been observed to drink, in the manner of swallows, as they skim
near the surface of the water of lakes and streams. F. Stephens
(1913) observed a nighthawk drinking from a watering trough. This
bird dropped its lower mandible into the water, rippling the
surface of the water as it passed along. A. Dawes DuBois writes
of the following experience he had at Springfield, Ill., on July
29, 1923: “Mr. R. B. Horsfall and I were walking along the margin
of a small pond when a nighthawk swooped down, touched the surface
of the water and rose again; but we could not tell whether it was
scooping up a floating insect or a drink of water.”
_Voice._--The nighthawk has no claim as a singer, but nevertheless
its notes are of great interest and attract fully as much attention
as the voices of our more gifted songsters.
The loud piercing calls uttered by the nighthawk during flight are
simple yet, like all bird notes, extremely difficult to represent
in written words so as to enable a reader unfamiliar with them to
gain a clear conception of their character and quality. This fact
is at once emphasized if we compare the interpretations of a few
of the many authors who have attempted a written version of its
calls. For example to C. G. Abbott (1914) it sounds like a “grating
‘beedz, beedz,’” and to Charles Bendire (1895) it is a querulous
and a squeaky note resembling “aek-aek, aek-aek” or “speek-speek,
speek-speek.” W. E. Grover describes this note as a sharp “mueike”;
and E. H. Forbush (1907) states that “the note is s-k-i-r-k or
s-c-a-i-p-e, a little like the call of Wilson’s snipe,--rather a
startling squeak when heard close at hand.” W. L. Dawson (1903)
interprets the note as “mizard, mizard,” and E. H. Eaton (1914)
describes it as a “loud nasal ‘peent, peent.’” N. S. Goss (1891)
writes that its voice is a “squeak” or a “pe-up” note, and Arkansas
Hoosier (1890) states that “the note is best produced by speaking
the word ‘beard’ in a whisper.” To G. R. Mayfield (1921) the call
is a shrill “B-e-e-r-b” and to H. Nehrling it is “Brirrr-brirrr.”
H. Tullsen (1911) interprets it as a sharp penetrating “Spe-eak,”
and H. H. Bailey (1913) thinks it sounds like “Queek-queek.”
There was probably only the slightest variation in the notes of the
different nighthawks as heard by the authors mentioned above, yet
how strikingly different are the interpretations as represented
in the written or printed words. The note described above is the
one most frequently heard, and it is uttered independently of the
seasons. It is the note that announces the arrival of the nighthawk
in spring, and it is the call uttered at the time the nighthawks
are congregating in fall in preparation for their departure to the
south. I have been unable to ascertain whether this call is heard
at their winter home in South America.
Frequently, during the courtship season, the males in their
competition for a mate vigorously pursue each other. At such times
both birds utter a series of sharply accented calls recorded in my
field notes as resembling _Dick-a-dick-a-dick-dick-dick-dick-dick_,
given in rapid succession.
There is another note of the nighthawk very different in character,
an aeolian sound, produced by the rush of air through the primaries
of the wings at the termination of the extraordinary downward
plunge executed during the courtship season. In order to see
this performance and to hear this peculiar and unique note to
the best advantage it is necessary to visit the vicinity of the
nesting site. Alexander Wilson (1828) described this note as a
“loud booming sound very much resembling that produced by blowing
strongly into the bunghole of an empty hogshead.” E. H. Eaton
(1914) offers a modification of Wilson’s description in stating
that the note is like that produced “by blowing across an empty
bottle.” T. G. Gentry (1877) describes it as a sound resembling
that “produced by a tense cord set in vibration by a sudden gust
of wind.” T. Jasper (1878) states that it is a hollow whir like
the rapid turning of a spinning wheel, and F. A. Hartman (1914)
describes it as a “guttural ‘woof.’” The note reminds W. A. Stearns
(1883) of the sound produced by a bellowing bull. In my field notes
I have described this note as a muffled _wr-r,r,r,r,r-oonk_, but
sometimes more nearly approaching _sw-r,r,r,r-ooonk_, the last
syllable decidedly accented and produced with great resonance.
There is nothing about this note suggesting an explosive boom or
bellowing.
It has long ago been well established that this peculiar note
is not a vocal sound but one produced by the vibration of the
primaries. As keen an observer as Alexander Wilson (1828) stated
that it is “produced by the sudden expansion of his capacious
mouth.” Others shared Wilson’s view or thought that it was a sound
produced by the syrinx. After one has observed the performance it
can be readily understood how such an erroneous interpretation
was made by the earlier observers. The plunge takes place so
quickly that it is only by repeated observations made under the
most favorable conditions that the observer is convinced that the
primaries are involved. Audubon (1840) was the first to arrive at
a correct explanation. He writes that the source of the singular
noise is “the concussion caused, at the time the bird passes the
centre of its plunge by the new position of its wings, which are
now brought almost instantly to the wind, like the sails of a
ship suddenly thrown back.” This observation with variation of
its details has been made by numerous subsequent observers. J. B.
Canfield (1902) gives a description of the performance as follows:
“He suddenly paused and came soaring toward me like an arrow. About
fifty feet in front of me his wings were lowered below his body,
throwing them forward with the flight feathers spread wide apart
* * * His speed was so great that the flight feathers vibrated like
a loosely-stretched rubber band when snapped with the fingers. This
performance was repeated in front, back, and beside me twelve times
in all, never more than fifty feet away, and as near as fifteen.
In all cases the wings were in the same position, and his mouth
never open.” F. A. Hartman (1914) writes, “It is very evident that
the mouth plays no part, otherwise the sound would be produced at
other times [than on the downward glide]. * * * The bird threw its
wings far to the front at the end of his downward glide, so that
the uppermost quill feathers were pointed exactly in the direction
of his glide. Going at such headlong speed, these quill feathers
when thrown edgewise to the air vibrated strongly, causing the
‘woof’.” Alden H. Miller (1925) while at Camp Lewis, Wash., during
June and July succeeded in attracting nighthawks within 10 feet of
himself by merely waving his hat in the air. He noticed that if
the wings, during the downward plunge, were held in the upturned
V-shaped position, a normal pose when soaring, no boom was heard,
but when the wings were bent downward near the end of the dive the
boom sound was produced. The intensity of the sound, according to
Mr. Miller, is more or less proportional to the speed attained.
The main explosive boom seems to be preceded by a brief, lesser
vibrating sound, which bursts forth into the full bellow. Both
parts seem to have a distinct element of pitch, but the latter part
is lower, with greater resonance and depth of quality.
The sound produced by the wings described above is a part of the
courtship performance and is usually produced near the nesting
site. After the young no longer require the constant attention of
both parents, the male loses the glamour of romance and performs
less frequently and soon after ceases almost entirely until the
courtship season of another year. However, birds migrating in
August sometimes “boom.”
Another note associated with the courtship season is a guttural
call uttered only when the male is at rest and in the presence of
the female. It may be described as an oft repeated _auk, auk, auk_
or _awk, awk, awk_. This note is produced by the syrinx, but as it
is uttered the bill is tightly closed and the gular membrane is
tightly distended each time the note is produced. The distension
is caused by the expulsion of air from the respiratory system. The
distended membrane, although feathered, acts as a resonator and
modifies the note, giving it a peculiar quality. Such a mechanism
is present in other birds. It is especially highly developed in the
prairie chicken, in which large lateral vocal sacs are present that
give the “booming” notes of this grouse great carrying power.
The notes of the female nighthawk are simple calls uttered in
response to the those of the male or of the young. She may utter a
purring, pacifying note when brooding the young, but often these
notes are so weak that they cannot be heard by the observer unless
he is stationed very near in a blind.
_Game._--Today we do not think of the nighthawk as a game bird,
yet 60 years ago large numbers of them were killed by gunners and
sportsmen, especially in the Southern States. M. G. Elzey, writing
on September 18, 1876, stated: “Bull-bats (nighthawks) are the best
of the minor game of this country for sport or table; have been
very abundant and in superb condition here (Blacksburg, Virginia)
for the past two weeks. I have killed several hundred. On one
occasion took out 28 cartridges and brought in 23 birds besides 2
which fell out of bounds and were recovered by boys. Killed 17 in
succession. The bats are quite as fat and better game than the reed
birds.” Dr. E. Sterling (1885) wrote: “Their rapid and irregular
flight makes them a difficult mark for the young sportsman to
practice on, as he never fails to make a target of them when the
opportunity offers. I can now understand the object for which this
bird was created.” Dr. F. M. Chapman (1888), writing of conditions
at Gainesville, Fla., stated, “‘Bat’ shooting is here a popular
pastime, great numbers being killed for food, and in August, when
the birds have gathered in flocks, favorite fields may be occupied
at nightfall by as many as a dozen shooters.” Stockard (1905)
lamented the fact that the birds “are foolishly slaughtered by
pseudo-sportsmen who shoot them merely to watch the bird’s graceful
fall or to improve their skill as marksmen.”
The practice of killing nighthawks was stopped through laws and
by educational methods initiated by the National Association of
Audubon Societies. William Dutcher (1902), in writing of conditions
in Florida, stated, “It is believed, on very satisfactory evidence
that the new law has stopped to a large degree the disgraceful
practice of shooting ‘bull-bats’ or Nighthawks (_Chordeiles
virginianus_) for sport.” Bird-Lore for September-October 1903
published the following note: “The Night-hawk, or Bullbat, has been
so long considered a legitimate target for shotgun practice, in
the south, that a report of prosecution for killing these birds at
Greensboro, North Carolina, marks a new era of bird protection in
our southern states.”
_Enemies._--The greatest enemy of the nighthawk has been man.
In the past great numbers of the birds were killed for food and
often for mere sport or for satisfying a lust for killing. This
was especially true in the Southern States, where the birds were
slaughtered during the great flights of the annual migrations.
Nighthawks nesting on the ground are subject to the same enemies
experienced by other species of ground-nesting birds. Night hawks
nesting on roofs are usually free from such molestation, but Albert
F. Ganier informs me that he has known of sparrow hawks invading
the cities and preying upon the nighthawks, especially the young.
Cats and dogs become enemies of the city dwellers in the event the
young leave the nest prematurely and land on the streets below.
Nighthawks have a remarkable protective coloration and have
developed methods of deception such as imitating a wounded
individual when an enemy approaches the nesting site. At times they
assume an attitude of aggression; i. e., raising their elongated
wings in a vertical position and hissing in defiance at an intruder.
DISTRIBUTION
_Range._--The Western Hemisphere generally, from Yukon to Patagonia.
_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the nighthawk extends
=north= to Yukon (Sixty-mile River and probably Lapierres House);
Mackenzie probably Fort Goodhope, (probably Fort Franklin, Fort
Resolution, and Hill Island Lake); northern Saskatchewan (Methye
Portage, Stanley, and Reindeer River); northern Manitoba (probably
Du Brochet Lake, Grand Rapids, and probably Churchill); northern
Ontario (Martin Falls, probably Fort Albany, and probably Moose
Factory); and Quebec (Lake Mistassini, Godbout, and Mingan Island).
The =eastern= boundary of the range extends from this point
southward through the coastal regions of the Maritime Provinces,
the Eastern United States, the Bahama Islands (Nassau), to Puerto
Rico (Mayaguez). =South= to Puerto Rico (Mayaguez); Haiti (Hinche
and Jean Rubel); Jamaica (Port Henderson and Grand Cayman);
Cuba (Isle of Pines); southern Texas (Brownsville, San Antonio,
Kerrville, and Pecos); Chihuahua (Babicora); Sonora (Oposura and
Los Nogales); and southern California (San Bernardino Mountains
and Pine Knot). =West= to California (Pine Knot, Mona Lake, Grass
Valley, and Eureka); western Oregon (Medford, Eugene, Corvallis,
Portland, and St. Helen); western Washington (Bumping Lake,
Gig Harbor, Seattle, and Blaine); British Columbia (Errington,
Courtenay, Fort St. James, and Hazleton); southeastern Alaska
(Wrangell); and western Yukon (Carcross, Whitehorse, and Sixty-mile
River).
_Winter range._--When the numerical abundance and extensive
breeding range of this species are considered, it is surprising
that knowledge concerning the winter range should be extremely
limited. It seems certain, however, that it is entirely in South
America =north= to Colombia (Antioquia); Venezuela (Orinoco
Valley); and central Brazil (Matto Grosso). =East= to southeastern
Brazil (Matto Grosso, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro); Uruguay
(Concepcion); and Argentina (Barracas and La Plata). =South= to
central Argentina (La Plata and Cordova). =West= to Argentina
(Cordova, Santiago, Tucuman, and the Gran Chaco); western
Paraguay (Asuncion); western Brazil (Chapada); western Ecuador
(Portoviejo); and western Colombia (Bogota and Antioquia).
The outline presented is for the entire species, which has,
however, been separated into seven subspecies, or geographic
races. The typical eastern nighthawk (_C. m. minor_) breeds in the
eastern part of the continent west to the edge of the Great Plains
from Oklahoma to Minnesota and in Canada to British Columbia and
southern Yukon; the Florida nighthawk (_C. m. chapmani_) nests in
the Gulf and South Atlantic States north to Arkansas, southern
Illinois, central Alabama, and central North Carolina and west to
eastern Texas; Howell’s nighthawk (_C. m. howelli_) breeds in the
southern part of the Great Plains region from northeastern Utah and
western Kansas south to Oklahoma, central Texas, and New Mexico;
Cherrie’s nighthawk (_C. m. aserriensis_) is found in south-central
Texas and the Mexican state of Tamaulipas; Sennett’s nighthawk
(_C. m. sennetti_) occupies a breeding range in the northern Great
Plains from northeastern Montana and North Dakota south to eastern
Wyoming, Nebraska, and northwestern Iowa; the western nighthawk
(_C. m. henryi_) breeds in southwestern Colorado, eastern Arizona,
New Mexico, Chihuahua, and Sonora; and the Pacific nighthawk (_C.
m. hesperis_) nests in the western part of the continent from
southeastern British Columbia and California east to southwestern
Saskatchewan, northwestern Wyoming, and central Utah. In no case is
it possible to indicate subspecific winter ranges, but it appears
that all forms winter together in South America.
_Spring migration._--Early dates of spring arrival in North
America are: Florida--Orlando, March 20; Palma Sola, March 29;
Pensacola, April 8. Georgia--Savannah, April 1; Kirkwood, April
19. South Carolina--Frogmore, April 12; Columbia, April 17.
North Carolina--Hendersonville, April 13; Raleigh, April 15.
Virginia--Variety Mills, April 10; New Market, April 24. District
of Columbia--Washington, April 18. Maryland--Mardela Springs,
April 19. Pennsylvania--Philadelphia, April 23; Beaver, April 27.
New Jersey--Morristown, May 7. New York--New York City, April 20;
Ballston Spa, April 29; Rochester, May 7. Connecticut--Hartford,
April 24; Jewett City, May 6. Massachusetts--Harvard, April 19;
Amherst, May 10. Vermont--St. Johnsbury, May 6; Rutland, May
12. New Hampshire--South Manchester, May 2; Concord, May 14.
Maine--Dover-Foxcroft, April 29; South Portland, May 1. New
Brunswick--St. Johns, May 13. Quebec--Quebec City, May 4; Montreal,
May 9. Louisiana--New Orleans, April 8. Mississippi--Biloxi,
April 8; Rodney, April 19. Arkansas--Monticello, April 11.
Tennessee--Athens, April 20. Kentucky--Lexington, April 19;
Eubank, April 23. Missouri--St. Louis, April 22; Kansas City,
May 2. Illinois--Chicago, April 21; Odin, April 27. Indiana--La
Fayette, May 1; Fort Wayne, May 6. Ohio--Cleveland, April 20;
Oberlin, April 21. Michigan--Sault Ste. Marie, April 30; Detroit,
May 1. Ontario--Toronto, April 30; Ottawa, May 9. Iowa--Keokuk,
April 23; National, May 6. Wisconsin--Madison, May 2; Milwaukee,
May 3. Minnesota--Minneapolis, April 26; Lanesboro, May 7.
Kansas--Onaga, April 30; Manhattan, May 1. Nebraska--Omaha, May 8;
Red Cloud, May 3. South Dakota--Vermillion, May 10; Forestburg,
May 16. North Dakota--Grand Forks, May 1; Argusville, May 18.
Manitoba--Margaret, May 10; Aweme, May 12. Texas--San Antonio,
April 2; Kerrville, April 22. Colorado--Denver, May 4; Yuma, May 9.
Wyoming--Cheyenne, May 8; Torrington, May 24. Montana--Great Falls,
May 15; Columbia Falls, May 29. Saskatchewan--Indian Head, May 18;
Eastend, May 26. Arizona--Oracle, April 20; Santa Rita Mountains,
May 1. Utah--Kobe Valley, May 24. Idaho--Ruper, May 18; Meridian,
May 20. Alberta--Flagstaff, May 27; Banff, May 28. California--Red
Bluff, April 1; San Diego, April 22; Eureka, May 7. Oregon--Coos
Bay, May 1; Klamath Lake, May 26. Washington--Tacoma, May 22.
British Columbia--Burrard Inlet, May 26; Okanagan Landing, June 1.
_Fall migration._--Late dates of fall departure are: British
Columbia--Okanagan Landing, September 15. Washington--Tacoma,
September 11. Oregon--Weston, September 9. California--San
Francisco, September 21. Los Angeles County, October 27.
Alberta--Banff, September 17. Idaho--Meridian, September
15; Rupert, September 16. Arizona--Chin Lee, September 25.
Saskatchewan--Eastend, September 15. Montana--Columbia Falls,
September 28; Great Falls, October 6. Wyoming--Yellowstone
Park, September 15. Colorado--Yuma, September 25; Denver,
October 14. Texas--Taylor, October 2; Palo Pinto, October 21;
Corpus Christi, November 6. Manitoba--Winnipeg, September
19; Aweme, September 24. North Dakota--Charlson, September
22. South Dakota--Forestburg, September 21; Sioux Falls,
October 1. Nebraska--Blue Springs, October 5; Red Cloud,
October 10. Kansas--Topeka, October 6; Onaga, October 22.
Minnesota--Minneapolis, September 15; Lanesboro, September 30.
Wisconsin--Madison, October 6. Iowa--National, September 30;
Keokuk, October 8. Ontario--Ottawa, September 23; Toronto, October
11. Michigan--Detroit, September 17. Ohio--Wauseon, September 30;
Cleveland, October 8. Illinois--Chicago, October 7; Odin, October
14. Missouri--Concordia, October 18. Kentucky--Eubank, October
9. Tennessee--Athens, October 5. Arkansas--Rogers, October
4; Dardanelle, October 25. Louisiana--New Orleans, November
3. Quebec--Montreal, September 17. New Brunswick--St. Johns,
September 27. Maine--Portland, September 26; Livermore Falls,
October 2; Vermont--Rutland, September 12; St. Johnsbury, September
13. Massachusetts--Amherst, September 27; Harvard, October
3. Connecticut--Hartford, September 26. New York--Rochester,
September 28; New York City, October 1. New Jersey--Morristown,
October 11. Pennsylvania--Renovo, September 23; Philadelphia,
October 15. District of Columbia--Washington, October 11. North
Carolina--Raleigh, October 6; Hendersonville, October 13. South
Carolina--Columbia, October 22; Mount Pleasant, November 9.
Alabama--Autaugaville, October 11. Florida--Orlando, October 13;
Pensacola, October 20.
_Casual records._--With a range that covers most of the Western
Hemisphere, it is not surprising that comparatively few nighthawks
should be recorded beyond the known normal limits. A specimen was
taken by an Eskimo at Allakaket, on the Koyukuk River in northern
Alaska, late in September or early in October 1923. One was seen
at Grand Falls, Labrador, on May 31, 1895, and a specimen was
collected at Makkovik in June 1929. The species is a fairly regular
visitor at Bermuda during migration, sometimes being very common.
_Egg dates._--California: 36 records, March 20 to July 26; 18
records, June 18 to July 1, indicating the height of the season.
Colorado: 11 records, May 31 to July 18.
Florida: 40 records, April 7 to July 17; 20 records, May 15 to June
3.
Georgia: 16 records, May 17 to July 13; 8 records, May 24 to June
10.
Kansas: 28 records, May 31 to July 7; 14 records, June 13 to 28.
Maine: 30 records, May 24 to July 3.
Michigan: 13 records, May 15 to July 19; 7 records, June 2 to July
3.
New York: 9 records, May 29 to July 8.
South Dakota: 9 records, June 10 to July 1.
Texas (Brownsville region): 28 records, April 5 to June 28; 14
records, May 10 to June 5.
Texas (elsewhere): 62 records, April 11 to July 29; 31 records, May
15 to June 1.
CHORDEILES MINOR HENRYI Cassin
WESTERN NIGHTHAWK
HABITS
Dr. Gross has contributed such a full life history of the eastern
nighthawk that it hardly seems necessary to say much about the
other subspecies, as they are all much alike in general habits.
The above name formerly covered most of the western races that
are now recognized as subspecifically distinct. This race is
now supposed to be confined to the southern Rocky Mountains
and adjacent high plains, from Colorado southward into Mexico,
Chihuahua, and Sonora. Other races are recognized in the more
lowland plains.
Cassin (1862), in his original description of this bird, named it
as a species in honor of Dr. T. Charlton Henry and said of it:
“This bird may be distinguished from other American species by its
color, which is lighter and of a different style of variegation,
the prevailing tone being a dull, pale reddish and yellowish,
somewhat approaching what is called buff or drab color. It is
larger than _Chordeiles virginianus_.”
Dr. Harry C. Oberholser (1914), in comparing it with some more
recently described races, says that it is “similar to _Chordeiles
virginianus howelli_, but upper surface, both ground color and
markings, much darker, the latter more tawny and also coarser;
lower parts posteriorly more buffy, anteriorly more rufescent.”
It is lighter and more brownish than _hesperis_, darker and more
rufescent than _sennetti_, and lighter and more brownish than
_virginianus_.
_Nesting._--The nesting habits of the western nighthawk are very
similar to those of the eastern bird. Dr. Edgar A. Mearns (1890)
says of his experience with it in the mountains of Arizona: “I
have never known this species to infringe on the territory of the
Texan Nighthawk during the breeding season; each keeps to its own
ground, the latter being confined to the region below the pines,
and the former residing in the pines and spruces, breeding in great
numbers in these limited areas. * * * Two fresh eggs were taken
at Flagstaff on June 18, 1887, in a level place, bestrewn with
volcanic scoria, beneath the pines.”