. R.R. Gurley, Secretary of the Society, and
an enthusiastic advocate of colonization was despatched in June on the
U.S. schooner Porpoise. The result of course revealed the probity,
integrity and good judgment of Mr. Ashman; and Gurley became
thenceforth his warmest admirer. As a preventive of future discontent a
Constitution was adopted at Mr. Gurley's suggestion, giving for the
first time a definite share in the control of affairs to the colonists
themselves. Gurley brought with him the name of the colony--Liberia, and
of its settlement on the Cape--Monrovia, which had been adopted by the
Society on the suggestion of Mr. Robert Goodloe Harper of Maryland. He
returned from his successful mission in August leaving the most cordial
relations established throughout the colony.
Gurley's visit seemed to mark the turning of the tide, and a period of
great prosperity now began. Relay after relay of industrious emigrants
arrived; new land was taken up; successful agriculture removed all
danger of future failure of food supply; and a flourishing trade was
built up at Monrovia. Friendly relations were formed with the natives,
and their children taken for instruction into colonial families and
schools. New settlements were formed; churches and schools appeared; an
efficient militia was organized; printing presses set up and hospitals
erected. On every side rapid progress was made. After years of
illustrious service Ashmun retired to his home in New Haven, where he
died a few days later, on August 25, 1828. Under Dr. Richard Randall and
Dr. Mechlin, who successively filled his post, the prosperity of the
colony continued undiminished.
The decade after 1832 is marked by the independent action of different
State colonization societies. At first generally organized as tributary
to the main body, the State societies now began to form distinct
settlements at other points on the coast. The Maryland Society first
started an important settlement at Cape Palmas, of which we shall make a
special study. Bassa Cove was settled by the joint action of the New
York and Pennsylvania Societies; Greenville, on the Sinou river, by
emigrants from Mississippi; and the Louisiana Society engaged in a
similar enterprise. The separate interests of the different settlements
at length began in many cases to engender animosity and bad feeling; the
need of general laws and supervision was everywhere apparent; and a
movement toward a federal union of the colonies was set on foot. A plan
was at length agreed upon by all except Maryland, by which the colonies
were united into the "Commonwealth of Liberia," whose government was
controlled by a Board of Directors composed of Delegates from the State
societies. This board at its first meeting drew up a plan of government,
and Thomas Buchanan was appointed first Governor of the Commonwealth,
1837. The advantages of the union were soon apparent. The more
aggressive native tribes with whom not a little trouble had been
experienced, were made to feel the strength of the union; and many of
the smaller head-men voluntarily put themselves under the protection of
the Government, agreeing to become citizens, with all their subjects,
and submit to its laws. The traffic in slaves all along the coast was
checked, inter-tribal warfare prevented, and trial by the sassa-wood
ordeal abolished wherever colonial influence extended. Mr. Buchanan was
the last white man who exercised authority in Liberia. On his death the
Lieutenant-Governor, Joseph Jenkins Roberts, succeeded him. Roberts, who
afterward became Liberia's most distinguished citizen, was a Virginia
Negro, having been born at Norfolk in 1809, and brought up near
Petersburg. He obtained a rudimentary education while running a
flat-boat on the James and Appomattox Rivers. In 1829 he went with his
widowed mother and younger brothers to Liberia, where he rapidly rose to
wealth and distinction. As Governor he evinced an efficient
statesmanship that promised well for his future career.
Roberts had not long been governor when trouble arose with the British
coast-wise traders that gave rise to a most interesting crisis. The
Liberian Government in regulating commerce within its jurisdiction had
enacted laws imposing duties on all imported goods. The English traders,
accustomed for hundreds of years to unrestricted traffic on this very
coast, were indignant at the presumption of the upstart colony, and
ignored its regulations. The Government protested, but in vain. And at
length the little colonial revenue schooner John Seyes, while
attempting to enforce the laws at Edina, was actually seized by the
stalwart Britisher and dragged before the Admiralty Court at Sierra
Leone. A long discussion which would be profitless to follow in detail,
ensued. The result was, that the John Seyes was confiscated. The British
Government opened a correspondence with the United States, in which it
was ascertained that Liberia was not in political dependence upon them.
Whereupon the sovereignty of Liberia was promptly denied, her right to
acquire or hold territory questioned, and she was given to understand
that the operations of British traders would in future be backed by the
British navy.
Evidently if Liberia was to maintain and govern her territory something
must be done. The Colonization Society while claiming for Liberia the
right to exercise sovereign powers, seems to have had the unacknowledged
conviction, that England's position, however ungenerous, was logically
unassailable. The supreme authority wielded by the Society, its veto
power over legislative action, was undoubtedly inconsistent with the
idea of a sovereign state. This is clearly apparent from the fact that
though there was pressing necessity for a treaty with England, neither
the colony nor the Society had power to negotiate it. It was accordingly
determined to surrender all control over the colony; and the "people of
the Commonwealth of Liberia" were "advised" by the Society "to undertake
the whole work of self-government;" to make the necessary amendments to
their Constitution, and to declare their full sovereignty to the world.
The suggestion was adopted in Liberia by popular vote, and a convention
met on July 26, 1847, adopted a Declaration of Independence and a new
Constitution, closely modelled on the corresponding documents of the
United States. In September the Constitution was ratified by vote of the
people. Governor Roberts was elected to the office of President, upon
which he entered January 3, 1848. His inaugural address is one of
remarkable interest, fitly proclaiming to the world a new Republic.