In spite of these very great merits, Braid's influence was for a
considerable time a slight and uncertain one; this was probably
due not alone to the opposition which his methods and teachings
aroused in the medical profession, but far more to the natural
distrust of a topic which was exploited in the form of popular and
vulgar exhibitions. The main association of hypnotism was still
with the absurd notions of animal magnetism, and with attempts to
demonstrate marvels, such as clairvoyance and the sensitiveness to
magnets. It thus came about that, during the period subsequent to
Braid's discoveries, hypnotism presented a varied aspect. On the one
hand, unlimited skepticism and a determined repudiation of readily
verifiable observations; on the other, uncritical enthusiasm without
appreciation of science and its methods. But in addition to the
conservatism of the man of science, and the groundless pretensions
of the mesmerist, are found the contributions of a few discerning
students aiding, though in a sporadic and uncertain way, the progress
of the science. What had been repeatedly established was forgotten
and had to be reëstablished; observations made by those who in some
one direction had fallen into error were discredited, and had to be
verified anew. The progress was thus tortuous and ill-defined, but
none the less the essential and important phenomena were gaining
wider and more authoritative recognition. The use of hypnotism as
an anæsthetic was most influential in compelling the attention
of the medical profession; for the frequent reports of surgical
operations upon hypnotized patients by men of reputation could hardly
be dismissed as illusory. As early as 1821 Recamier had utilized
the magnetic insensibility for surgical purposes; in 1829 Clocquet
performed a severe operation upon a magnetized woman; in 1837 Oudet
extracted a tooth from a patient in this condition; from 1842 on a
number of English surgeons--Tupham, Ward, Elliotson, Purland--used
hypnotism for various surgical operations, and a Mesmeric Infirmary
for this purpose was successfully maintained. Many of the reports of
such operations were received with extreme skepticism. The celebrated
surgeon, Lisfranc, regarded Clocquet as a dupe; and Oudet met with
a similar reception. Most extensive and remarkable were the series
of operations performed in India upon natives by Dr. Esdaile, and
reported in 1846. The most shocking and dangerous pathological
growths were removed without pain and with the minimum of discomfort.
Dr. Esdaile is entitled to high rank in the account of this period,
because his work was done so largely in independence of others;
moreover, he developed a theory of the phenomena quite analogous to
that of Braid; and in days when anæsthetics were but little known
naturally grew enthusiastic over the value of the practices which he
had so successfully demonstrated.
A more detailed account of this period than is here possible would
consider the physiological contributions of such as Carpenter and
Bennett and Mayo, whose criticisms and explanations of the alleged
marvels and false theories of mesmerism stemmed but could not stay
the flow of extravagant practices and beliefs with which England was
then deluged; with the carefully detailed conclusions and experiments
of Azam, of Demarquay, and Girard-Teulon, of Durand de Gros (who
later assumed the name of Phillips, and through whom Braid's
work was introduced into France); and of several other and often
independent workers. There is one, however, whose position is worthy
of separate notice, and who in a peculiar way forms the transition
between the present status of hypnotism and that which prevailed a
half century ago. I refer to Dr. A. A. Liebault, who, until within
recent years, maintained at Nancy the hypnotic clinic founded by him
forty years ago. In 1866, he published a valuable and original work
describing his methods and practice. He put his subjects to sleep by
verbal command, and suggested to them the relief of their pains and
ailments, enforcing the suggestions with such prescriptions as were
likely to be effective. He thus adopted the method of "suggestion" as
the central point of the system, and may be regarded as the founder
of the "suggestionist" school, also known, though not in the main by
reason of his labors, as the school of Nancy. Living in retirement,
out of touch with the medical profession, presenting his results in a
form unattractive to the scientific mind, and encumbered by peculiar
personal views, his work attracted no attention; and it remained for
more influential investigators, particularly Charcot at Paris and
Bernheim at Nancy, to establish the recognized doctrines of modern
hypnotism.