FOOTNOTE:

[1] This famous dictum of Macaulay, though endorsed by Lord Rosebery,

has been energetically rebutted by Professor W. Raleigh and others,

who recognize both sagacity and scholarship in Johnson's Preface and

Notes. Johnson's wide grasp of the discourse and knowledge of human

nature enable him in a hundred entangled passages to go straight to

the dramatist's meaning.--(T. Se.)

JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729), English merchant, was born in Liverpool

in November 1664. He succeeded his father in 1689 as bailiff and in 1695

as mayor. From 1701 to 1723 he represented Liverpool in parliament, and

he was knighted by Queen Anne in 1708. He effected the separation of

Liverpool from the parish of Walton-on-the-Hill; from the Crown he

obtained the grant to the corporation of the site of the old castle

where he planned the town market; while the construction of the first

floating dock (1708) and the building of St Peter's and St George's

churches were due in great measure to his efforts. He was interested in

the tobacco trade; in 1715 he conveyed 130 Jacobite prisoners to the

American plantations. In 1723, having lost in speculation the fortune

which he had inherited from his father, he went himself to Virginia as

collector of customs on the Rappahannock river. He died in Jamaica in

1729. A Liverpool street is named Sir Thomas Buildings after him.

JOHNSON, THOMAS, English 18th-century wood-carver and furniture

designer. Of excellent repute as a craftsman and an artist in wood, his

original conceptions and his adaptations of other men's ideas were

remarkable for their extreme flamboyance, and for the merciless manner

in which he overloaded them with thin and meretricious ornament. Perhaps

his most inept design is that for a table in which a duck or goose is

displacing water that falls upon a mandarin, seated, with his head on

one side, upon the rail below. No local school of Italian rococo ever

produced more extravagant absurdities. His clocks bore scythes and

hour-glasses and flashing sunbeams, together with whirls and

convolutions and floriated adornments without end. On the other hand, he

occasionally produced a mirror frame or a mantelpiece which was simple

and dignified. The art of artistic plagiarism has never been so well

understood or so dexterously practised as by the 18th-century designers

of English furniture, and Johnson appears to have so far exceeded his

contemporaries that he must be called a barefaced thief. The three

leading "motives" of the time--Chinese, Gothic and Louis Quatorze--were

mixed up in his work in the most amazing manner; and he was exceedingly

fond of introducing human figures, animals, birds and fishes in highly

incongruous places. He appears to have defended his enormities on the

ground that "all men vary in opinion, and a fault in the eye of one may

be a beauty in that of another; 'tis a duty incumbent on an author to

endeavour at pleasing every taste." Johnson, who was in business at the

"Golden Boy" in Grafton Street, Westminster, published a folio volume of

_Designs for Picture Frames, Candelabra, Ceilings, &c._ (1758); and _One

Hundred and Fifty New Designs_ (1761).

JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715-1774), British soldier and American pioneer,

was born in Smithtown, County Meath, Ireland, in 1715, the son of

Christopher Johnson, a country gentleman. As a boy he was educated for a

commercial career, but in 1738 he removed to America for the purpose of

managing a tract of land in the Mohawk Valley, New York, belonging to

his uncle, Admiral Sir Peter Warren (1703-1752). He established himself

on the south bank of the Mohawk river, about 25 m. W. of Schenectady.

Before 1743 he removed to the north side of the river. The new

settlement prospered from the start, and a valuable trade was built up

with the Indians, over whom Johnson exercised an immense influence. The

Mohawks adopted him and elected him a sachem. In 1744 he was appointed

by Governor George Clinton (d. 1761) superintendent of the affairs of

the Six Nations (Iroquois). In 1746 he was made commissary of the

province for Indian affairs, and was influential in enlisting and

equipping the Six Nations for participation in the warfare with French

Canada, two years later (1748) being placed in command of a line of

outposts on the New York frontier. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle put a

stop to offensive operations, which he had begun. In May 1750 by royal

appointment he became a member for life of the governor's council, and

in the same year he resigned the post of superintendent of Indian

affairs. In 1754 he was one of the New York delegates to the

inter-colonial convention at Albany, N.Y. In 1755 General Edward

Braddock, the commander of the British forces in America, commissioned

him major-general, in which capacity he directed the expedition against

Crown Point, and in September defeated the French and Indians under

Baron Ludwig A. Dieskau (1701-1767) at the battle of Lake George, where

he himself was wounded. For this success he received the thanks of

parliament, and was created a baronet (November 1755). From July 1756

until his death he was "sole superintendent of the Six Nations and other

Northern Indians." He took part in General James Abercrombie's

disastrous campaign against Ticonderoga (1758), and in 1759 he was

second in command in General John Prideaux's expedition against Fort

Niagara, succeeding to the chief command on that officer's death, and

capturing the fort. In 1760 he was with General Jeffrey Amherst

(1717-1797) at the capture of Montreal. As a reward for his services the

king granted him a tract of 100,000 acres of land north of the Mohawk

river. It was due to his influence that the Iroquois refused to join

Pontiac in his conspiracy, and he was instrumental in arranging the

treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768. After the war Sir William retired to his

estates, where, on the site of the present Johnstown, he built his

residence, Johnson Hall, and lived in all the style of an English baron.

He devoted himself to colonizing his extensive lands, and is said to

have been the first to introduce sheep and blood horses into the

province. He died at Johnstown, N.Y., on the 11th of July 1774. In 1739

Johnson had married Catherine Wisenberg, by whom he had three children.

After her death he had various mistresses, including a niece of the

Indian chief Hendrick, and Molly Brant, a sister of the famous chief

Joseph Brant.

His son, SIR JOHN JOHNSON (1742-1830), who was knighted in 1765 and

succeeded to the baronetcy on his father's death, took part in the

French and Indian War and in the border warfare during the War of

Independence, organizing a loyalist regiment known as the "Queen's Royal

Greens," which he led at the battle of Oriskany and in the raids (1778

and 1780) on Cherry Valley and in the Mohawk Valley. He was also one of

the officers of the force defeated by General John Sullivan in the

engagement at Newtown (Elmira), N.Y., on the 29th of August 1779. He was

made brigadier-general of provincial troops in 1782. His estates had

been confiscated, and after the war he lived in Canada, where he held

from 1791 until his death the office of superintendent-general of Indian

affairs for British North America. He received £45,000 from the British

government for his losses.

Sir William's nephew, GUY JOHNSON (1740-1788), succeeded his uncle as

superintendent of Indian affairs in 1774, and served in the French and

Indian War and, on the British side, in the War of Independence.

See W. L. Stone, _Life of Sir William Johnson_ (2 vols., 1865); W. E.

Griffis, _Sir William Johnson and the Six Nations_ (1891) in "Makers

of America" series; Augustus C. Buell, _Sir William Johnson_ (1903) in

"Historic Lives Series"; and J. Watts De Peyster, "The Life of Sir

John Johnson, Bart.," in _The Orderly Book of Sir John Johnson during

the Oriskany Campaign_, 1776-1777, annotated by William L. Stone

(1882).

JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1803-1862), American Confederate general in the

Civil War, was born at Washington, Mason county, Kentucky, on the 3rd of

February 1803. He graduated from West Point in 1826, and served for

eight years in the U.S. infantry as a company officer, adjutant, and

staff officer. In 1834 he resigned his commission, emigrated in 1836 to

Texas, then a republic, and joined its army as a private. His rise was

very rapid, and before long he was serving as commander-in-chief in

preference to General Felix Huston, with whom he fought a duel. From

1838 to 1840 he was Texan secretary for war, and in 1839 he led a

successful expedition against the Cherokee Indians. From 1840 to the

outbreak of the Mexican War he lived in retirement on his farm, but in

1846 he led a regiment of Texan volunteers in the field, and at

Monterey, as a staff officer, he had three horses shot under him. In

1849 he returned to the United States army as major and paymaster, and

in 1855 became colonel of the 2nd U.S. Cavalry (afterwards 5th), in

which his lieut.-colonel was Robert E. Lee, and his majors were Hardee

and Thomas. In 1857 he commanded the expedition sent against the

Mormons, and performed his difficult and dangerous mission so

successfully that the objects of the expedition were attained without

bloodshed. He was rewarded with the brevet of brigadier-general. At the

outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 Johnston, then in command of the

Pacific department, resigned his commission and made his way to

Richmond, where Pres. Jefferson Davis, whom he had known at West Point,

at once made him a full general in the Confederate army and assigned him

to command the department of Kentucky. Here he had to guard a long and

weak line from the Mississippi to the Alleghany Mountains, which was

dangerously advanced on account of the political necessity of covering

friendly country. The first serious advance of the Federals forced him

back at once, and he was freely criticized and denounced for what, in

ignorance of the facts, the Southern press and people regarded as a weak

and irresolute defence. Johnston himself, who had entered upon the Civil

War with the reputation of being the foremost soldier on either side,

bore with fortitude the reproaches of his countrymen, and Davis loyally

supported his old friend. Johnston then marched to join Beauregard at

Corinth, Miss., and with the united forces took the offensive against

Grant's army at Pittsburg Landing. The battle of Shiloh (q.v.) took

place on the 6th and 7th of April, 1862. The Federals were completely

surprised, and Johnston was in the full tide of success when he fell

mortally wounded. He died a few minutes afterwards. President Davis

said, in his message to the Confederate Congress, "Without doing

injustice to the living, it may safely be said that our loss is

irreparable," and the subsequent history of the war in the west went far

to prove the truth of his eulogy.

His son, WILLIAM PRESTON JOHNSTON (1831-1899), who served on the staff

of General Johnston and subsequently on that of President Davis, was a

distinguished professor and president of Tulane University. His chief

work is the _Life of General Albert Sidney Johnston_ (1878), a most

valuable and exhaustive biography.

JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER (1849-1889), American historian, was born in

Brooklyn, New York, on the 29th of April 1849. He studied at the

Polytechnic institute of Brooklyn, graduated at Rutgers College in 1870,

and was admitted to the bar in 1875 in New Brunswick, New Jersey, where

he taught in the Rutgers College grammar school from 1876 to 1879. He

was principal of the Latin school of Norwalk, Connecticut, in 1879-1883,

and was professor of jurisprudence and political economy in the College

of New Jersey (Princeton University) from 1884 until his death in

Princeton, N.J., on the 21st of July 1889. He wrote _A History of

American Politics_ (1881); _The Genesis of a New England

State--Connecticut_ (1883), in "Johns Hopkins University Studies"; _A

History of the United States for Schools_ (1886); _Connecticut_ (1887)

in the "American Commonwealths Series"; the article on the history of

the United States for the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_,

reprinted as _The United Stales: Its History and Constitution_ (1887); a

chapter on the history of American political parties in the seventh

volume of Winsor's _Narrative and Critical History of America_, and many

articles on the history of American politics in Lalor's _Cyclopaedia of

Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History of the

United States_ (1881-1884). These last articles, which like his other

writings represent much original research and are excellent examples of

Johnston's rare talent for terse narrative and keen analysis and

interpretation of facts, were republished in two volumes entitled

_American Political History 1763-1876_ (1905-1906), edited by Professor

J. A. Woodburn.

JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH (1804-1871), Scottish geographer, was born at

Kirkhill near Edinburgh on the 28th of December 1804. After an education

at the high school and the university of Edinburgh he was apprenticed to

an engraver; and in 1826 joined his brother (afterwards Sir William

Johnston, lord provost of Edinburgh) in a printing and engraving

business, the well-known cartographical firm of W. and A. K. Johnston.

His interest in geography had early developed, and his first important

work was the _National Atlas_ of general geography, which gained for him

in 1843 the appointment of Geographer-Royal for Scotland. Johnston was

the first to bring the study of physical geography into competent notice

in England. His attention had been called to the subject by Humboldt;

and after years of labour he published his magnificent _Physical Atlas_

in 1848, followed by a second and enlarged edition in 1856. This, by

means of maps with descriptive letterpress, illustrates the geology,

hydrography, meteorology, botany, zoology, and ethnology of the globe.

The rest of Johnston's life was devoted to geography, his later years to

its educational aspects especially. His services were recognized by the

leading scientific societies of Europe and America. He died at Ben

Rhydding, Yorkshire, on the 9th of July 1871. Johnston published a

_Dictionary of Geography_ in 1850, with many later editions; _The Royal

Atlas of Modern Geography_, begun in 1855; an atlas of military

geography to accompany Alison's _History of Europe_ in 1848 seq.; and a

variety of other atlases and maps for educational or scientific

purposes. His son of the same name (1844-1879) was also the author of

various geographical works and papers; in 1873-1875 he was geographer to

a commission for the survey of Paraguay; and he died in Africa while

leading the Royal Geographical Society's expedition to Lake Nyasa.

JOHNSTON, ARTHUR (1587-1641), Scottish physician and writer of Latin

verse, was the son of an Aberdeenshire laird Johnston of Johnston and

Caskieben, and on his mother's side a grandson of the seventh Lord

Forbes. It is probable that he began his university studies at one, or

both, of the colleges at Aberdeen, but in 1608 he proceeded to Italy and

graduated M.D. at Padua in 1610. Thereafter he resided at Sedan, in the

company of the exiled Andrew Melville (q.v.), and in 1619 was in

practice in Paris. He appears to have returned to England about the time

of James I.'s death and to have been in Aberdeen about 1628. He met Laud

in Edinburgh at the time of Charles I.'s Scottish coronation (1633) and

was encouraged by him in his literary efforts, partly, it is said, for

the undoing of Buchanan's reputation as a Latin poet. He was appointed

rector of King's College, Aberdeen, in June 1637. Four years later he

died at Oxford, on his way to London, whither Laud had invited him.

Johnston left more than ten works, all in Latin. On two of these,

published in the same year, his reputation entirely rests: (a) his

version of the Psalms (_Psalmorum Davidis paraphrasis poetica et

canticorum evangelicorum_, Aberdeen, 1637), and (b) his anthology of

contemporary Latin verse by Scottish poets (_Deliciae poetarum

scotorum hujus aevi illustrium_, Amsterdam, 1637). He had published in

1633 a volume entitled _Cantici Salomonis paraphrasis poetica_, which,

dedicated to Charles I., had brought him to the notice of Laud. The

full version of the Psalms was the result of Laud's encouragement. The

book was for some time a strong rival of Buchanan's work, though its

good Latinity was not superior to that of the latter. The _Deliciae_,

in two small thick volumes of 699 and 575 pages, was a patriotic

effort in imitation of the various volumes (under a similar title)

which had been popular on the Continent during the second decade of

the century. The volumes are dedicated by Johnston to John Scot of

Scotstarvet, at whose expense the collected works were published after

Johnston's death, at Middelburg (1642). Selections from his own poems

occupy pages 439-647 of the first volume, divided into three sections,

_Parerga_, _Epigrammata_ and _Musae Aulicae_. He published a volume of

epigrams at Aberdeen in 1632. In these pieces he shows himself at his

best. His sacred poems, which had appeared in the _Opera_ (1642), were

reprinted by Lauder in his _Poetarum Scotorum musae sacrae_ (1739).

The earliest lives are by Lauder (_u.s._) and Benson (in _Psalmi

Davidici_, 1741). Ruddiman's _Vindication of Mr George Buchanan's

Paraphrase_ (1745) began a pamphlet controversy regarding the merits

of the rival poets.

JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON (1858- ), British administrator and

explorer, was born on the 12th of June 1858 at Kennington, London, and

educated at Stockwell grammar school and King's College, London. He was

a student for four years in the painting schools of the Royal Academy.

At the age of eighteen he began a series of travels in Europe and North

Africa, chiefly as a student of painting, architecture and languages. In

1879-1880 he visited the then little known interior of Tunisia. He had

also a strong bent towards zoology and comparative anatomy, and carried

on work of this description at the Royal College of Surgeons, of whose

Hunterian Collection he afterwards became one of the trustees. In 1882

he joined the earl of Mayo in an expedition to the southern part of

Angola, a district then much traversed by Transvaal Boers. In 1883

Johnston visited H. M. Stanley on the Congo, and was enabled by that

explorer to visit the river above Stanley Pool at a time when it was

scarcely known to other Europeans than Stanley and De Brazza. These

journeys attracted the attention of the Royal Geographical Society and

the British Association, and the last-named in concert with the Royal

Society conferred on Johnston the leadership of the scientific

expedition to Mount Kilimanjaro which started from Zanzibar in April

1884. Johnston's work in this region was also under the direction of Sir

John Kirk, British consul at Zanzibar. While in the Kilimanjaro district

Johnston concluded treaties with the chiefs of Moshi and Taveta

(Taveita). These treaties or concessions were transferred to the

merchants who founded the British East Africa Company, and in the final

agreement with Germany Taveta fell to Great Britain. In October 1885

Johnston was appointed British vice-consul in Cameroon and in the Niger

delta, and he became in 1887 acting consul for that region. A British

protectorate over the Niger delta had been notified in June 1885, and

between the date of his appointment and 1888, together with the consul

E. H. Hewett, Johnston laid the foundations of the British

administration in that part of the delta not reserved for the Royal

Niger Company. His action in removing the turbulent chief Ja-ja (an

ex-slave who had risen to considerable power in the palm-oil trade)

occasioned considerable criticism but was approved by the Foreign

Office. It led to the complete pacification of a region long disturbed

by trade disputes. During these three years of residence in the Gulf of

Guinea Johnston ascended the Cameroon Mountain, and made large

collections of the flora and fauna of Cameroon for the British Museum.

In the spring of 1889 he was sent to Lisbon to negotiate an arrangement

for the delimitation of the British and Portuguese spheres of influence

in South-East Africa, but the scheme drawn up, though very like the

later arrangement of those regions, was not given effect to at the time.

On his return from Lisbon he was despatched to Mozambique as consul for

Portuguese East Africa, and was further charged with a mission to Lake

Nyasa to pacify that region, then in a disturbed state owing to the

attacks of slave-trading Arabs on the stations of the African Lakes

Trading Company--an unofficial war, in which Captain (afterwards Colonel

Sir Frederick) Lugard and Mr (afterwards Sir Alfred) Sharpe

distinguished themselves. Owing to the unexpected arrival on the scene

of Major Serpa Pinto, Johnston was compelled to declare a British

protectorate over the Nyasa region, being assisted in this work by John

Buchanan (vice-consul), Sir Alfred Sharpe, Alfred Swann and others. A

truce was arranged with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa, and within twelve

months the British flag, by agreement with the natives, had been hoisted

over a very large region which extended north of Lake Tanganyika to the

vicinity of Uganda, to Katanga in the Congo Free State, the Shiré

Highlands and the central Zambezi. Johnston's scheme, in fact, was that

known as the "Cape-to-Cairo," a phrase which he had brought into use in

an article in _The Times_ in August 1888. According to his arrangement

there would have been an all-British route from Alexandria to Cape Town.

But by the Anglo-German agreement of the 1st of July 1890 the British

sphere north of Tanganyika was abandoned to Germany, and the

Cape-to-Cairo route broken by a wedge of German territory. Johnston

returned to British Central Africa as commissioner and consul-general in

1891, and retained that post till 1896, in which year he was made a

K.C.B. His health having suffered much from African fever, he was

transferred to Tunis as consul-general (1897). In the autumn of 1899 Sir

Harry Johnston was despatched to Uganda as special commissioner to

reorganize the administration of that protectorate after the suppression

of the mutiny of the Sudanese soldiers and the long war with Unyoro. His

two years' work in Uganda and a portion of what is now British East

Africa were rewarded at the close of 1901 by a G.C.M.G. In the spring of

the following year he retired from the consular service. After 1904 he

interested himself greatly in the affairs of the Liberian republic, and

negotiated various arrangements with that negro state by which order was

brought into its finances, the frontier with France was delimited, and

the development of the interior by means of roads was commenced. In 1903

he was defeated as Liberal candidate for parliament at a by-election at

Rochester. He met with no better success at West Marylebone at the

general election of 1906.

For his services to zoology he was awarded the gold medal of the

Zoological Society in 1902, and in the same year was made an honorary

doctor of science at Cambridge. He received the gold medal of the Royal

Geographical and the Royal Scottish Geographical societies, and other

medals for his artistic work from South Kensington and the Society of

Arts. His pictures, chiefly dealing with African subjects, were

frequently exhibited at the Royal Academy. He was the author of numerous

books on Africa, including _British Central Africa_ (1897); _The

Colonization of Africa_ (1899); _The Uganda Protectorate_ (1902);

_Liberia_ (1906); _George Grenfell and the Congo_ (1908). During his

travels in the north-eastern part of the Congo Free State in 1900 he was

instrumental in discovering and naming the okapi, a mammal nearly allied

to the giraffe. His name has been connected with many other discoveries

in the African fauna and flora.

JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (1807-1891), American Confederate general in

the Civil War, was born near Farmville, Prince Edward county, Virginia,

on the 3rd of February 1807. His father, Peter Johnston (1763-1841), a

Virginian of Scottish descent, served in the War of Independence, and

afterwards became a distinguished jurist; his mother was a niece of

Patrick Henry. He graduated at West Point, in the same class with Robert

E. Lee, and was made brevet second lieutenant, 4th Artillery, in 1829.

He served in the Black Hawk and Seminole wars, and left the army in 1837

to become a civil engineer, but a year afterwards he was reappointed to

the army as first lieutenant, Topographical Engineers, and breveted

captain for his conduct in the Seminole war. During the Mexican war he

was twice severely wounded in a reconnaissance at Cerro Gordo, 1847, was

engaged in the siege of Vera Cruz, the battles of Contreras, Churubusco,

and Molino del Rey, the storming of Chapultepec, and the assault on the

city of Mexico, and received three brevets for gallant and meritorious

service. From 1853 to 1855 he was employed on Western river

improvements, and in 1855 he became lieut.-colonel of the 1st U.S.

Cavalry. In 1860 he was made quartermaster-general, with the rank of

brigadier-general. In April 1861 he resigned from the United States army

and entered the Confederate service. He was commissioned major-general

of volunteers in the Army of Virginia, and assisted in organizing the

volunteers. He was later appointed a general officer of the Confederacy,

and assigned to the command of the Army of the Shenandoah, being opposed

by the Federal army under Patterson. When McDowell advanced upon the

Confederate forces under Beauregard at Manassas, Johnston moved from the

Shenandoah Valley with great rapidity to Beauregard's assistance. As

senior officer he took command on the field, and at Bull Run (Manassas)

(q.v.) won the first important Confederate victory. In August 1861 he

was made one of the five full generals of the Confederacy, remaining in

command of the main army in Virginia. He commanded in the battle of Fair

Oaks (May 31, 1862), and was so severely wounded as to be incapacitated

for several months. In March 1863, still troubled by his wound, he was

assigned to the command of the south-west, and in May was ordered to

take immediate command of all the Confederate forces in Mississippi,

then threatened by Grant's movement on Vicksburg. When Pemberton's army

was besieged in Vicksburg by Grant, Johnston used every effort to

relieve it, but his force was inadequate. Later in 1863, when the battle

of Chattanooga brought the Federals to the borders of Georgia, Johnston

was assigned to command the Army of Tennessee at Dalton, and in the

early days of May 1864 the combined armies of the North under Sherman

advanced against his lines. For the main outlines of the famous campaign

between Sherman and Johnston see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (§ 29). From the 9th

of May to the 17th of July there were skirmishes, actions and combats

almost daily. The great numerical superiority of the Federals enabled

Sherman to press back the Confederates without a pitched battle, but the

severity of the skirmishing may be judged from the casualties of the two

armies (Sherman's about 26,000 men, Johnston's over 10,000), and the

obstinate steadiness of Johnston by the fact that his opponent hardly

progressed more than one mile a day. But a Fabian policy is never

acceptable to an eager people, and when Johnston had been driven back to

Atlanta he was superseded by Hood with orders to fight a battle. The

wisdom of Johnston's plan was soon abundantly clear, and the Confederate

cause was already lost when Lee reinstated him on the 23rd of February

1865. With a handful of men he opposed Sherman's march through the

Carolinas, and at Bentonville, N.C., fought and almost won a most

gallant and skilful battle against heavy odds. But the Union troops

steadily advanced, growing in strength as they went, and a few days

after Lee's surrender at Appomattox Johnston advised President Davis

that it was in his opinion wrong and useless to continue the conflict,

and he was authorized to make terms with Sherman. The terms entered into

between these generals, on the 18th of April, having been rejected by

the United States government, another agreement was signed on the 26th

of April, the new terms being similar to those of the surrender of Lee.

After the close of the war Johnston engaged in civil pursuits. In 1874

he published a _Narrative of Military Operations during the Civil War_.

In 1877 he was elected to represent the Richmond district of Virginia in

Congress. In 1887 he was appointed by President Cleveland U.S.

commissioner of railroads. Johnston was married in early life to Louisa

(d. 1886), daughter of Louis M'Lane. He died at Washington, D.C., on the

21st of March 1891, leaving no children.

It was not the good fortune of Johnston to acquire the prestige which so

much assisted Lee and Jackson, nor indeed did he possess the power of

enforcing his will on others in the same degree, but his methods were

exact, his strategy calm and balanced, and, if he showed himself less

daring than his comrades, he was unsurpassed in steadiness. The duel of

Sherman and Johnston is almost as personal a contest between two great

captains as were the campaigns of Turenne and Montecucculi. To

Montecucculi, indeed, both in his military character and in the

incidents of his career, Joseph Johnston bears a striking resemblance.

See Hughes, _General Johnston_, in "Great Commanders Series" (1893).

JOHNSTONE, a police burgh of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the Black Cart,

11 m. W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901),

10,503. The leading industries include flax-spinning, cotton

manufactures (with the introduction of which in 1781 the prosperity of

the town began), paper-making, shoe-lace making, iron and brass

foundries and engineering works. There are also coal mines and oil works

in the vicinity. Elderslie, 1 m. E., is the reputed birthplace of Sir

William Wallace, but it is doubtful if "Wallace's Yew," though of great

age, and "Wallace's Oak," a fine old tree that perished in a storm in

1856, and the small castellated building (traditionally his house) which

preceded the present mansion in the west end of the village, existed in

his day.

JOHNSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Fulton county, New York,

U.S.A., on Cayadutta Creek, about 4 m. N. of the Mohawk river and about

48 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890), 7768; (1900), 10,130 (1653

foreign-born); (1905, state census), 9765; (1910) 10,447. It is served

by the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railroad, and by an electric line

to Schenectady. The city has a Federal building, a Y.M.C.A. building, a

city hall, and a Carnegie library (1902). The most interesting building

is Johnson Hall, a fine old baronial mansion, built by Sir William

Johnson in 1762 and his home until his death; his grave is just outside

the present St John's episcopal church. Originally the hall was flanked

by two stone forts, one of which is still standing. In 1907 the hall was

bought by the state and was placed in the custody of the Johnstown

Historical Society, which maintains a museum here. In the hall Johnson

established in 1766 a Masonic lodge, one of the oldest in the United

States. Other buildings of historical interest are the Drumm House and

the Fulton county court house, built by Sir William Johnson in 1763 and

1772 respectively, and the gaol (1772), at first used for all New York

west of Schenectady county, and during the War of Independence as a

civil and a military prison. The court house is said to be the oldest in

the United States. Three miles south of the city is the Butler House,

built in 1742 by Colonel John Butler (d. 1794), a prominent Tory leader

during the War of Independence. A free school, said to have been the

first in New York state, was established at Johnstown by Sir William

Johnson in 1764. The city is (after Gloversville, 3 m. distant) the

principal glove-making centre in the United States, the product being

valued at $2,581,274 in 1905 and being 14.6% of the total value of this

industry in the United States. The manufacture of gloves in commercial

quantities was introduced into the United States and Johnstown in 1809

by Talmadge Edwards, who was buried there in the colonial cemetery. The

value of the total factory product in 1905 was $4,543,272 (a decrease of

11.3% since 1900). Johnstown was settled about 1760 by a colony of Scots

brought to America by Sir William Johnson, within whose extensive grant

it was situated, and in whose honour, in 1771, it was named. A number of

important conferences between the colonial authorities and the Iroquois

Indians were held here, and on the 28th of October 1781, during the War

of Independence, Colonel Marinus Willett (1740-1830) defeated here a

force of British and Indians, whose leader, Walter Butler, a son of

Colonel John Butler, and, with him, a participant in the Wyoming

massacres, was mortally wounded near West Canada creek during the

pursuit. Johnstown was incorporated as a village in 1808, and was

chartered as a city in 1895.

JOHNSTOWN, a city of Cambria county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the

confluence of the Conemaugh river and Stony creek, about 75 m. E. by S.

of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 21,805; (1900), 35,936, of whom 7318 were

foreign-born, 2017 being Hungarians, 1663 Germans, and 923 Austrians;

(1910 census) 55,482. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore

& Ohio railways. The city lies about 1170 ft. above the sea, on level

ground extending for some distance along the river, and nearly enclosed

by high and precipitous hills. Among the public buildings and

institutions are the Cambria free library (containing about 14,000

volumes in 1908), the city hall, a fine high school, and the Conemaugh

Valley memorial hospital. Roxbury Park, about 3 m. from the city, is

reached by electric lines. Coal, iron ore, fire clay and limestone

abound in the vicinity, and the city has large plants for the

manufacture of iron and steel. The total value of the factory product in

1905 was $28,891,806, an increase of 35.2% since 1900. A settlement was

established here in 1791 by Joseph Jahns, in whose honour it was named,

and the place was soon laid out as a town, but it was not incorporated

as a city until 1889, the year of the disastrous Johnstown flood. In

1852 a dam (700 ft. long and 100 ft. high), intended to provide a

storage reservoir for the Pennsylvania canal, had been built across the

South Fork, a branch of the Conemaugh river, 12 m. above the city, but

the Pennsylvania canal was subsequently abandoned, and in 1888 the dam

was bought and repaired by the South Fork hunting and fishing club, and

Conemaugh lake was formed. On the 31st of May 1889, during a heavy

rainfall, the dam gave way and a mass of water 20 ft. or more in height

at its head swept over Johnstown at a speed of about 20 m. an hour,

almost completely destroying the city. The Pennsylvania railroad bridge

withstood the strain, and against it the flood piled up a mass of

wreckage many feet in height and several acres in area. On or in this

confused mass many of the inhabitants were saved from drowning, only to

be burned alive when it caught fire. Seven other towns and villages in

the valley were also swept away, and the total loss of lives was 2000 or

more. A relief fund of nearly $3,000,000 was raised, and the city was

quickly rebuilt.

JOHOR (Johore is the local official, but incorrect spelling), an

independent Malayan state at the southern end of the peninsula,

stretching from 2° 40´ S. to Cape Romania (Ramunya), the most southerly

point on the mainland of Asia, and including all the small islands

adjacent to the coast which lie to the south of parallel 2° 40´ S. It is

bounded N. by the protected native state of Pahang, N.W. by the Negri

Sembilan and the territory of Malacca, S. by the strait which divides

Singapore island from the mainland, E. by the China Sea, and W. by the

Straits of Malacca. The province of Muar was placed under the

administration of Johor by the British government as a temporary measure

in 1877, and was still a portion of the sultan's dominions in 1910. The

coast-line measures about 250 m. The greatest length from N.W. to S.E.

is 165 m., the greatest breadth from E. to W. 100 m. The area is

estimated at about 9000 sq. m. The principal rivers are the Muar, the

most important waterway in the south of the peninsula; the Johor, up

which river the old capital of the state was situated; the Endau, which

marks the boundary with Pahang; and the Batu Pahat and Sedeli, of

comparative unimportance. Johor is less mountainous than any other state

in the peninsula. The highest peak is Gunong Ledang, called Mt Ophir by

Europeans, which measures some 4000 ft. in height. Like the rest of the

peninsula, Johor is covered from end to end by one vast spread of

forest, only broken here and there by clearings and settlements of

insignificant area. The capital is Johor Bharu (pop. about 20,000),

situated at the nearest point on the mainland to the island of

Singapore. The fine palace built by the sultan Abubakar is the principal

feature of the town. It is a kind of Oriental Monte Carlo, and is much

resorted to from Singapore. The capital of the province of Muar is

Bandar Maharani, named after the wife of the sultan before he had

assumed his final title. The climate of Johor is healthy and equable for

a country situated so near to the equator; it is cooler than that of

Singapore. The shade temperature varies from 98.5° F. to 68.2° F. The

rainfall averages 97.28 in. per annum. No exact figures can be obtained

as to the population of Johor, but the best estimates place it at about

200,000, of whom 150,000 are Chinese, 35,000 Malays, 15,000 Javanese. We

are thus presented with the curious spectacle of a country under Malay

rule in which the Chinese outnumber the people of the land by more than

four to one. It is not possible to obtain any exact data on the subject

of the revenue and expenditure of the state. The revenue, however, is

probably about 750,000 dollars, and the expenditure under public service

is comparatively small. The revenue is chiefly derived from the revenue

farms for opium, spirits, gambling, &c., and from duty on pepper and

gambier exported by the Chinese. The cultivation of these products forms

the principal industry. Areca-nuts and copra are also exported in some

quantities, more especially from Muar. There is little mineral wealth of

proved value.

_History._--It is claimed that the Mahommedan empire of Johor was

founded by the sultan of Malacca after his expulsion from his kingdom by

the Portuguese in 1511. It is certain that Johor took an active part,

only second to that of Achin, in the protracted war between the

Portuguese and the Dutch for the possession of Malacca. Later we find

Johor ruled by an officer of the sultan of Riouw (Riau), bearing the

title of Tumenggong, and owing feudal allegiance to his master in common

with the Bendahara of Pahang. In 1812, however, this officer seems to

have thrown off the control of Riouw, and to have assumed the title of

sultan, for one of his descendants, Sultan Husain, ceded the island of

Singapore to the East India Company in 1819. In 1855 the then sultan,

Ali, was deposed, and his principal chief, the Tumenggong, was given the

supreme rule by the British. His son Tumenggong Abubakar proved to be a

man of exceptional intelligence. He made numerous visits to Europe, took

considerable interest in the government and development of his country,

and was given by Queen Victoria the title of maharaja in 1879. On one of

his visits to England he was made the defendant in a suit for breach of

promise of marriage, but the plaintiff was non-suited, since it was

decided that no action lay against a foreign sovereign in the English

law courts. In 1885 he entered into a new agreement with the British

government, and was allowed to assume the title of sultan of the state

and territory of Johor. He was succeeded in 1895 by his son Sultan

Ibrahim. The government of Johor has been comparatively so free from

abuses under its native rulers that it has never been found necessary to

place it under the residential system in force in the other native

states of the peninsula which are under British control, and on several

occasions Abubakar used his influence with good effect on the side of

law and order. The close proximity of Johor to Singapore has constantly

subjected the rulers of the former state to the influence of European

public opinion. None the less, the Malay is by nature but ill fitted for

the drudgery which is necessary if proper attention is to be paid to the

dull details whereby government is rendered good and efficient.

Abubakar's principal adviser, the Dato 'Mentri, was a worthy servant of

his able master. Subsequently, however, the reins of government came

chiefly into the hands of a set of young men who lacked either

experience or the serious devotion to dull duties which is the

distinguishing mark of the English civil service. Muar, in imitation of

the British system, is ruled by a raja of the house of Johor, who bears

the title of resident. (H. Cl.)

JOIGNY, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the

department of Yonne, 18 m. N.N.W. of Auxerre by the

Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906), 4888. It is situated on

the flank of the hill known as the Côte St Jacques on the right bank of

the Yonne. Its streets are steep and narrow, and old houses with carved

wooden façades are numerous. The church of St Jean (16th century), which

once stood within the _enceinte_ of the old castle, contains a

representation (15th century) of the Holy Sepulchre in white marble.

Other interesting buildings are the church of St André (12th, 16th and

17th centuries), of which the best feature is the Renaissance portal

with its fine bas-reliefs; and the church of St Thibault (16th century),

in which the stone crown suspended from the choir vaulting is chiefly

noticeable. The Porte du Bois, a gateway with two massive flanking

towers, is a relic of the 10th century castle; there is also a castle of

the 16th and 17th centuries, in part demolished. The hôtel de ville

(18th century) shelters the library; the law-court contains the

sepulchral chapel of the Ferrands (16th century). The town is the seat

of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,

and a communal college for boys. It is industrially unimportant, but the

wine of the Côte St Jacques is much esteemed.

Joigny (_Joviniacum_) was probably of Roman origin. In the 10th century

it became the seat of a countship dependent on that of Champagne, which

after passing through several hands came in the 18th century into the

possession of the family of Villeroi. A fragment of a ladder preserved

in the church of St André commemorates the successful resistance offered

by the town to the English in 1429.

JOINDER, in English law, a term used in several connexions.

_Joinder of causes of action_ is the uniting in the same action several

causes of action. Save in actions for the recovery of land and in

actions by a trustee in bankruptcy a plaintiff may without leave join in

one action, not several actions, but several "causes of action." Claims

by or against husband and wife may be joined with claims by or against

either of them separately. Claims by or against an executor or

administrator as such may be joined with claims by or against him

personally, provided such claims are alleged to arise with reference to

the estate of which the plaintiff or defendant sues or is sued as

executor or administrator. Claims by plaintiffs jointly may be joined

with claims by them or any of them separately against the same

defendant.

_Joinder in pleading_ is the joining by the parties on the point of

matter issuing out of the allegations and pleas of the plaintiff and the

defendant in a cause and the putting the cause upon trial.

_Joinder of parties._--Where parties may jointly, severally or in the

alternative bring separate actions in respect of or arising out of the

same transaction or series of transactions they may, by Order XVI. of

the rules of the supreme court, be joined in one action as plaintiffs.

JOINERY, one of the useful arts which contribute to the comfort and

convenience of man. As the arts of joinery and carpentry are often

followed by the same individual, it appears natural to conclude that the

same principles are common to both, but a closer examination leads to a

different conclusion. The art of carpentry is directed almost wholly to

the support of weight or pressure, and therefore its principles must be

sought in the mechanical sciences. In a building it includes all the

rough timber work necessary for support, division or connexion, and its

proper object is to give firmness and stability. The art of joinery has

for its object the addition in a building of all the fixed woodwork

necessary for convenience or ornament. The joiner's works are in many

cases of a complicated nature, and often require to be executed in an

expensive material, therefore joinery requires much skill in that part

of geometrical science which treats of the projection and description of

lines, surfaces and solids, as well as an intimate knowledge of the

structure and nature of wood. A man may be a good carpenter without

being a joiner at all, but he cannot be a joiner without being

competent, at least, to supervise all the operations required in

carpentry. The rough labour of the carpenter renders him in some degree

unfit to produce that accurate and neat workmanship which is expected

from a modern joiner, but it is no less true that the habit of neatness

and the great precision of the joiner make him a much slower workman

than the man practised in works of carpentry. In carpentry framing owes

its strength mainly to the form and position of its parts, but in

joinery the strength of a frame depends to a larger extent upon the

strength of the joinings. The importance of fitting the joints together

as accurately as possible is therefore obvious. It is very desirable

that a joiner shall be a quick workman, but it is still more so that he

shall be a good one, and that he should join his materials with firmness

and accuracy. It is also of the greatest importance that the work when

thus put together shall be constructed of such sound and dry materials,

and on such principles, that the whole shall bear the various changes of

temperature and of moisture and dryness, so that the least possible

shrinkage or swelling shall take place; but provision must be made so

that, if swelling or shrinking does occur, no damage shall be done to

the work.

In early times every part was rude, and jointed in the most artless

manner. The first dawnings of the art of modern joinery appear in the

thrones, stalls, pulpits and screens of early Gothic cathedrals and

churches, but even in these it is indebted to the carver for everything

that is worthy of regard. With the revival of classic art, however,

great changes took place in every sort of construction. Forms began to

be introduced in architecture which could not be executed at a moderate

expense without the aid of new principles, and these principles were

discovered and published by practical joiners. These authors, with their

scanty geometrical knowledge, had but confused notions of these

principles, and accordingly their descriptions are often obscure, and

sometimes erroneous. The framed wainscot of small panels gave way to the

large bolection moulded panelling. Doors which were formerly heavily

framed and hung on massive posts or in jambs of cut stone, were now

framed in light panels and hung in moulded dressings of wood. The

scarcity of oak timber, and the expense of working it, subsequently led

to the importation of fir timber from northern Europe, and this

gradually superseded all other material save for special work.

_Tools and Materials._--The joiner operates with saws, planes, chisels,

gouges, hatchet, adze, gimlets and other boring instruments (aided and

directed by chalked lines), gauges, squares, hammers, wallets, floor

cramps and a great many other tools. His operations consist principally

of sawing and planing in all their varieties, and of setting out and

making joints of all kinds. There is likewise a great range of other

operations--such as paring, gluing up, wedging, pinning, fixing, fitting

and hanging--and many which depend on nailing and screwing, such as

laying floors, boarding ceilings, wainscoting walls, bracketing,

cradling, firring, and the like. In addition to the wood on which the

joiner works, he requires also glue, white lead, nails, brads, screws

and hinges, and accessorily he applies bolts, locks, bars and other

fastenings, together with pulleys, lines, weights, holdfasts, wall

hooks, &c. The joiner's work for a house is for the most part prepared

at the shop, where there should be convenience for doing everything in

the best and readiest manner, so that little remains when the carcase is

ready and the floors laid but to fit, fix and hang. The sashes, frames,

doors, shutters, linings and soffits are all framed and put together,

i.e. wedged up and cleaned off at the shop; the flooring is planed and

prepared with rebated or grooved edges ready for laying, and the moulded

work--the picture and dado rails, architraves, skirtings and

panelling--is all got out at the shop. On a new building the joiner fits

up a temporary workshop with benches, sawing stools and a stove for his

glue pot. Here he adjusts the work for fitting up and makes any small

portions that may still be required.

The preparation of joinery entirely by hand is now the exception--a fact

due to the ever-increasing use of machines, which have remarkably

shortened the time required to execute the ordinary operations. Various

machines rapidly and perfectly execute planing and surfacing, mortising

and moulding, leaving the craftsman merely to fit and glue up. Large

quantities of machine-made flooring, window-frames and doors are now

imported into England from Canada and the continent of Europe. The

timber is grown near the place of manufacture, and this, coupled with

the fact that labour at a low rate of wages is easily obtainable on the

Continent, enables the cost of production to be kept very low.

The structure and properties of wood should be thoroughly understood by

every joiner. The man who has made the nature of timber his study has

always a decided advantage over those who have neglected this. Timber

shrinks considerably in the width, but not appreciably in the length.

Owing to this shrinkage certain joints and details, hereinafter

described and illustrated, are in common use for the purpose of

counteracting the bad effect this movement would otherwise have upon all

joinery work.

The kinds of wood commonly employed in joinery are the different

species of North European and North American pine, oak, teak and

mahogany (see TIMBER). The greater part of English joiners' work is

executed in the northern pine exported from the Baltic countries.

Hence the joiner obtains the planks, deals, battens and strips from

which he shapes his work. The timber reaches the workman from the

sawmills in a size convenient for the use he intends, considerable

time and labour being saved in this way.

A log of timber sawn to a square section is termed a _balk_. In

section it may range from 1 to 1½ ft. square. _Planks_ are formed by

sawing the balk into sections from 11 to 18 in. wide and 3 to 6 in.

thick, and the term _deal_ is applied to sawn stuff 9 in. wide and 2

to 4½ in. thick. _Battens_ are boards running not more than 3 in.

thick and 4 to 7 in. wide. A _strip_ is not thicker than 1½ in., the

width being about 4 in.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

_Joints.--Side joints_ (fig. 1) are used for joining boards together

edge to edge, and are widely employed in flooring. In the _square_

joint the edges of the boards are carefully shot, the two edges to be

joined brought together with glue applied hot, and the boards tightly

clamped and left to dry, when the surface is cleaned off with the

smoothing plane. A joint in general use for joining up boards for

fascias, panels, linings, window-boards, and other work of a like

nature is formed in a similar manner to the above, but with a

cross-grained tongue inserted, thereby greatly strengthening the work

at an otherwise naturally weak point. This is termed a _cross-tongued

and glued_ joint. The _dowelled_ joint is a square glued joint

strengthened with hard wood or iron dowels inserted in the edge of

each board to a depth of about ¾ in. and placed about 18 in. apart.

The _matched_ joint is shown in two forms, beaded and jointed. Matched

boarding is frequently used as a less expensive substitute for

panelled framing. Although of course in appearance it cannot compare

with the latter, it has a somewhat ornamental appearance, and the

moulded joints allow shrinkage to take place without detriment to the

appearance of the work. The _rebated_ joint is used in the meeting

styles of casements and folding doors, and it is useful in excluding

draughts and preventing observation through the joint.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

Of the _angle joints_ (fig. 2) in common use by the joiner the

following are the most important. The _mitre_ is shown in the drawing,

and is so well known as to need little description. Although simple,

it needs a practised and accurate hand for its proper execution. The

common mitre is essentially weak unless reinforced with blocks glued

into the angle at the back of it, and is therefore often strengthened

with a feather of wood or iron. Other variations of the mitre are the

_mitre and butt_, used where the pieces connected are of unequal

thickness; the _mitre and rebate_, with a square section which

facilitates nailing or screwing; the _mitre rebate and feather_,

similar to the latter, with a feather giving additional strength to

the joint; and the _mitre groove and tongue_, having a tongue worked

on the material itself in place of the feather of the last-named

joint. The last two methods are used in the best work, and, carefully

worked and glued, with the assistance of angle blocks glued at the

back, obviate the necessity of face screws or nails. The _keyed mitre_

consists of a simple mitre joint, which after being glued up has a

number of pairs of saw cuts made across the angle, into which are

fitted and glued thin triangular slips of hard wood, or as an

alternative, pieces of brass or other metal. Other forms of angle

joints are based on the rebate with a bead worked on in such a

position as to hide any bad effects caused by the joint opening by

shrinkage. They may be secured either by nailing or screwing, or by

glued angle blocks.

The _dovetail_ is a most important joint; its most usual forms are

illustrated in fig. 3. The _mitre dovetail_ is used in the best work.

It will be seen that the dovetail is a tenon, shaped as a wedge, and

it is this distinguishing feature which gives it great strength

irrespective of glue or screws. It is invaluable in framing together

joiners' fittings; its use in drawers especially provides a good

example of its purpose and structure.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Dovetails.]

_Warping in Wide Boards._--It is necessary to prevent the tendency to

warp, twist and split, which boards of great width, or several boards

glued together edge to edge, naturally possess. On the other hand,

swelling and shrinking due to changes in the humidity of the

atmosphere must not be checked, or the result will be disastrous. To

effect this end various simple devices are available. The direction of

the annular rings in alternate boards may be reversed, and when the

boards have been carefully jointed with tongues or dowels and glued

up, a hard-wood tapering key, dovetail in section, may be let into a

wide dovetail at the back (fig. 4). It must be accurately fitted and

driven tightly home, but, of course, not glued. Battens of hard wood

may be used for the same purpose, fixed either with hard-wood buttons

or by means of brass slots and screws, the slots allowing for any

slight movement that may take place. With boards of a substantial

thickness light iron rods may be used, holes being bored through the

thickness of the boards and rods passed through; the edges are then

glued up. This method is very effective and neat in appearance, and is

specially suitable when a smooth surface is desired on both sides of

the work.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Prevention of Warping.]

_Mouldings_ are used in joinery to relieve plain surfaces by the

contrasts of light and shade formed by their members, and to ornament

or accentuate those particular portions which the designer may wish to

bring into prominence. Great skill and discrimination are required in

designing and applying mouldings, but that matter falls to the

qualified designer and is perhaps outside the province of the

practical workman, whose work is to carry out in an accurate and

finished manner the ideas of the draughtsman. The character of a

moulding is greatly affected by the nature and appearance of the wood

in which it is worked. A section suitable for a hard regularly grained

wood, such as mahogany, would probably look insignificant if worked in

a softer wood with pronounced markings. Mouldings worked on woods of

the former type may consist of small and delicate members; woods of

the latter class require bold treatment.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Mouldings.]

The mouldings of joinery, as well as of all other moulded work used in

connexion with a building, are usually worked in accordance with

full-sized detail drawings prepared by the architect, and are designed

by him to conform with the style and class of building. There are,

however, a number of moulded forms in common use which have particular

names; sections are shown of many of these in fig. 5. Most of them

occur in the classic architecture of both Greeks and Romans. A

striking distinction, however, existed in the mouldings of these two

peoples; the curves of the Greek mouldings were either derived from

conic sections or drawn in freehand, while in typical Roman work the

curved components were segments of a circle. Numerous examples of the

use of these forms occur in ordinary joinery work, and may be

recognized on reference to the illustrations, which will be easily

understood without further description.

Mouldings may be either stuck or planted on. A _stuck_ moulding is

worked directly on to the framing it is used to ornament; a _planted_

moulding is separately worked and fixed in position with nails or

screws. Beads and other small mouldings should always be stuck; larger

ones are usually planted on. In the case of mouldings planted on

panelled work, the nails should be driven through the moulding into

the style or rail of the framing, and on no account into the panel. By

adopting the former method the panel is free to shrink--as it

undoubtedly will do--without altering the good appearance of the work,

but should the moulding be fixed to the panel it will, when the latter

shrinks, be pulled out of place, leaving an unsightly gap between it

and the framing.

_Flooring._--When the bricklayer, mason and carpenter have prepared

the carcase of a building for the joiner, one of the first operations

is that of laying the floor boards. They should have been stacked

under cover on the site for some considerable time, in order to be

thoroughly well seasoned when the time to use them arrives. The work

of laying should take place in warm dry weather. The joints of

flooring laid in winter time or during wet weather are sure to open in

the following summer, however tightly they may be cramped up during

the process of laying. An additional expense will then be incurred by

the necessity of filling in the opened joints with wood slips glued

and driven into place. Boards of narrow width are better and more

expensive than wide ones. They may be of various woods, the kinds

generally preferred, on account of their low comparative cost and ease

of working, being yellow deal and white deal. White deal or spruce is

an inferior wood, but is frequently used with good results for the

floors of less important apartments. A better floor is obtained with

yellow deal, which, when of good quality and well seasoned, is lasting

and wears well. For floors where a fine appearance is desired, or

which will be subjected to heavy wear, some harder and tougher

material, such as pitch pine, oak, ash, maple or teak, should be laid.

These woods are capable of taking a fine polish and, finished in this

way, form a beautiful as well as a durable floor.

Many of the side joints illustrated in fig. 1 are applied to flooring

boards, which, however, are not usually glued up. The heart side of

the board should be placed downwards so that in drying the tendency

will be for the edges to press more tightly to the joists instead of

curling upwards. The square joint should be used only on ground

floors; if it is used for the upper rooms, dust and water will drop

through the crevices and damage the ceiling beneath. Dowelled joints

are open to the same objection. One of the best and most economical

methods is the _ploughed and tongued_ joint. The tongue may be of hard

wood or iron, preferably the latter, which is stronger and occupies

very narrow grooves. The tongue should be placed as near the bottom of

the board as is practicable, leaving as much wearing material as

possible. Two varieties of secret joints are shown in fig. 1.--the

_splayed, rebated, grooved and tongued_, and the _rebated, grooved and

tongued_. Owing to the waste of material in forming these joints and

the extra labour involved in laying the boards, they are costly and

are only used when it is required that no heads of nails or screws

should appear on the surface. The heading joints of flooring are often

specified to be splayed or bevelled, but it is far better to rebate

them.

_Wood block floors_ are much used, and are exceedingly solid. The

blocks are laid directly on a smoothed concrete bed or floor in a

damp-proof mastic having bitumen as its base; this fulfils the double

purpose of preventing the wood from rotting, and securing the blocks

in their places. To check any inclination to warp and rise, however,

the edges of the blocks in the better class of floors are connected by

dowels of wood or metal, or by a tongued joint. The blocks may be from

1 to 3 in. thick, and are usually 9 or 12 in. long by 3 in. wide.

_Parquet_ floors are made of hard woods of various kinds, laid in

patterns on a deal sub-floor, and may be of any thickness from ¼ to 1¼

in. Great care should be taken in laying the sub-floor, especially for

the thinner parquet. The boards should be in narrow widths of

well-seasoned stuff and well nailed, for any movement in the sub-floor

due to warping or shrinking may have disastrous results on the parquet

which is laid upon it. _Plated parquet_ consists of selected hard

woods firmly fixed on a framed deal backing. It is made in sections

for easy transport, and these are fitted together in the apartment for

which they are intended. When secured to the joists these form a

perfect floor.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Built-up Skirting tongued to floor.]

_Skirtings._--In joinery, the skirting is a board fixed around the

base of internal walls to form an ornamental base for the wall (see

fig. 7). It also covers the joint between the flooring and the wall,

and protects the base of the wall from injury. Skirtings may be placed

in two classes--those formed from a plain board with its upper edge

either left square or moulded, and those formed of two or more

separate members and termed a _built-up_ skirting (fig. 6). Small

angle fillets or mouldings are often used as skirtings. The skirting

should be worked so as to allow it to be fixed with the heart side of

the wood outwards; any tendency to warp will then only serve to press

the top edge more closely to the wall. In good work a groove should be

formed in the floor and the skirting tongued into it so that an open

joint is avoided should shrinkage occur. The skirting should be nailed

only near the top to wood grounds fixed to wood plugs in the joints of

the brickwork. These grounds are about ¾ to 1 in. thick, i.e. the same

thickness as the plaster, and are generally splayed or grooved on the

edge to form a key for the plaster. A rough coat of plaster should

always be laid on the wall behind the skirting in order to prevent the

space becoming a harbourage for vermin.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.]

_Dados._--A dado, like a skirting, is useful both in a decorative and

a protective sense. It is filled in to ornament and protect that

portion of the wall between the _chair_ or _dado rail_ and the

skirting. It may be of horizontal boards battened at the back and with

cross tongued and glued joints, presenting a perfectly smooth surface,

or of matched boarding fixed vertically, or of panelled framing. The

last method is of course the most ornate and admits of great variety

of design. The work is fixed to rough framed wood grounds which are

nailed to plugs driven into the joints of the brickwork. Fig. 7 shows

an example of a panelled dado with capping moulding and skirting. A

_picture rail_ also is shown; it is a small moulding with the top edge

grooved to take the metal hooks from which pictures are hung.

Walls are sometimes entirely sheathed with panelling, and very fine

effects are obtained in this way. The fixing is effected to rough

grounds in a manner similar to that adopted in the case of dados. In

England the architects of the Tudor period made great use of oak

framing, panelled and richly carved, as a wall covering and

decoration, and many beautiful examples may be seen in the remaining

buildings of that period.

_Windows._--The parts of a window sash are distinguished by the same

terms as are applied to similar portions of ordinary framing, being

formed of rails and styles, with sash bars rebated for glazing. The

upright sides are _styles_; the horizontal ones, which are tenoned

into the styles, are _rails_ (fig. 7).

Sashes hung by one of their vertical edges are called _casements_

(fig. 8). They are really a kind of glazed door and sometimes indeed

are used as such, as for example _French casements_ (fig. 9). They may

be made to open either outwards or inwards. It is very difficult with

the latter to form perfectly water-tight joints; with those opening

outwards the trouble does not exist to so great an extent. This form

of window, though almost superseded in England by the case frame with

hung sashes, is in almost universal use on the Continent. _Yorkshire

sliding sashes_ move in a horizontal direction upon grooved runners

with the meeting styles vertical. They are little used, and are apt to

admit draughts and wet unless efficient checks are worked upon the

sashes and frames.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Casement window fitted with shutters.]

Lights in a position difficult of access are often hung on _centre

pivots_. An example of this method is shown in fig. 8; metal pivots

are fixed to the frame and the sockets in which these pivots work are

screwed to the sash. Movement is effected by means of a cord fixed so

that a slight pull opens or closes the window to the desired extent,

and the cord is then held by being tied to, or twisted round, a small

metal button or clip, or a geared fanlight opener may be used. For the

side sashes of lantern lights and for stables and factories this form

of window is in general use.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Details of French Casement to open inwards.]

In the British Isles and in America the most usual form of window is

the _cased frame with double hung sliding sashes_. This style has many

advantages. It is efficient in excluding wet and draughts, ventilation

may be easily regulated and the sashes can be lowered and raised with

ease without interference with any blinds, curtains or other fittings,

that may be applied to the windows. In the ordinary window of this

style, however, difficulty is experienced in cleaning the external

glass without assuming a dangerous position on the sill, but there are

many excellent inventions now on the market which obviate this

difficulty by allowing--usually on the removal of a small

thumb-screw--the reversal of the sash on a pivot or hinge. For a small

extra cost these arrangements may be provided; they will be greatly

appreciated by those who clean the windows. The cased frames are in

the form of boxes to enclose the iron or lead weights which balance

the sashes (fig. 7), and consist of a pulley style--which takes the

wear of the sashes and is often of hard wood on this account--an

inside lining, and an outside lining; these three members are

continued to form the head of the frame. The sashes are connected with

the weights by flax lines working over metal pulleys fixed in the

pulley styles. For heavy sashes with plate glass, chains are sometimes

used instead of lines. Access to the weights for the purpose of

fitting new cords is obtained by removing the pocket piece. A thin

back lining is provided to the sides only and is not required in the

head. The sill is of oak weathered to throw off the water. A parting

bead separates the sashes, and the inside bead keeps them in position.

A parting slip hung from the head inside the cased frame separates the

balancing weights and ensures their smooth working. The inside lining

is usually grooved to take the elbow and soffit linings, and the

window board is fitted into a groove formed in the sill. The example

shown in fig. 7 has an extra deep bottom rail and bead; this enables

the lower sash to be raised so as to permit of ventilation between the

meeting rails without causing a draught at the bottom of the sash.

This is a considerable improvement upon the ordinary form, and the

cost of constructing the sashes in this manner is scarcely greater.

_Bay windows_ with cased frames and double hung sashes often require

the exercise of considerable ingenuity in their construction in order

that the mullions shall be so small as not to intercept more light

than necessary; at the same time the sashes must work easily and the

whole framing be stable and strong. The sills should be mitred and

tongued at the angles and secured by a hand-rail bolt. Frequently it

is not desired to hang all the sashes of a bay window, the side lights

being fixed. To enable smaller angle mullions to be obtained, the

cords of the front windows may be taken by means of pulleys over the

heads of the side lights and attached to counter-balance weights

working in casings at the junction of the window with the wall. This

enables solid angle mullions to be employed. If all the lights are

required to be hung the difficulty may be surmounted by hanging two

sashes to one weight. Lead weights take up less space than iron, and

are used for heavy sashes.

In framing and fixing _skylights_ and _lantern lights_ also great care

is necessary to ensure the result being capable of resisting rough

weather and standing firm in high winds. Glue should not be used in

any of the joints, as it would attract moisture from the atmosphere

and set up decay. Provision must be made for the escape of the water

which condenses on and runs down the under side of the glass, by means

of a lead-lined channelled moulding, provided with zinc or copper pipe

outlets. The skylight stands on a curb raised at least 6 in. to allow

of the exclusion of rain by proper flashing. The sashes of the lantern

usually take the form of fixed or hung casements fitted to solid

mullions and angle posts which are framed into and support a solid

head. The glazed framing of the roof is made up of moulded sash bars

framed to hips and ridges of stronger section, these rest on the head,

projecting well beyond it in order to throw off the water.

_Shutters_ for domestic windows have practically fallen into disuse,

but a reference to the different forms they may take is perhaps

necessary. They may be divided into two classes--those fixed to the

outside of the window and those fixed inside. They may be battened,

panelled or formed with louvres, the latter form admitting air and a

little light. External shutters are generally hung by means of hinges

to the frame of the window: when the window is set in a reveal these

hinges are necessarily of special shape, being of large projection to

enable the shutters to fold back against the face of the wall.

Internally fixed shutters may be hinged or may slide either vertically

or horizontally. Hinged folding boxed shutters are shown in the

illustration of a casement window (fig. 8), where the method of

working is clearly indicated; they are usually held in position by

means of a hinged iron bar secured with a special catch. Lifting

shutters are usually fitted in a casing formed in the window back, and

the window board is hinged to lift up, to allow the shutters to be

raised by means of rings fixed in their upper edges. The shutters are

balanced by weights enclosed with casings in the manner described for

double hung sashes. The panels are of course filled in with wood and

not glazed. The shutters are fixed by means of a thumb-screw through

the meeting rails, the lower sash being supported on the window board

which is closed down when the sashes have been lifted out. Shutters

sliding horizontally are also used in some cases, but they are not so

convenient as the forms described above.

_Shop-fronts._--The forming of shop-fronts may almost be considered a

separate branch of joiner's work. The design and construction are

attended by many minor difficulties, and, the requirements greatly

varying with almost every trade, careful study and close attention to

detail are necessary. In the erection of shop-fronts, in order to

allow the maximum width of glass with the minimum amount of

obstruction, many special sections of sash bars and stanchions are

used, the former often being reinforced by cast iron or steel of

suitable form. For these reasons the construction of shop-fronts and

fittings has been specialized by makers having a knowledge of the

requirements of different trades and with facilities for making the

special wood and metal fittings and casings necessary. Fig. 10 shows

an example of a simple shop-front in Spanish mahogany with rolling

shutters and spring roller blind; it indicates the typical

construction of a front, and reference to it will inform the reader on

many points which need no further description. The London Building

Act. 1894 requires the following regulations to be complied with in

shop-fronts:--(1) In streets of a width not greater than 30 ft. a

shop-front may project 5 in. beyond the external wall of the building

to which it belongs, and the cornice may project 13 in. (2) In streets

of a width greater than 30 ft., the projections of the shop-front may

be 10 in. and of the cornice 18 in. beyond the building line. No

woodwork of any shop-front shall be fixed higher than 25 ft. above the

level of the public pavement. No woodwork shall be fixed nearer than 4

in. to the centre of the party wall. The pier of brick or stone must

project at least an inch in front of the woodwork. These by-laws will

be made clear on reference to fig. 10, which is of a shop-front

designed to face on to a road more than 30 ft. wide.

_Rolling shutters_ for shop-fronts are made by a number of firms, and

are usually the subject of a separate estimate, being fixed by the

makers themselves. The shutter consists of a number of narrow strips

of wood, connected with each other by steel bands hinged at every

joint, or it may be formed in iron or steel. This construction allows

it to be coiled upon a cylinder containing a strong spring and usually

fixed on strong brackets behind the fascia. The shutter is guided into

position by the edges working in metal grooves a little under an inch

wide. When the width of the opening to be closed renders it necessary

to divide the shutters into more than one portion, grooved movable

pilasters are used, and when the shutters have to be lowered these are

fixed in position with bolts, the shutter working on the grooved edges

of the pilasters. _Spring roller canvas blinds_ work on a similar

principle. The wrought-iron blind arms are capable, when the blind is

extended, of being pushed up by means of a sliding arrangement, and

fixed with a pin at a level high enough to allow foot passengers to

pass along the pavement under them.

[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Shop-front.]

_Doors._--External doors are usually hung to solid frames placed in

the reveals of the brick or stone wall. The frames are rebated for the

door and ornamented by mouldings either stuck or planted on. The

_jambs_ or _posts_ are tenoned, wedged and glued to the head, and the

feet secured to the sill by stub tenons or dowels of iron. Solid

window frames are of similar construction and are used chiefly for

casements and sashes hung on centres as already described. Internal

doors are hung to jamb linings (fig. 7). They are usually about 1½ in.

thick and rebated for the door. When the width of jamb allows it,

panelling may be introduced as in the example shown. The linings are

nailed or screwed to rough framed grounds 1 in. in thickness plugged

or nailed to the wall or partition. _Architraves_ are the borders or

finishing mouldings fixed around a window or door opening, and screwed

or nailed to wood grounds. They are variously moulded according to the

fancy of the designer. The ordinary form of architrave is shown in the

illustration of a cased window frame (fig. 8), and a variation appears

in the combined architrave and over door frieze and capping fitted

around the six-panelled door (fig. 7). The latter would need to be

worked and framed in the shop and fixed entire. Polished hard wood

architraves may be secretly fixed, i.e. without the heads of nails or

screws showing on the face, by putting screws into the grounds with

their heads slightly projecting, and hanging the moulding on them by

means of keyhole slots formed in the back.

Doors may be made in a variety of ways. The simplest form, the _common

ledged_ door, consists of vertical boards with plain or matched joints

nailed to horizontal battens which correspond to the rails in framed

doors. For openings over 2 ft. 3 in. wide, the doors should be

furnished with braces. _Ledged and braced_ doors are similar, but

have, in addition to the ledges at the back, oblique braces which

prevent any tendency of the door to drop. The upper end of the brace

is birdsmouthed into the under side of the rail near the lock edge of

the door and crosses the door in an oblique direction to be

birdsmouthed into the upper edge of the rail below, near the hanging

edge of the door. This is done between each pair of rails. _Framed

ledged and braced_ doors are a further development of this form of

door. The framing consists of lock and hanging styles, top, middle and

bottom rails, with oblique braces between the rails. These members are

tenoned together and the door sheathed with boarding. The top rail and

styles are the full thickness of the door, the braces and middle and

bottom rails being less by the thickness of the sheathing boards,

which are tongued into the top rail and styles and carried down over

the other members to the bottom of the door. The three forms of door

described above are used mainly for temporary purposes, and stables,

farm buildings and outhouses of all descriptions. They are usually

hung by wrought-iron cross garnet or strap hinges fixed with screws or

through bolts and nuts.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Forms of Panelling.]

The doors in dwelling-houses and other buildings of a like character

are commonly _framed and panelled_ in one of the many ways possible.

The framing consists of styles, rails and muntins or mountings, and

these members are grooved to receive and hold the panels, which are

inserted previously to the door being glued and wedged up. The common

forms are doors in four or six rectangular panels, and although they

may be made with any form and number of panels, the principles of

construction remain the same. The example shown in fig. 7 is of a

six-panel door, with bolection moulded raised panels on one side, and

moulded and flat panels on the other (fig. 11).

A clear idea of the method of jointing the various members may be

obtained from fig. 12. The tongues of raised panels should be of

parallel thickness, the bevels being stopped at the moulding. The

projecting ends or _horns_ of the styles are cut off after the door

has been glued and wedged, as they prevent the ends of the styles

being damaged by the wedging process.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Joints.]

Where there is a great deal of traffic in both directions _swing

doors_, either single or double, are used. To open them it is

necessary simply to push, the inconvenience of turning a handle and

shutting the door after passing through being avoided, as a spring

causes the door to return to its original position without noise. They

are usually glazed and should be of substantial construction. The door

is hinged at the top on a steel pivot; the bottom part fits into a

metal shoe connected with the spring, which is placed in a box fixed

below the floor.

For large entrances, notably for hotels and banks, a form of door

working on the _turnstile_ principle is frequently adopted. It is

formed of four leaves fixed in the shape of a cross and working on top

and bottom central ball-bearing steel pivots, in a circular framing

which forms a kind of vestibule. The leaves of the door are fitted

with slips of india-rubber at their edges which, fitting close to the

circular framing, prevent draughts.

When an elegant appearance is desired, and it is at the same time

necessary to keep the cost of production as low as possible, doors of

pine or other soft wood are sometimes covered with a _veneer_ or thin

layer of hard wood, such as oak, mahogany or teak, giving the

appearance of a solid door of the better material. Made in the

ordinary way, however, the shrinkage or warping of the soft wood is

very liable to cause the veneer to buckle and peel off. Veneered doors

made on an improved method obviating this difficulty have been placed

on the market by a Canadian company. The core is made up of strips of

pine with the grain reversed, dried at a temperature of 200° F., and

glued up under pressure. Both the core and the hard wood veneer are

grooved over their surfaces, and a special damp-resisting glue is

applied; the two portions are then welded together under hydraulic

pressure. By reason of their construction these doors possess the

advantages of freedom from shrinking, warping and splitting, defects

which are all too common in the ordinary veneered and solid hard wood

doors.

The best glue for internal woodwork is that made in Scotland. Ordinary

animal glue should not be used in work exposed to the weather as it

absorbs damp and thus hastens decay; in its place a compound termed

_beaumontique_, composed of white lead, linseed oil and litharge,

should be employed.

_Church Work._--Joinery work in connexion with the fitting up of

church interiors must be regarded as a separate branch of the joiner's

art. Pitchpine is often used, but the best work is executed in English

oak; and when the screens, stalls and seating are well designed and

made in this material, a distinction and dignity of effect are added

to the interior of the church which cannot be obtained in any other

medium. The work is often of the richest character, and frequently

enriched with elaborate carving (fig. 13). Many beautiful specimens of

early work are to be seen in the English Gothic cathedrals and

churches; good work of a later date will be found in many churches and

public buildings erected in more recent years. Fine examples of Old

English joinery exist at Hampton Court Palace, the Temple Church in

London, the Chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey, and Haddon

Hall. Specimens of modern work are to be seen in Beverley Minster in

Yorkshire, the Church of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, London, and the

Wycliffe Hall Chapel at Oxford. Other examples both ancient and modern

abound in the country.

_Carving_ is a trade apart from ordinary joinery, and requires a

special ability and some artistic feeling for its successful

execution. But even in this work machinery has found a place, and

carved ornaments of all descriptions are rapidly wrought with its aid.

Small carved mouldings especially are evolved in this manner, and,

being incomparably cheaper than those worked by manual labour, are

used freely where a rich effect is desired. Elaborately carved panels

also are made by machines and a result almost equal to work done

entirely by hand is obtained if, after machinery has done all in its

power, the hand worker with his chisels and gouges puts the finishing

touches to the work.

_Ironmongery._--In regard to the finishing of a building, no detail

calls for greater consideration than the selection and accurate fixing

of suitable ironmongery, which includes the hinges, bolts, locks, door

and window fittings, and the many varieties of metal finishings

required for the completion of a building. The task of the selection

belongs to the employer or the architect; the fixing is performed by

the joiner.

[Illustration: FIG. 13.]

Of _hinges_, the variety termed _butts_ are in general use for hanging

doors, and are so called from being fitted to the butt edge of the

door. They should be of wrought iron, cast-iron butts being liable to

snap should they sustain a shock. _Lifting butts_ are made with a

removable pin to enable the door to be removed and replaced without

unscrewing. _Rising butts_ have oblique joints which cause the door to

rise and clear a thick carpet and yet make a close joint with the

floor when shut. Hinges of brass or gun-metal are used in special

circumstances. Common forms of hinges used on ledged doors are the

_cross garnet_ and the _strap_. There are many varieties of _spring

hinges_ designed to bring the door automatically to a desired

position. With such hinges a rubber stop should be fixed on the floor

or other convenient place to prevent undue strain through the door

being forced back.

Among _locks and fastenings_ the ordinary _barrel_ or _tower_ bolt

needs no description. The _flush barrel_ is a bolt let in flush with

the face of a door. The _espagnolette_ is a development of the tower

bolt and extends the whole height of the door; a handle at a

convenient height, when turned, shooting bolts at the top and bottom

simultaneously. Their chief use is for French casements. The _padlock_

is used to secure doors by means of a staple and eye. The _stock_ lock

is a large rim lock with hard wood casing and is used for stables,

church doors, &c.; it is in the form of a dead lock opened only by a

key, and is often used in conjunction with a Norfolk latch. The _metal

cased_ rim lock is a cheap form for domestic and general use. The use

of a rim lock obviates the necessity of forming a mortice in the

thickness of the door which is required when a mortice lock is used.

_Finger plates_ add greatly to the good appearance of a door, and

protect the painted work. _Sash fasteners_ are fixed at the meeting

rails of double hung sashes to prevent the window being opened from

the outside and serve also to clip the two sashes tightly together.

They should be of a pattern to resist the attack of a knife inserted

between the rails. _Sash lifts_ and _pulls_ of brass or bronze are

fitted to large sashes. Ornamental _casement stays_ and fasteners in

many different metals are made in numerous designs and styles.

_Fanlight openers_ for single lights, or geared for a number of

sashes, may be designed to suit positions difficult of access.

The following are the principal books of reference on this subject: J.

Gwilt, _Encyclopaedia of Architecture_; Sutcliffe, _Modern House

Construction_; Rivington, _Notes on Building Construction_ (3 vols.);

H. Adams, _Building Construction_; C. F. Mitchell, _Building

Construction_; Robinson, _Carpentry and Joinery_; J. P. Allen,

_Practical Building Construction_; J. Newlands, _Carpenter and

Joiner's Assistant_; Bury, _Ecclesiastical Woodwork_; T. Tredgold and

Young, _Joinery_; Peter Nicholson, _Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant_.

(J. Bt.)

JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. _junctum_, _jungere_, to join), that which

joins two parts together or the place where two parts are joined. (See

JOINERY; JOINTS.) In law, the word is used adjectivally as a term

applied to obligations, estates, &c., implying that the rights in

question relate to the aggregate of the parties joined. Obligations to

which several are parties may be _several_, i.e. enforceable against

each independently of the others, or _joint_, i.e. enforceable only

against all of them taken together, or _joint and several_, i.e.

enforceable against each or all at the option of the claimant (see

GUARANTEE). So an interest or estate given to two or more persons for

their joint lives continues only so long as all the lives are in

existence. _Joint-tenants_ are co-owners who take together at the same

time, by the same title, and without any difference in the quality or

extent of their respective interests; and when one of the joint-tenants

dies his share, instead of going to his own heirs, lapses to his

co-tenants by survivorship. This estate is therefore to be carefully

distinguished from _tenancy in common_, when the co-tenants have each a

separate interest which on death passes to the heirs and not to the

surviving tenants. When several take an estate together any words or

facts implying severance will prevent the tenancy from being construed

as joint.