ICELAND, THE MAID OF THE NORTH
Several thousand years ago a mighty conflict occurred between the sea
and the subterranean forces in the north Atlantic five hundred miles
northwest of Scotland. A violent earthquake rent the rocks of the ocean
bed, and through the broken floor there issued tremendous floods of
molten lava. The great conflict manifested itself in explosions of
steam, gigantic streams of red-hot lava, frothy pumice, and volcanic
ashes. For miles around the water of the sea was seething and boiling.
After awhile the turbulence of the fiery mass was subdued and it stood
congealed in the varied forms of rugged peaks, contorted ridges, and
deep valleys, subsequently to be seamed and further distorted by
earthquakes and piled higher by further volcanic outbursts. A new island
had been born.
Ages rolled on; vegetation appeared as the volcanic rock disintegrated;
crystal lakes were formed and rivers, fed by frequent rains and melting
snows, flowed to the sea. This comparatively new island is Iceland. The
book of nature here is open; the print is clear; and the language is so
plain that he who can read may learn the story.
The internal fires of the earth seem to have taken their final great
stand in this far-off northern land and have waged a titanic battle to
the death, as may be seen in many places. In the northern part of the
island one may find acres of burning sulphur beds, small geysers, and
mud caldrons, all of which attest to the slowly dying volcanic forces
beneath. Although a comparative calm now exists, an exciting cause may
at any time awaken the slumbering volcanoes and again renew the work of
destruction.
Fossilized forests are found, but of trees different from those now
existing. Climate and vegetation materially changed as century succeeded
century.
The written history of Iceland begins about the year 860, when a viking
living on the Faroe Islands who was on his way home from Norway, being
driven far northward of his course, came to an unknown coast. Climbing a
high rock and looking around, he beheld no signs of life; before he
could return to his ship, however, a sudden storm came on, covering the
ground with a mantle of snow. From the latter circumstance he named the
country Snowland.
Four years after a Swedish master-mariner was driven by stress of storm
to this same land, and, building a house, spent the winter there. During
the following summer he sailed around the land, demonstrating that it
was an island, and called it after his own name, Gardar's Island. On his
return home he gave such a favorable account of the island that a famous
Norwegian viking named Floki determined to seek it and to take
possession. Having gathered his family and followers, and taking on
board some live stock, he set sail for the unknown land by way of the
Faroe Islands.
The compass had not then been invented, but knowing that ravens by
instinct seek the nearest land when freed on the ocean, he provided
himself with three of these birds to serve as guides.
He remained awhile at the Faroe Islands and then boldly sailed
northward. When he was several days out he uncaged one of the ravens,
which immediately took its flight back to the Faroe Islands. Later, he
set free a second bird. This one, after hovering high in the air for
some time, seemed bewildered and returned to the ship. Still later, the
third raven was set free, which at once flew northward. By pursuing the
course taken by the last bird, Floki soon reached the desired land.
The winter that followed was very severe. Deep snows covered hill, rock,
and valley, and ice blockaded the fiord. Floki had neglected to harvest
the wild grass, and as a result his cattle died. Disheartened by his
losses, he returned to his native land, naming the island which he
abandoned Iceland.
A few years later another Norse rover, who had slain an enemy and was
threatened with vengeance by the relatives of the victim, took refuge on
the island where he spent a year. He liked the country so well that he
returned home and induced his retainers to accompany him back to his
safe retreat. Approaching the land, he threw into the sea the sacred
columns which his vessel bore, so that he might learn the will of the
gods where to land and found a colony. A violent storm arising, the
pillars drifted out of sight, so he sought the nearest harbor and there
he established a temporary camp.
Three years afterward the pillars were found on the desolate shore of a
lava stream on the west side of the island. Near by was a rivulet from
whose bed a spring gushed forth emitting clouds of steam. Thither the
colony removed and the present capital, Reykjavik, was founded. The name
Reykjavik means "smoking bay." Other vikings followed and selected such
parts of the island as they considered best.
Harold, the king of Norway at this time, determined to curb the
rebellious spirit of the chiefs under him. So, many of the sturdy
Norsemen, chafing under his arbitrary rule, collected such of their
property as they could carry and, putting it on board their stanch
vessels, sailed away to the land of refuge.
At this period of history nearly all nations considered that might made
right; but no class of plunderers excelled the Norsemen, who were wont
to make periodical raids on the various seaport cities and towns of
Europe. They swooped upon them, pillaging and killing the inhabitants,
and then fled in their swift vessels with booty and captives before they
could be intercepted. The audacity of the Norse vikings knew no bounds.
They pillaged Paris, Bordeaux, Orleans, and nearly every other city of
France accessible by water. Their hands fell heavily on the coasts of
Spain and the British Isles.
[Illustration: Street in Reykjavik, Iceland]
At one time a band of these fearless sea-robbers made their lairs in the
Shetland and Orkney Islands and even plundered the coast of Norway, the
abode of their kinsmen. Their conduct so exasperated Harold that he
determined to destroy the freebooters of the Orkneys root and branch.
Gathering a large fleet, he relentlessly pursued the raiders up every
bay and inlet. Leaving the ships, he chased them among the rocky islands
and the sinuous fiords. When they were overtaken the pursuers showed
them no mercy. A few escaped, and, stealing away under the cover of
darkness, the hunted sea-robbers fled in their ships to Iceland.
All the while the tide of immigration was augmented by the migrations of
disaffected nobles from Norway. This naked volcanic island had more
attraction for them than their own country where freedom was denied
them.
Sixty years after the first settlement fifty thousand people had made
their homes in Iceland. The inhabited parts were along the coast, in the
river valleys, and in the vicinity of the fiords, rarely extending
farther than fifty miles inland.
In order to better maintain rights and settle disputes, in 930 the
chiefs or nobles established an aristocratic republic and adopted a
constitution. The republic existed four hundred years. Many just laws
were enacted, some of which England was glad to borrow. The legislative
meetings were held in Thingvalla, a picturesque valley thirty-five miles
east of Reykjavik. This valley was formed by the sinking of a lava area
of fifty square miles. In the middle of the valley, flanked by two huge
jagged walls of lava, is a triangular floor of lava like a large
flatiron having separating chasms meeting at the apex. Here the Althing,
or general assembly, met annually to make laws and settle disputes.
Toward the south the valley slopes gently to Thingvalla Vatn, a
beautiful sheet of water of crystal clearness ten miles long and five
miles wide, having in some places a depth of a thousand feet. The
scenery here is one of rugged beauty and surpassing grandeur. Hard by,
a river comes tumbling over its rocky bed, then calmly pours its icy
water into the placid lake. No spot is better suited to inspire freedom
of thought and lofty imagination than this primitive meeting-place of a
legislative assembly.
Eventually, Iceland became subject to Norway and afterward a colony of
Denmark, which it remains to-day. Self-government and the
re-establishment of the old Parliament at Reykjavik was granted by
Denmark in 1874.
Iceland is not only out of debt but has the snug sum of one million
crowns in its exchequer. It is an ideal place for the woman's rights
advocates, since women here have the right to vote and do not change
their names when they marry.
Although the island contains forty thousand square miles, five-sixths of
it is uninhabitable. The present population is eight thousand.
It may with truth be called naked because it is only partly clothed with
vegetation; moreover, such vegetation as exists is scanty and confined
chiefly to the river valleys and their slopes. In the interior are large
desert areas covered with lava and shifting sand. This desolate expanse
is frequently diversified by extensive jokulls, or elevated ice-fields,
one of which occupies four thousand square miles.
Strange as it may seem, the winters in the inhabited sections are not so
severe as those of New England, owing to the modifying influence of the
warm southwesterly wind and the mild temperature of the surrounding
waters. The summers are cool, owing to the nearness of the arctic
ice-fields. In the interior on the table-land one is apt to encounter
snowstorms even in August.
The only wild animal is the fox, of which there are two varieties, the
white and the blue. These animals probably drifted on the ice from
Greenland. They are hunted not only for their skins but also because
they attack the sheep.
The domestic animals are horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, and cats. The
horses and cattle are small. The ewes, instead of the cows, are milked.
Iceland ponies are famous for their hardiness and are sure-footed. Large
numbers of them are exported to England for service in the coal-mines.
There they are condemned to hard labor for life in the dark galleries.
Iceland ranks second among the geyser regions of the world, Yellowstone
Park being first. The boiling springs and geysers are not confined to
one locality but are scattered widely over the island. The most
prominent are east of Reykjavik.
According to its area probably no other part of the world except the
island of Java has so many volcanoes. More than one hundred craters and
cinder cones have been counted, many of which have been active within
the historical period of the island. The most destructive volcanic
eruption took place in June, 1783. The spring had opened auspiciously;
the cattle, sheep, and horses were cropping the juicy young grass; and
the air was balmier than usual. In the latter part of May a bluish smoke
accompanied by earthquakes began to spread over the land. As time passed
the earthquake shocks increased in violence. The surface of the earth
heaved like the ground swell of the ocean after a storm; the atmosphere
became filled with choking vapors and blinding smoke; the sun was
darkened and the low rumbling sounds became heavy peals of thunder.
Presently two mighty streams of lava, one of which was fifteen miles
wide and one hundred feet deep, came pouring down the sides of Skaptar
Jokull. The lava floods filled up the valleys, quenched rivers, and
spread destruction over the adjacent country. The intense heat blasted
the vegetation far and wide. Nine thousand people and fifty thousand
head of live stock were the result of the death harvest.
[Illustration: North Cape, Iceland]
Iceland is well watered, having many streams, all of which are rapid,
for the greater part flowing over beds of lava and quicksand. In some of
the wider fords stakes have been set so that the traveller may not get
lost in crossing them on horseback during a dense fog. In the summer the
frequent rains make travelling very unpleasant unless one is suitably
equipped with water-proof garments. In the Hvita, or White River, is the
celebrated Gullfoss--literally, "goldfall"--a fall that rivals Niagara
in the height of its two cataracts.
A few garden vegetables excepted, little or no agriculture is
attempted; the chief dependence of the people is the rearing of sheep,
cattle, and horses, fishing, and the collecting of eider-down. The
streams are filled with excellent fish, including the salmon; off the
coast are codfishing grounds equal to, if not surpassing, those of
Newfoundland.
The most valuable mineral is sulphur, the supply of which appears to be
inexhaustible. The chief exports are wool, oil, fish, horses,
eider-down, knit goods, sulphur, and Iceland moss.
Transparent calcite, a mineral commonly called "Iceland spar," is found,
one mine of which furnishes an excellent quality. It is highly prized by
mineralogists on account of its double refractive qualities. If a piece
of this mineral be placed over a word, the letters forming it will
appear double. Iceland spar is used chiefly in the optical instrument
known as the polariscope.
Eider-down consists of the soft, fine feathers growing on the breast of
the eider-duck, great numbers of which frequent the coast and lakes of
Iceland. This duck is wild except at the nesting season; then it is as
tame as the domestic fowl and makes its nest not only around and on top
of the buildings but frequently inside them. A heavy fine is imposed on
any one killing a duck at this season.
When about to lay, the duck carefully lines her nest with down plucked
from her breast. Then people remove it from the nest and the duck pulls
more down from her breast to replace that taken. This process is
repeated several times. When the duck has stripped her own breast the
drake comes to the rescue and furnishes down from his. A certain number
of the eggs are also taken. These, though inferior to those of the swan,
are esteemed a great delicacy. Swans also are killed on many of the
lakes.
Iceland is the resort of the fishing fleets of several nations; the
value of the annual catch averages about ten million dollars. Much of
the catch consists of food fish, but many are caught for the oil.
The only trees found growing on the island are birch and ash, and they
seldom exceed ten feet in height. A few juniper bushes and willows are
found here and there.
In the remote and isolated sections most of the dwellings are built of
blocks of lava laid one upon another, making a wall six feet thick. Upon
these are placed rafters made from ribs of whales, drift-wood, or
anything else that will answer the purpose. The roof is then covered
with grass and turf. In the hamlets many of the houses are constructed
of imported lumber, there being no trees of sufficient size on the
island for building purposes.
The inhabitants are very hospitable and every house is open to the
traveller. They live in a simple manner, drink sour whey and milk, eat
rancid butter, fish, mutton, and occasionally the lichens called Iceland
moss. When well cooked, the last named is quite palatable. It is also a
sovereign remedy for bronchial ailments.
Notwithstanding their many privations, the people are loyal to their
country and lovingly call it "The Maid of the North." They lead pastoral
lives and their customs are much like those of the Homeric age.
Story-telling is much appreciated by all classes. There are wandering
minstrels who gain their livelihood by going from house to house to
recite the stories in prose and poetry which they have learned by heart.
Spindle and distaff are used in spinning the wool into yarn, which is
then knit or woven into cloth on a hand loom.
Education is universal, and no child of twelve years can be found who is
unable to read or write. The families are so isolated that there are few
schools outside of the capital; but the parents diligently teach their
children whatever they themselves have learned.
During the long winter evenings one member of the family reads aloud
while the others are busily at work, the men making nets and ropes, or
removing the wool from the sheepskins, the women embroidering, sewing,
or using spindle and distaff.
In no other country of Europe are so many books and papers published in
proportion to the population as in Iceland. On the average one hundred
books are issued annually from Icelandic presses. Several excellent
newspapers and periodicals are also published.
Every Icelander to-day knows perfectly the sagas, the legendary stories
that commemorate heroes and heroic deeds and which are so dear to his
heart. It is not uncommon to find an Icelander who is well versed in the
ancient classics or one who can speak several languages. They are well
acquainted with the writings of Milton and Shakespeare, which have been
translated into their own language. During the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries Iceland produced a literature equal to that of any other
nation in Europe within the same period.