THE MINERAL WEALTH OF THE ANDES
At this period of the world's progress, when so many marvellous
inventions are taking place, one can scarcely realize the intense
interest that was awakened by the first discoveries made in the New
World. So great was the excitement that the most improbable stories were
readily believed.
There were fountains of perpetual youth, Amazonian warriors, mighty
giants, and rivers whose beds sparkled with gems and golden pebbles. The
reports of every returning adventurer, whatever had been his luck, were
tinged with the marvellous. In fact, a world of romance was now open to
all and the opportunities to achieve fame and fortune were numberless.
The first in the field stood the best chance to win the choicest prizes.
Stories that outrivalled the Arabian Nights clouded the realm of reason.
So extraordinary were the accounts that many of the cities of Spain were
depleted of their most energetic men. Every craft that could sail the
seas was called into use, and the building of new vessels was hastened
to completion in order to provide for the needs of adventurous
prospectors and would-be explorers.
The conquest of the Aztec Empire, with its millions of treasure, by
Cortez had already proved the valiancy of Spanish cavaliers. To add to
this, the conquest of the Incas by Pizarro and his followers was
regarded a miracle of divine interposition.
As a result, Spanish galleons laden with treasure from the conquered
countries ploughed the seas, and untold wealth poured into private and
royal coffers. Spanish ambition and greed for gold knew no bounds.
Cunning and cruelty were employed by the Spaniards to secure their ends.
No trials, no hardships were too great for them to endure. No perils
daunted them. Western South America, ruled by viceroys for nearly three
centuries, brought to Spain its greatest wealth. One-fifth of all the
wealth and treasure acquired was reserved for the crown.
When Pizarro first visited the interior of Peru he found an empire well
advanced in the arts of civilization. Its temples within and without
were richly decorated with gold. There were thousands of miles of
excellent roads, of which two were used for military purposes. One of
these extended along the lowlands; the other traversed the grand
plateau. These roads crossed ravines bridged with solid masonry and were
pierced by tunnels cut through solid rock. The construction of these
great roads was a more wonderful achievement than the building of the
Egyptian pyramids.
The government was systematically organized and to a certain extent it
was both paternal and communal. Agriculture was skilfully carried on by
means of fertilization and irrigation.
The sun was the chief deity and object of worship of its people. Their
most beautifully adorned and renowned sanctuary was the Temple of the
Sun at Cuzco. Besides this sacred edifice there were several hundred
inferior temples and places of worship scattered through the empire, all
plentifully ornamented with gold and silver. Every Inca ruler was
regarded as a descendant of the sun and therefore a sacred person.
According to the popular belief, gold consisted of tears wept by the sun
and was therefore a sacred metal suitable for beautifying the palaces of
the Incas and temples of worship. Not only were the edifices themselves
richly adorned with this precious metal, but the sacred vessels and many
of the articles of furniture were made of the same material. Silver,
also, was much used, but was not considered sacred. So great was the
amount of the precious metals used that each royal palace and temple was
a veritable mine.
From 1520 to 1525 reports of a rich empire at the south were circulated
among the adventurers congregated at Panama. At length they were
confirmed in a great measure by travellers who had voyaged southward
along the coast. Francisco Pizarro, a restless spirit who had been
associated with Balboa and others in discovery and exploration,
determining to test the truth of these reports, made several voyages
south.
Finally, he landed on the shores of Peru with an army of followers who
numbered less than two hundred. He met with but little opposition from
the natives while marching toward the interior, and although he
plundered some of the places through which he passed, the people
received him with marks of friendship.
In some instances towns of several thousand population were deserted on
the approach of the Spaniards, so great was the terror inspired by the
white men, especially by those on horseback. At first it was the policy
of the invaders to treat the natives with kindness in order to
accomplish their purpose, namely, to conquer the Peruvian Empire in the
same manner that Cortez had conquered the Aztecs. They were accompanied
by two of the natives who previously had been taken to Spain and taught
the Spanish language. By this means the Spaniards were able to
communicate with the people.
Learning that the Inca ruler, Atahuallpa, was encamped with his army
among the mountains, Pizarro sent an embassy to request a meeting with
him. It was agreed that they meet at Caxamalca, a strongly fortified
city among the sierras. On arriving at the city, the Spaniards found it
evacuated. Soon after taking up their quarters there, Atahuallpa arrived
and established his camp a short distance outside the city.
Pizarro at once sent word to Atahuallpa to come into the city and sup
with him, but asked that, in order to show his faith in the white men
and his own good intentions, he should leave all weapons behind. After
much persuasion Atahuallpa accepted the invitation and entered the city,
with several thousand of his followers, unarmed.
When fairly within the enclosure, a priest approaching the Inca ruler
made a harangue about Christianity and demanded that he should submit to
the authority of the Spanish king.
"By what authority do you demand such submission?" replied the monarch
with flashing eye.
"By this holy book which I hold in my hand," answered the priest.
Then snatching the volume from the hand of the priest, Atahuallpa
scornfully threw it on the ground, saying, "What right have you in my
country? I will call you and your companions to an account for the
indignities heaped upon me."
Picking up the book, the priest forthwith went to Pizarro and reported
the conduct of the Inca, saying, "It is useless to talk to this dog. At
them at once; I absolve you."
Immediately Pizarro raised his handkerchief for the preconcerted
signal, the firing of a gun. Thereupon his soldiers, infantry and
cavalry, rushed from their places of concealment upon the defenceless
Indians, slaughtering them unmercifully right and left.
The discharge of the arquebuses and cannon, with their smoke, and the
charge of the cavalry paralyzed the unsuspecting natives, and the attack
became a horrible massacre. Not until thousands of the Indians had been
killed and the Inca ruler had been captured did darkness cause the
Spaniards to desist from their bloody work. So sudden and terrible had
been the onslaught that the haughty monarch himself seemed stunned by
the effect.
Realizing the irresistible power of the white men with their wonderful
weapons and horses, the natives gave up for a time all thoughts of
resistance. In fact, they regarded the Spaniards as superior beings
endowed with preternatural gifts.
When the ruler had been kept a prisoner several months, he desired to
regain his freedom. By this time he realized the Spaniards' thirst for
gold, and therefore promised to fill the room in which he was confined
with it as high as he could reach, and twice to fill an adjoining room
with silver, if they would release him.
Pizarro agreed to this proposal; Atahuallpa thereupon sent out
messengers to all parts of his empire requesting that the metals in the
shape of utensils and ornaments be collected from the royal palaces,
temples, and elsewhere and brought to Caxamalca.
On account of the difficulty of transportation, since all the treasure
had to be carried on the backs of the natives, many months elapsed
before the collections could be made.
When fifteen and one-half million dollars' worth of gold and a large
amount of silver had been delivered at Caxamalca, Pizarro excused the
imprisoned ruler from further contributions. At this juncture of
affairs Almagro, a co-partner in the Peruvian expedition, arrived on the
scene with a strong reinforcement.
On learning of the immense amount of gold and silver collected, the
followers of both leaders loudly clamored for its distribution among
them, and, taking out the royal fifth part, the remainder was divided
according to the rank and service rendered. Then came rumors of an
uprising among the natives and of the collection of an army to drive out
the invaders, but on investigation these reports were found to be false.
The question then uppermost in the minds of the Spanish leaders was the
disposition of the royal prisoner. It was thought that, were he released
according to promise, the natives might rally around him and demand the
expulsion of the intruders. So it was decided to make charges against
him and to have at least the form of a trial in order to give an
appearance of justice to the proceedings.
Twelve charges were made against Atahuallpa, nearly all of which were
far-fetched and absolutely false. He was found guilty and condemned to
death by burning; but at the last moment, when he was chained to a stake
and the torch was ready to be applied, the priest in attendance promised
that the sentence should be commuted to the easier death by the garrote
if he would renounce his idolatry and embrace Christianity. He assented
to the proposal, and immediately the modified sentence was carried out.
It is not necessary to add that the execution of the Peruvian monarch
was the darkest stain on the pages of Spanish colonial history. From
this time on the conduct of the Spanish invaders was marked by a most
inhuman cruelty toward the natives.
[Illustration: The Oroya Railroad, Peru, showing four sections of the
road]
Thinking that he could more easily govern the empire through a native
ruler subservient to himself, Pizarro placed Manco, the true heir, on
the Peruvian throne. In the meantime, however, parts of the empire
rebelled against the new ruler and the Spanish usurpers. Then, when the
rebellious tribes had been brought back to their former allegiance, the
Spanish leaders quarrelled and fought among themselves.
It was not long before the arrogant and cruel conduct of the Spaniards
alienated all friendship on the part of both ruler and his subjects.
Manco broke from his masters and, aided by his people, raised the
standard of rebellion, determining to make a last supreme effort to rid
his subjects of the incubus that was sapping the life of the country.
After many bloody encounters in which both sides sustained severe
losses, Manco was killed and the Spanish yoke was firmly fixed on the
neck of the people, who for the greater part were consigned to a most
inhuman slavery. Thousands perished by the brutal treatment inflicted
upon them in the silver mines.
In the course of time Indian slavery was abolished in a great measure by
royal proclamation; nevertheless, Spain continued to rule this land for
three hundred years before the oppressive yoke was cast off by a
successful uprising. It is a pleasure to know that many of the Spanish
leaders who were guilty of this heartless cruelty suffered violent
deaths in quarrels among themselves or in rebellion against the crown of
Spain.
During the period of Spanish rule an immense revenue accrued from
working the rich silver mines. Those that filled the Spanish treasure
ships so eagerly sought by buccaneers were the mines of Potosi. These
silver lodes, extensively worked through Indian slave labor by Hernando
and Gonzalo Pizarro, brothers of Francisco Pizarro, were discovered in
1546.
So rich did the lodes prove to be that the city of Potosi sprang up near
them and was supported by them, although the site was far from being
desirable. Its altitude is about thirteen thousand feet, and it is,
therefore, the highest city in the world. It is situated on the bleak
side of the Andes, from whose snow-clad peaks cold, piercing winds sweep
down over the city. Towering above it is a mountain, honeycombed with
shafts, tunnels, and drifts, from which has been taken silver to the
value of two billion dollars.
At first it was thought that a location so high above sea level would be
unhabitable, but the immense wealth of the silver lodes required many
workmen for their development, and these laborers had to be housed and
fed.
At the zenith of its prosperity Potosi possessed one hundred seventy
thousand inhabitants, and had the distinction of being the largest city
in the New World during the first two centuries of its existence. A mint
built in 1562, at the expense of over a million dollars, is long since
unused. A splendid granite cathedral ornamented with beautiful statuary
still attests to the former grandeur of the city.
Some of the richest veins of silver ore in the Potosi mines have been
worked out and many mines have been allowed to become filled with water.
These conditions, coupled with the low price of silver for many years,
have caused the population of the city to dwindle until now there are
scarcely more than ten thousand inhabitants and very many of the
buildings are in ruins. These mines have produced twenty-seven thousand
tons of silver since their discovery, and at the present day many of
them are yielding large returns.
The Bolivian plateau is one vast mineral bed abounding in rich mines of
copper, tin, silver, and gold. In Bolivia alone there are upward of two
thousand silver mines; while some of the richest tin mines in the world
are found here. Lodes of pure tin several feet in width have been
followed down six hundred feet. Tin mines were recently discovered among
the mountains thirteen thousand five hundred feet above the level of
the sea, near the shores of Lake Titicaca.
Two railroads now reach this high plateau, one from the seaport town of
Antofagasta, Chile, to Oruro, Bolivia; the other from Molendo, Peru, to
Puno, on Lake Titicaca. The most wonderful railroad in the world and the
most costly in its construction, the Oroya Railroad is about one hundred
fifty miles long. It begins at Callao, Peru, and ends at Oroya. The
highest point reached by it in crossing the Andes is fifteen thousand
six hundred and sixty-five feet. It is said that seven thousand lives
were lost in its construction. Much of the road-bed was blasted through
solid rock on the sides of the mountains. The cost of construction was
about three hundred thousand dollars per mile. It has seventy-eight
tunnels, the longest being the Gallera tunnel, which pierces Mount
Meiggs at the altitude of fifteen thousand six hundred and sixty-five
feet. This is the highest place in the world where steam is used as a
motive power. Ultimately the road is to be extended to the celebrated
mines of Cerro de Pasco, fifty-one miles beyond its present terminus,
Oroya.
The chief business of these railroads extending into the Andes is
carrying ore, bullion, and wool. Their construction marks the acme of
engineering skill; the scenery along them surpasses that of all other
regions in its wild ruggedness, grandeur, and sublimity.
In ascending to such great heights quickly one not accustomed to high
elevations is apt to experience dizziness, headache, and nausea. At
first even the effort to talk on reaching these lofty places by train is
laborious. Dogs taken from the lowlands to these elevations are unable
to run with speed for a long time, but those which are born and reared
in this region easily pursue wild animals.
When the New World was discovered the llama was the only animal used
there as a beast of burden. Thousands of these diminutive creatures are
still used for transporting ore and bullion in the Andes. Each animal
can carry a load of seventy-five pounds or more. This sure-footed animal
can travel with its load about fourteen miles a day.
[Illustration: Llamas resting]
Lake Titicaca is one of the famous lakes of the world. Its name means
tin-stone and was doubtless derived from the tin ore found in the
vicinity. The lake has an elevation of twelve thousand five hundred and
fifty feet, and although nine streams run into it, only one, the
Desaguadero, flows out, carrying its waters to Lake Poopo, a small body
of salt water nearly three hundred miles south. Lake Titicaca has the
same surface level both summer and winter. The outflow never reaches the
sea; it is lost by evaporation mainly in Lake Poopo, but the latter
frequently overflows into the salt marshes lying to the southward.
Though thin ice may be found in the quiet bays and inlets nearly every
morning during the year, the expanse of the lake is never frozen even in
the severest weather. A peculiarity about the lake is that not only will
iron not rust when left in its waters, but that which was before rusted
soon loses its scales of rust after being immersed a few days.
Several steamers ply on the lake carrying chiefly ore and wool. Some of
the islands in the lake are inhabited by Indians who eke out a
precarious living.
A civilization antedating that of the Incas formerly occupied the region
about the lake, as is proved by the remarkable ruins along the shores
concerning which the natives told the early Spaniards that they had no
record. Three square miles are covered by these ruins, whose walls were
made of immense blocks of stone most accurately fitted together, thus
giving evidence of the great skill in stone-cutting possessed by the
pre-Inca people.
The Inca rulers had beautiful palaces and other edifices on some of the
islands. Titicaca Island was regarded as sacred, and at the time of the
Spanish conquest was the site of a large temple richly ornamented with
gold and silver.
Prospecting in the Andes is attended with great hardships. Few wild
animals can be found to furnish food. Food and utensils must be carried
on the backs of men, and the greatest difficulty is experienced in
traversing the almost inaccessible steeps and deep ravines.
Coal of inferior quality has been found near the shores of Lake Titicaca
and is used by the steamers sailing on its waters. Many rich mineral
lodes yet remain undiscovered, and a vast number of valuable mines
languish for lack of capital to develop them. Frequent revolutions and
the insecurity of private property prevent the investment of foreign
capital.
The Andes will continue to be a great storehouse of minerals for many
years to come.
[Illustration: Silver-smelting works at Cassapalca, on the Oroya
Railroad, Peru, 13,600 feet high]
Muffling the feet of the Peruvian Andes is a long narrow strip--drifting
dunes of rock waste--known as the Atacama Desert. In comparison with
this awful desert, the Sahara is said to be a botanical garden. Here
during a part of the year a fierce, relentless sun pours down its
burning rays on the shifting sands, keeping the air at a scorching heat
both day and night. Formerly the region belonged to Bolivia, but it was
annexed to Chile as a result of the war of 1881.
For miles and miles not a blade of grass, not a tree, not a shrub is to
be seen. All around is a bleak, barren waste destitute of water. Yet
underneath these sands lie concealed immense deposits of "nitrates" of
untold wealth.
Although small quantities of the nitrates had been sent to Europe for
chemical purposes--chiefly the manufacture of gunpowder--no considerable
amount was exported until a fortuitous discovery was made by a Scotchman
named George Smith. After wandering over the world for some time Smith
settled down in a little village near Iquique, where he had a small
garden containing fruit-trees and flowers. In one part of his garden he
noticed that the plants grew best where the soil contained a white
substance.
He then proceeded to gather a quantity of the material and to experiment
with it. To his surprise he found that a mere handful of it greatly
stimulated the growth of plants. He told a member of his family in
Scotland who was engaged in fruit-growing about the wonderful effects of
the material as a fertilizer. As a result several bags of nitrates were
distributed among Scottish farmers and fruit-growers. So satisfactory
did the fertilizer prove that an immediate call was made for more of it.
Thus began a business which now yields the owners of the beds one
hundred million dollars yearly.
It was soon found out that the nitrate in its raw state contained
properties that were injurious to plants and that these should be first
eliminated. Forthwith reduction works were established to extract the
deleterious substances. These substances were mainly iodine and bromine,
two chemical elements that are of greater value than the nitrates
themselves. Within a few years railroads were built to transport the
nitrates from the beds to the various ports where the reduction
factories were erected.
Many men who had large interests in the nitrate beds became immensely
wealthy in a short time. The great value of the deposits caused towns
and cities to spring up along the coast in the most inhospitable places,
to some of which water was piped a distance of more than two hundred
miles and at the cost of many millions of dollars.
The principal nitrate beds are in a shallow valley, four or five
thousand feet above sea level, lying between a long range of hills and
the base of the Andes. Just how these mineral deposits were formed it is
difficult to explain, the most plausible theory being that this desert
was once the bottom of an inland sea having vast quantities of seaweed
covered with sand. In the gradual decay of this substance the nitrate of
soda, or "Chile saltpetre," was formed.
To obtain the nitrates it is necessary first to remove the top layer of
sand and then a layer of clay. Underneath this is found a layer of soft,
whitish material called "nitrate." The crude nitrate is sent to the
nitrate ports to be crushed and boiled in sea-water. After boiling, the
solution is drawn off into shallow vessels and exposed to the heat of
the sun to evaporate.
When nearly all has been evaporated and the remaining liquid drawn off,
the bottom and sides of the vessels are found to be covered with
sparkling white crystals. This is the saltpetre of commerce, the highest
grade of which is used in the manufacture of gunpowder, the second grade
for chemical purposes, and the third grade, the great bulk, for
fertilizing the exhausted soils of Europe.
The liquid drawn off is crystallized by chemical treatment and further
evaporation, and from it is obtained iodine, an ounce of which is worth
as much as one hundred pounds of saltpetre. From eighty to one hundred
million dollars' worth of these nitrates are dug out and sold each year.
Great Britain takes about one-third of the entire product and Germany
one-fifth.
Iquique has the largest shipping trade. From this port about fifty
million dollars' worth of nitrates and three million dollars' worth of
iodine are exported yearly.