Friedrich Anton Mesmer was born in Iznang, on the Lake of Constance,
May 23, 1734; destined by his parents for the church, he turned from
the study of theology to that of law, and again changed to medicine.
He graduated as a physician from the University of Vienna in 1776,
and in his doctor's thesis upon "The Influence of the Planets on
the Human Body," he attempted to revive the underlying doctrines of
astrology from a medical point of view. He defined the "quality of
animal bodies, rendering them susceptible to the influence of heaven
and earth," as "animal magnetism;" and regarded the action involved
as analogous to that of the moon upon the ebb and flow of the tide.
The fluctuations and periodicities of disease he sought to produce
artificially, and therefore called his theory the "imitative theory,"
the object being to imitate the ups and downs of nature. He records
his first practical test on the 28th of July, 1774, when he placed
magnets upon the chest and feet of his patient, a young lady, who
was suffering from a variety of morbid symptoms. Shortly thereafter
"she felt internally a painful streaming of a very fine substance
going now here and now there, but finally settling in the lower
part of her body, and freeing her from all further attacks for six
hours." Somewhat later, when the same patient chanced to be suffering
from one of her attacks, and was lying unconscious, she responded
by violent movements to the slightest touch of Mesmer, but remained
entirely unresponsive to the manipulations of a bystander. One of
six cups was then chosen by Mesmer's visitor to be impressed with
magnetic properties. Contact with this cup, which Mesmer had touched,
produced in the patient movements of her hands and expressions of
pain. Mesmer's influence made itself felt at a distance of eight
steps, and even when a third person stood between the two. These
simple observations were the humble beginnings of the practices of
animal magnetism.
The details of Mesmer's early doings are of special value, for in
them we may expect to discover the true nature of the man and his
system; our knowledge of them is derived mainly from the account,
written some thirty-five years after the events, by a not too
discerning eyewitness. They give a sufficiently definite picture
of his manner and methods. Magnets and electric machines, passes
and strokings, fantastic dress and equally fantastic manipulations,
he utilized even before he became well known. The method was always
the same; calling out pains and paroxysms and crises, and in turn
allaying the symptoms thus aroused until the patient was pronounced
cured. From the first, too, he was anxious to secure the recognition
of authoritative bodies of scientific men. Early in 1775, Mesmer
proposed his theory for acceptance to several learned societies, but
received no encouragement. His use of magnets (which he probably
derived from the astronomer, Hell) had aroused the opposition of his
fellow-practitioners, and his professed cure of a protégé of Maria
Theresa involved him in a somewhat unseemly dispute, ultimately
necessitating his departure from Vienna. In February, 1778, he came
to Paris, where he entered upon a remarkable but brief career,
terminating somewhat abruptly in 1784.
Mesmer has left us a narrative of his doings during the first three
of these years--a record devoted almost exclusively to a wearisome
account of his controversies with the various learned societies of
Paris. He appealed to the French Academy of Sciences and to the Royal
Medical Society, announcing a most wonderful physical discovery, to
describe which suitable words were as yet lacking. Mesmer wished
these societies to sanction his discovery, not to act as judges of
its truth, of which he says there can be no reasonable doubt. He
offered them a series of dogmatic propositions, setting forth the
nature of animal magnetism, and apparently desired the cures to
be considered a subordinate part of the issue. He was, however,
continuously engaged in curing disease. His most valuable convert
was M. Deslon, a member of the Medical Faculty of Paris, a man of
considerable influence, who at once espoused Mesmer's cause with
unlimited enthusiasm. He invited a dozen of his colleagues to meet
Mesmer at dinner, and had read to them an exposition of the system
of animal magnetism. The company seem not to have been very deeply
impressed; for it was with difficulty that Deslon induced three
of them to associate themselves with him in an investigation; and
they soon deserted him, when their requests for simple, unambiguous
tests and their explanation of the observed effect as due to an
overstimulated imagination, were alike disregarded. The point at
issue in these tests seems to have been whether Mesmer in his own
person possessed an influence or magnetic radiation, which brought
him into rapport with his magnetically sensitive subjects; but Mesmer
apparently regarded any test that reflected the skeptical attitude
of the investigators as unbecomingly suspicious. Deslon, however,
remained a staunch believer in the new system, and defended its cause
before the Faculty of Medicine, dwelling upon the honor of having
it presented to them, and the eternal glory they would merit by
accepting "the most important discovery at which the human mind had
ever marveled." But the Faculty voted to reject the propositions, and
Deslon lost his seat in their body.
This adverse action, together with Mesmer's threat to leave France,
seems to have swelled the enthusiasm in his behalf to enormous
proportions. He tells us that he received a letter from the queen
urging him not to shirk his duty to mankind by leaving France at this
juncture, that he was visited by a high official in behalf of the
king offering him an annuity of 20,000 livres, with an additional
10,000 livres for the rental of an establishment for operating his
cures. Mesmer insisted upon the formal and irrevocable admission of
the existence and utility of his discovery as preliminary to all
negotiations, and demanded, in addition to the annuity, the gift of
an estate; but this was a step farther than royal protection would
venture.
Our information regarding the latter portion of Mesmer's Parisian
career is meagre. In 1781 Deslon published his work on "Animal
Magnetism," in which he repeats with undiminished enthusiasm his
praises of Mesmer, describes the marvelous cures he has witnessed and
prophesies the eventual triumph of the system. Shortly thereafter
Mesmer went to the Spa; Deslon remained in Paris and began to treat
patients by animal magnetism and with great success. He formed a
special private class of educated men and women, from each of whom
he received ten louis d'or per month. Upon hearing of this, Mesmer
hurried back to Paris and found his former adherents divided into
Mesmerists and Deslonists. He then (October, 1782) denounced Deslon
as one who had betrayed his secrets and was misrepresenting the
system. Through the efforts of friends, an inner circle--the first
of the "Loges d'Harmonie"--was formed, consisting of one hundred
members, each of whom paid one hundred louis d'or for the privilege
of hearing Mesmer's exposition of his whole secret. Dissensions
and discussions continued to arise; one of his hearers said "that
those who know the secret are in greater doubt than those who are
ignorant of it;" and M. Berthellot, the chemist, who in paying his
fee reserved the right of criticism, was so irritated at the pedantic
and ridiculous treatment to which he was subjected, that he upset
the "baquet" and left the room in a violent rage. Matters went on in
this way, with frequent propositions of a scientific examination, and
as frequent refusals on the part of Mesmer to have further dealings
with scientific societies, until, in 1784, the famous commission was
appointed by the throne.
This commission was composed of four members of the Faculty of
Medicine, MM. Borie (who at his death was succeeded by M. Majault),
Sallin, Darcet, Guillotin, to whom were added five members of the
Academy of Sciences, MM. Franklin, Leroy, Bailly, Lavoisier, and
de Bory. Their report describes in scrupulous and careful detail
everything that they witnessed at the house of Deslon, who carefully
and circumstantially assured them that Mesmer's procedures and his
own were quite the same; and who allowed them the greatest freedom
in examinations and tests. They tried the treatment themselves, but
felt no effects. They emphasized the fact that public performances
in which excitement and contagion have full play are more successful
than private ones, and that the subjects most easily influenced
are to be found among the ignorant rather than among the educated
classes. They blindfolded one of their subjects, and pretended to
perform the usual passes, while they really did nothing; yet the
expected results ensued. It was believed that when the subject
came in contact with a tree that had been magnetized, the symptoms
of an approaching crisis would be manifested; accordingly they had
a tree in Franklin's garden magnetized, but their subject went to
four other trees and at each exhibited the usual phenomena. From
such experiments, ingeniously devised and varied, the commissioners
concluded that the effects witnessed were due to an overstimulated
imagination, to an anticipation of the result, to excitement and
contagion. "Let us represent to ourselves," they say, "the situation
of a person of the lower class, and in consequence ignorant,
attacked with a distemper and desirous of a cure, introduced with
some degree of ceremony to a large company partly composed of
physicians, where an operation is performed upon him, totally new,
and from which he persuades himself beforehand that he is about to
experience prodigious effects. Let us add to this that he is paid
for his compliance, that he thinks he shall contribute more to our
satisfaction by professing to experience sensations of some kind, and
we shall have definite causes to which to attribute these effects."
There was presented at the same time a secret report by the same
commission, dwelling upon the dangers to morality inherent in these
practices. A commission appointed by the Royal Medical Society
reported to the same effect. They found in all their experiments that
an expectation of the result was necessary to its accomplishment,
and they directed attention anew to the entire lack of proof of
any of Mesmer's propositions regarding the magnetic fluid. To this
second report there was one dissenting voice, that of Jussieu, the
botanist, who, while rejecting all belief in animal magnetism, yet
curiously regarded heat, as developed by friction, as an essential
factor of the phenomena. Furthermore, M. Thouret reported, by request
of the same society, upon the literature and history of the doctrine,
and traced the notions which Mesmer advanced to older writers; and
showed the similarity of his practices to those of former astrologers
and mystics. In opposition to these reports, of which more than
twenty thousand copies were issued, Mesmer denounced the government,
the scientific societies, the medical profession, and all who had
opposed him. His attitude may be inferred from the closing words of a
letter to Franklin. "I am like you, Sir, one of those whom one cannot
oppress without danger, one of those men, who, because they have done
great things, dispose of insult as other men dispose of authority. If
any one like you, Sir, cares to try it, I have the world as my judge,
and if the world can forget the good I have done, and prevent the
good I wish to do, I have posterity as my avenger."
These adverse reports were most influential in terminating Mesmer's
career in Paris; but in this they were assisted by other events.
Several deaths at the "baquet" alarmed his adherents, and were
promptly turned to account by his opponents. The death of M. Court
de Gébelin, an author and prominent man of the day, was the occasion
of the characteristic comments of the period; and especially so as
he had recently and publicly announced his indebtedness for renewed
health to Mesmer. One of the journals noted his death thus: "M.
Court de Gébelin vient de mourir, guéri par le Magnetisme animale;"
another suggested for his epitaph:--
"Ci gît ce pauvre Gébelin,
Qui savait grec, hébreu, latin;
Admirez tous son héroïsme,
Il fut martyr de magnetisme."
A comedy entitled "Docteurs Modernes" brought the "baquet" upon the
stage, ridiculed Mesmer and his procedures, and hinted with no great
delicacy at the abuses to which the popularity of his treatment might
give rise. In England the system was thus satirized: