JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY JOHN XIX.
JEW, THE WANDERING JOHN XXI.
JEWEL, JOHN JOHN XXII.
JEWELRY JOHN XXIII.
JEWETT, SARAH ORNE JOHN I. (Roman emperor)
JEWS JOHN II.
JEWSBURY, GERALDINE ENDSOR JOHN III.
JEW'S EARS JOHN IV.
JEW'S HARP JOHN V. or VI.
JEZEBEL JOHN VI. or V.
JEZREEL JOHN VI. or VII.
JHABUA JOHN (king of England)
JHALAWAR JOHN I. (king of Aragon)
JHANG JOHN II.
JHANSI JOHN (king of Bohemia)
JHELUM (Indian river) JOHN I. (king of Castile)
JHELUM (Indian town) JOHN II.
JHERING, RUDOLF VON JOHN I. (king of France)
JIBITOS JOHN II.
JIBUTI JOHN (king of Hungary)
JICARILLA JOHN OF BRIENNE
JIDDA JOHN III. (king of Poland)
JIG JOHN I. (king of Portugal)
JIHAD JOHN II.
JIMENES DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO JOHN III.
JIND JOHN IV.
JINGO JOHN V.
JINN JOHN VI.
JIRECEK, JOSEF JOHN (king of Saxony)
JIZAKH JOHN I. (duke of Brabant)
JOAB JOHN (margrave of Brandenburg-Cüstrin)
JOACHIM OF FLORIS JOHN (duke of Burgundy)
JOACHIM I. JOHN (elector of Saxony)
JOACHIM II. JOHN, DON (of Austria)
JOACHIM, JOSEPH JOHN, DON (the younger)
JOAN JOHN OF BEVERLEY, ST
JOAN OF ARC JOHN OF THE CROSS, ST
JOANES, VICENTE JOHN OF ASIA
JOANNA JOHN OF DAMASCUS
JOANNA I. JOHN OF HEXHAM
JOANNA II. JOHN OF IRELAND
JOASH JOHN OF RAVENNA
JOB JOHN OF SALISBURY
JOBST JOHN (of Swabia)
JOB'S TEARS JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF
JOCASTA JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
JOCKEY JOHN ALBERT
JODELLE, ÉTIENNE JOHN ANGELUS
JODHPUR JOHN FREDERICK I.
JOEL JOHN FREDERICK (duke of Saxony)
JOEL, MANUEL JOHN GEORGE I.
JOFFRIN, JULES ALEXANDRE JOHN MAURICE OF NASSAU
JOGUES, ISAAC JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE
JO[H.]ANAN BEN ZACCAI JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY
JOHANNESBURG (city of Transvaal) JOHNSON, ANDREW
JOHANNISBERG (German village) JOHNSON, BENJAMIN
JOHN (proper name) JOHNSON, EASTMAN
JOHN (the Apostle) JOHNSON, REVERDY
JOHN THE BAPTIST JOHNSON, RICHARD
JOHN I. (pope) JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR
JOHN II. JOHNSON, SAMUEL
JOHN III. JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS
JOHN IV. JOHNSON, THOMAS
JOHN V. JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM
JOHN VI. JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY
JOHN VII. JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER
JOHN VIII. JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH
JOHN IX. JOHNSTON, ARTHUR
JOHN X. JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON
JOHN XI. JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON
JOHN XII. JOHNSTONE
JOHN XIII. JOHNSTOWN (New York, U.S.A.)
JOHN XIV. JOHNSTOWN (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)
JOHN XV. JOHOR
JOHN XVI. JOIGNY
JOHN XVII. JOINDER
JOHN XVIII. JOINERY
JOINT
JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY (1835-1882), English economist and logician, was
born at Liverpool on the 1st of September 1835. His father, Thomas
Jevons, a man of strong scientific tastes and a writer on legal and
economic subjects, was an iron merchant. His mother was the daughter of
William Roscoe. At the age of fifteen he was sent to London to attend
University College school. He appears at this time to have already
formed the belief that important achievements as a thinker were possible
to him, and at more than one critical period in his career this belief
was the decisive factor in determining his conduct. Towards the end of
1853, after having spent two years at University College, where his
favourite subjects were chemistry and botany, he unexpectedly received
the offer of the assayership to the new mint in Australia. The idea of
leaving England was distasteful, but pecuniary considerations had, in
consequence of the failure of his father's firm in 1847, become of vital
importance, and he accepted the post. He left England for Sydney in June
1854, and remained there for five years. At the end of that period he
resigned his appointment, and in the autumn of 1859 entered again as a
student at University College, London, proceeding in due course to the
B.A. and M.A. degrees of the university of London. He now gave his
principal attention to the moral sciences, but his interest in natural
science was by no means exhausted: throughout his life he continued to
write occasional papers on scientific subjects, and his intimate
knowledge of the physical sciences greatly contributed to the success of
his chief logical work, _The Principles of Science_. Not long after
taking his M.A. degree Jevons obtained a post as tutor at Owens College,
Manchester. In 1866 he was elected professor of logic and mental and
moral philosophy and Cobden professor of political economy in Owens
college. Next year he married Harriet Ann Taylor, whose father had been
the founder and proprietor of the _Manchester Guardian_. Jevons suffered
a good deal from ill health and sleeplessness, and found the delivery of
lectures covering so wide a range of subjects very burdensome. In 1876
he was glad to exchange the Owens professorship for the professorship of
political economy in University College, London. Travelling and music
were the principal recreations of his life; but his health continued
bad, and he suffered from depression. He found his professorial duties
increasingly irksome, and feeling that the pressure of literary work
left him no spare energy, he decided in 1880 to resign the post. On the
13th of August 1882 he was drowned whilst bathing near Hastings.
Throughout his life he had pursued with devotion and industry the ideals
with which he had set out, and his journal and letters display a noble
simplicity of disposition and an unswerving honesty of purpose. He was a
prolific writer, and at the time of his death he occupied the foremost
position in England both as a logician and as an economist. Professor
Marshall has said of his work in economics that it "will probably be
found to have more constructive force than any, save that of Ricardo,
that has been done during the last hundred years." At the time of his
death he was engaged upon an economic work that promised to be at least
as important as any that he had previously undertaken. It would be
difficult to exaggerate the loss which logic and political economy
sustained through the accident by which his life was prematurely cut
short.
Jevons arrived quite early in his career at the doctrines that
constituted his most characteristic and original contributions to
economics and logic. The theory of utility, which became the keynote of
his general theory of political economy, was practically formulated in a
letter written in 1860; and the germ of his logical principles of the
substitution of similars may be found in the view which he propounded in
another letter written in 1861, that "philosophy would be found to
consist solely in pointing out the likeness of things." The theory of
utility above referred to, namely, that the degree of utility of a
commodity is some continuous mathematical function of the quantity of
the commodity available, together with the implied doctrine that
economics is essentially a mathematical science, took more definite form
in a paper on "A General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy,"
written for the British Association in 1862. This paper does not appear
to have attracted much attention either in 1862 or on its publication
four years later in the _Journal of the Statistical Society_; and it was
not till 1871, when the _Theory of Political Economy_ appeared, that
Jevons set forth his doctrines in a fully developed form. It was not
till after the publication of this work that Jevons became acquainted
with the applications of mathematics to political economy made by
earlier writers, notably Antoine Augustin Cournot and H. H. Gossen. The
theory of utility was about 1870 being independently developed on
somewhat similar lines by Carl Menger in Austria and M.E.L. Walras in
Switzerland. As regards the discovery of the connexion between value in
exchange and final (or marginal) utility, the priority belongs to
Gossen, but this in no way detracts from the great importance of the
service which Jevons rendered to English economics by his fresh
discovery of the principle, and by the way in which he ultimately forced
it into notice. In his reaction from the prevailing view he sometimes
expressed himself without due qualification: the declaration, for
instance, made at the commencement of the _Theory of Political Economy_,
that "value depends entirely upon utility," lent itself to
misinterpretation. But a certain exaggeration of emphasis may be
pardoned in a writer seeking to attract the attention of an indifferent
public. It was not, however, as a theorist dealing with the fundamental
data of economic science, but as a brilliant writer on practical
economic questions, that Jevons first received general recognition. _A
Serious Fall in the Value of Gold_ (1863) and _The Coal Question_ (1865)
placed him in the front rank as a writer on applied economics and
statistics; and he would be remembered as one of the leading economists
of the 19th century even had his _Theory of Political Economy_ never
been written. Amongst his economic works may be mentioned _Money and the
Mechanism of Exchange_ (1875), written in a popular style, and
descriptive rather than theoretical, but wonderfully fresh and original
in treatment and full of suggestiveness, a _Primer on Political Economy_
(1878), _The State in Relation to Labour_ (1882), and two works
published after his death, namely, _Methods of Social Reform_ and
_Investigations in Currency and Finance_, containing papers that had
appeared separately during his lifetime. The last-named volume contains
Jevons's interesting speculations on the connexion between commercial
crises and sun-spots. He was engaged at the time of his death upon the
preparation of a large treatise on economics and had drawn up a table of
contents and completed some chapters and parts of chapters. This
fragment was published in 1905 under the title of _The Principles of
Economics: a Fragment of a Treatise on the Industrial Mechanism of
Society, and other Papers_.
Jevons's work in logic went on _pari passu_ with his work in political
economy. In 1864 he published a small volume, entitled _Pure Logic; or,
the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity_, which was based on Boole's
system of logic, but freed from what he considered the false
mathematical dress of that system. In the years immediately following he
devoted considerable attention to the construction of a logical machine,
exhibited before the Royal Society in 1870, by means of which the
conclusion derivable from any given set of premisses could be
mechanically obtained. In 1866 what he regarded as the great and
universal principle of all reasoning dawned upon him; and in 1869 he
published a sketch of this fundamental doctrine under the title of _The
Substitution of Similars_. He expressed the principle in its simplest
form as follows: "Whatever is true of a thing is true of its like," and
he worked out in detail its various applications. In the following year
appeared the _Elementary Lessons on Logic_, which soon became the most
widely read elementary textbook on logic in the English language. In the
meantime he was engaged upon a much more important logical treatise,
which appeared in 1874 under the title of _The Principles of Science_.
In this work Jevons embodied the substance of his earlier works on pure
logic and the substitution of similars; he also enunciated and
developed the view that induction is simply an inverse employment of
deduction; he treated in a luminous manner the general theory of
probability, and the relation between probability and induction; and his
knowledge of the various natural sciences enabled him throughout to
relieve the abstract character of logical doctrine by concrete
scientific illustrations, often worked out in great detail. Jevons's
general theory of induction was a revival of the theory laid down by
Whewell and criticized by Mill; but it was put in a new form, and was
free from some of the non-essential adjuncts which rendered Whewell's
exposition open to attack. The work as a whole was one of the most
notable contributions to logical doctrine that appeared in Great Britain
in the 19th century. His _Studies in Deductive Logic_, consisting mainly
of exercises and problems for the use of students, was published in
1880. In 1877 and the following years Jevons contributed to the
_Contemporary Review_ some articles on J. S. Mill, which he had intended
to supplement by further articles, and eventually publish in a volume as
a criticism of Mill's philosophy. These articles and one other were
republished after Jevons's death, together with his earlier logical
treatises, in a volume, entitled _Pure Logic, and other Minor Works_.
The criticisms on Mill contain much that is ingenious and much that is
forcible, but on the whole they cannot be regarded as taking rank with
Jevons's other work. His strength lay in his power as an original
thinker rather than as a critic; and he will be remembered by his
constructive work as logician, economist and statistician.
See _Letters and Journal of W. Stanley Jevons_, edited by his wife
(1886). This work contains a bibliography of Jevons's writings. See
also LOGIC: _History_. (J. N. K.)
JEW, THE WANDERING, a legendary Jew (see JEWS) doomed to wander till the
second coming of Christ because he had taunted Jesus as he passed
bearing the cross, saying, "Go on quicker." Jesus is said to have
replied, "I go, but thou shalt wait till I return." The legend in this
form first appeared in a pamphlet of four leaves alleged to have been
printed at Leiden in 1602. This pamphlet relates that Paulus von Eizen
(d. 1598), bishop of Schleswig, had met at Hamburg in 1542 a Jew named
Ahasuerus (Ahasverus), who declared he was "eternal" and was the same
who had been punished in the above-mentioned manner by Jesus at the time
of the crucifixion. The pamphlet is supposed to have been written by
Chrysostomus Dudulaeus of Westphalia and printed by one Christoff
Crutzer, but as no such author or printer is known at this time--the
latter name indeed refers directly to the legend--it has been
conjectured that the whole story is a myth invented to support the
Protestant contention of a continuous witness to the truth of Holy Writ
in the person of this "eternal" Jew; he was to form, in his way, a
counterpart to the apostolic tradition of the Catholic Church.
The story met with ready acceptance and popularity. Eight editions of
the pamphlet appeared in 1602, and the fortieth edition before the end
of the following century. It was translated into Dutch and Flemish with
almost equal success. The first French edition appeared in 1609, and the
story was known in England before 1625, when a parody was produced.
Denmark and Sweden followed suit with translations, and the expression
"eternal Jew" passed as a current term into Czech. In other words, the
story in its usual form spread wherever there was a tincture of
Protestantism. In southern Europe little is heard of it in this version,
though Rudolph Botoreus, parliamentary advocate of Paris (_Comm.
histor._, 1604), writing in Paris two years after its first appearance,
speaks contemptuously of the popular belief in the Wandering Jew in
Germany, Spain and Italy.
The popularity of the pamphlet and its translations soon led to reports
of the appearance of this mysterious being in almost all parts of the
civilized world. Besides the original meeting of the bishop and
Ahasuerus in 1542 and others referred back to 1575 in Spain and 1599 at
Vienna, the Wandering Jew was stated to have appeared at Prague (1602),
at Lübeck (1603), in Bavaria (1604), at Ypres (1623), Brussels (1640),
Leipzig (1642), Paris (1644, by the "Turkish Spy"), Stamford (1658),
Astrakhan (1672), and Frankenstein (1678). In the next century the
Wandering Jew was seen at Munich (1721), Altbach (1766), Brussels
(1774), Newcastle (1790, see Brand, _Pop. Antiquities, s.v._), and on
the streets of London between 1818 and 1830 (see _Athenaeum_, 1866, ii.
561). So far as can be ascertained, the latest report of his appearance
was in the neighbourhood of Salt Lake City in 1868, when he is said to
have made himself known to a Mormon named O'Grady. It is difficult to
tell in any one of these cases how far the story is an entire fiction
and how far some ingenious impostor took advantage of the existence of
the myth.
The reiterated reports of the actual existence of a wandering being, who
retained in his memory the details of the crucifixion, show how the idea
had fixed itself in popular imagination and found its way into the
19th-century collections of German legends. The two ideas combined in
the story of the restless fugitive akin to Cain and wandering for ever
are separately represented in the current names given to this figure in
different countries. In most Teutonic languages the stress is laid on
the perpetual character of his punishment and he is known as the
"everlasting," or "eternal" Jew (Ger. "Ewige Jude"). In the lands
speaking a Romance tongue, the usual form has reference to the
wanderings (Fr. "le Juif errant"). The English form follows the Romance
analogy, possibly because derived directly from France. The actual name
given to the mysterious Jew varies in the different versions: the
original pamphlet calls him Ahasver, and this has been followed in most
of the literary versions, though it is difficult to imagine any Jew
being called by the name of the typical anti-Semitic king of the Book of
Esther. In one of his appearances at Brussels his name is given as Isaac
Laquedem, implying an imperfect knowledge of Hebrew in an attempt to
represent Isaac "from of old." Alexandre Dumas also made use of this
title. In the _Turkish Spy_ the Wandering Jew is called Paul Marrane and
is supposed to have suffered persecution at the hands of the
Inquisition, which was mainly occupied in dealing with the Marranos,
i.e. the secret Jews of the Iberian peninsula. In the few references to
the legend in Spanish writings the Wandering Jew is called Juan Espera
en Dios, which gives a more hopeful turn to the legend.
Under other names, a story very similar to that given in the pamphlet of
1602 occurs nearly 400 years earlier on English soil. According to Roger
of Wendover in his _Flores historiarum_ under the year 1228, an Armenian
archbishop, then visiting England, was asked by the monks of St Albans
about the well-known Joseph of Arimathaea, who had spoken to Jesus and
was said to be still alive. The archbishop claimed to have seen him in
Armenia under the name of Carthaphilus or Cartaphilus, who had confessed
that he had taunted Jesus in the manner above related. This Carthaphilus
had afterwards been baptized by the name of Joseph. Matthew Paris, in
repeating the passage from Roger of Wendover, reported that other
Armenians had confirmed the story on visiting St Albans in 1252, and
regarded it as a great proof of the Christian religion. A similar
account is given in the chronicles of Philippe Mouskès (d. 1243). A
variant of the same story was known to Guido Bonati, an astronomer
quoted by Dante, who calls his hero or villain Butta Deus because he
struck Jesus. Under this name he is said to have appeared at Mugello in
1413 and at Bologna in 1415 (in the garb of a Franciscan of the third
order).
The source of all these reports of an ever-living witness of the
crucifixion is probably Matthew xvi. 28: "There be some of them that
stand here which shall in no wise taste of death till they see the Son
of Man coming in his kingdom." As the kingdom had not come, it was
assumed that there must be persons living who had been present at the
crucifixion; the same reasoning is at the root of the Anglo-Israel
belief. These words are indeed quoted in the pamphlet of 1602. Again, a
legend was based on John xxi. 20 that the beloved disciple would not die
before the second coming; while another legend (current in the 16th
century) condemned Malchus, whose ear Peter cut off in the garden of
Gethsemane (John xvii. 10), to wander perpetually till the second
coming. The legend alleges that he had been so condemned for having
scoffed at Jesus. These legends and the utterance of Matt. xvi. 28
became "contaminated" by the legend of St Joseph of Arimathaea and the
Holy Grail, and took the form given in Roger of Wendover and Matthew
Paris. But there is nothing to show the spread of this story among the
people before the pamphlet of 1602, and it is difficult to see how this
Carthaphilus could have given rise to the legend of the Wandering Jew,
since he is not a Jew nor does he wander. The author of 1602 was
probably acquainted either directly or indirectly with the story as
given by Matthew Paris, since he gives almost the same account. But he
gives a new name to his hero and directly connects his fate with Matt.
xvi. 28.
Moncure D. Conway (_Ency. Brit._, 9th ed., xiii. 673) attempted to
connect the legend of the Wandering Jew with a whole series of myths
relating to never-dying heroes like King Arthur, Frederick Barbarossa,
the Seven Sleepers, and Thomas the Rhymer, not to speak of Rip Van
Winkle. He goes even farther and connects our legend with mortals
visiting earth, as the Yima in Parsism, and the "Ancient of Days" in the
Books of Daniel and Enoch, and further connects the legend with the
whole medieval tendency to regard the Jew as something uncanny and
mysterious. But all these mythological explanations are supererogatory,
since the actual legend in question can be definitely traced to the
pamphlet of 1602. The same remark applies to the identification with the
Mahommedan legend of the "eternal" Chadhir proposed by M. Lidzbarski
(_Zeit. f. Assyr._ vii. 116) and I. Friedländer (_Arch. f.
Religionswiss._ xiii. 110).
This combination of eternal punishment with restless wandering has
attracted the imagination of innumerable writers in almost all European
tongues. The Wandering Jew has been regarded as a symbolic figure
representing the wanderings and sufferings of his race. The Germans have
been especially attracted by the legend, which has been made the subject
of poems by Schubart, Schreiber, W. Müller, Lenau, Chamisso, Schlegel,
Mosen and Koehler, from which enumeration it will be seen that it was a
particularly favourite subject with the Romantic school. They were
perhaps influenced by the example of Goethe, who in his _Autobiography_
describes, at considerable length, the plan of a poem he had designed on
the Wandering Jew. More recently poems have been composed on the subject
in German by Adolf Wilbrandt, Fritz Lienhard and others; in English by
Robert Buchanan, and in Dutch by H. Heijermans. German novels also exist
on the subject, by Franz Horn, Oeklers, Laun and Schucking, tragedies by
Klinemann, Haushofer and Zedlitz. Sigismund Heller wrote three cantos on
the wanderings of Ahasuerus, while Hans Andersen made of him an "Angel
of Doubt." Robert Hamerling even identifies Nero with the Wandering Jew.
In France, E. Quinet published a prose epic on the subject in 1833, and
Eugène Sue, in his best-known work, _Le Juif errant_ (1844), introduces
the Wandering Jew in the prologues of its different sections and
associates him with the legend of Herodias. In modern times the subject
has been made still more popular by Gustave Doré's elaborate designs
(1856), containing some of his most striking and imaginative work. Thus,
probably, he suggested Grenier's poem on the subject (1857).
In England, besides the ballads in Percy's _Reliques_, William Godwin
introduced the idea of an eternal witness of the course of civilization
in his _St Leon_ (1799), and his son-in-law Shelley introduces Ahasuerus
in his _Queen Mab_. It is doubtful how far Swift derived his idea of the
immortal Struldbrugs from the notion of the Wandering Jew. George
Croly's _Salathiel_, which appeared anonymously in 1828, gave a highly
elaborate turn to the legend; this has been republished under the title
_Tarry Thou Till I Come_.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. G. Th. Graesse, _Die Sage vom ewigen Juden_ (1844);
F. Helbig, _Die Sage vom ewigen Juden_ (1874); G. Paris, _Le Juif
errant_ (1881); M. D. Conway, _The Wandering Jew_ (1881); S. Morpugo,
_L' Ebreo errante in Italia_ (1891); L. Neubaur, _Die Sage vom ewigen
Juden_ (2nd ed., 1893). The recent literary handling of the subject
has been dealt with by J. Prost, _Die Sage vom ewigen Juden in der
neueren deutschen Literatur_ (1905); T. Kappstein, _Ahasver in der
Weltpoesie_ (1905). (J. Ja.)
JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571), bishop of Salisbury, son of John Jewel of
Buden, Devonshire, was born on the 24th of May 1522, and educated under
his uncle John Bellamy, rector of Hampton, and other private tutors
until his matriculation at Merton college, Oxford, in July 1535. There
he was taught by John Parkhurst, afterwards bishop of Norwich; but on
the 19th of August 1539 he was elected scholar of Corpus Christi
college. He graduated B.A. in 1540, and M.A. in 1545, having been
elected fellow of his college in 1542. He made some mark as a teacher at
Oxford, and became after 1547 one of the chief disciples of Peter
Martyr. He graduated B.D. in 1552, and was made vicar of Sunningwell,
and public orator of the university, in which capacity he had to compose
a congratulatory epistle to Mary on her accession. In April 1554 he
acted as notary to Cranmer and Ridley at their disputation, but in the
autumn he signed a series of Catholic articles. He was, nevertheless,
suspected, fled to London, and thence to Frankfort, which he reached in
March 1555. There he sided with Coxe against Knox, but soon joined
Martyr at Strassburg, accompanied him to Zurich, and then paid a visit
to Padua.
Under Elizabeth's succession he returned to England, and made earnest
efforts to secure what would now be called a low-church settlement of
religion. Indeed, his attitude was hardly distinguishable from that of
the Elizabethan Puritans, but he gradually modified it under the stress
of office and responsibility. He was one of the disputants selected to
confute the Romanists at the conference of Westminster after Easter
1559; he was select preacher at St Paul's cross on the 15th of June; and
in the autumn was engaged as one of the royal visitors of the western
counties. His _congé d'élire_ as bishop of Salisbury had been made out
on the 27th of July, but he was not consecrated until the 21st of
January 1560. He now constituted himself the literary apologist of the
Elizabethan settlement. He had on the 26th of November 1559, in a sermon
at St Paul's Cross, challenged all comers to prove the Roman case out of
the Scriptures, or the councils or Fathers for the first six hundred
years after Christ. He repeated his challenge in 1560, and Dr Henry Cole
took it up. The chief result was Jewel's _Apologia ecclesiae
Anglicanae_, published in 1562, which in Bishop Creighton's words is
"the first methodical statement of the position of the Church of England
against the Church of Rome, and forms the groundwork of all subsequent
controversy." A more formidable antagonist than Cole now entered the
lists in the person of Thomas Harding, an Oxford contemporary whom Jewel
had deprived of his prebend in Salisbury Cathedral for recusancy. He
published an elaborate and bitter _Answer_ in 1564, to which Jewel
issued a _Reply_ in 1565. Harding followed with a _Confutation_, and
Jewel with a _Defence_, of the _Apology_ in 1566 and 1567; the
combatants ranged over the whole field of the Anglo-Roman controversy,
and Jewel's theology was officially enjoined upon the Church by
Archbishop Bancroft in the reign of James I. Latterly Jewel had been
confronted with criticism from a different quarter. The arguments that
had weaned him from his Zwinglian simplicity did not satisfy his
unpromoted brethren, and Jewel had to refuse admission to a benefice to
his friend Laurence Humphrey (q.v.), who would not wear a surplice. He
was consulted a good deal by the government on such questions as
England's attitude towards the council of Trent, and political
considerations made him more and more hostile to Puritan demands with
which he had previously sympathized. He wrote an attack on Cartwright,
which was published after his death by Whitgift. He died on the 23rd of
September 1571, and was buried in Salisbury Cathedral, where he had
built a library. Hooker, who speaks of Jewel as "the worthiest divine
that Christendom hath bred for some hundreds of years," was one of the
boys whom Jewel prepared in his house for the university; and his
_Ecclesiastical Polity_ owes much to Jewel's training.
Jewel's works were published in a folio in 1609 under the direction of
Bancroft, who ordered the _Apology_ to be placed in churches, in some
of which it may still be seen chained to the lectern; other editions
appeared at Oxford (1848, 8 vols.) and Cambridge (Parker Soc., 4
vols.). See also Gough's _Index to Parker Soc. Publ._; Strype's
_Works_ (General Index); _Acts of the Privy Council_; _Calendars of
Domestic and Spanish State Papers_; Dixon's and Frere's _Church
Histories_; and _Dictionary of National Biography_ (art. by Bishop
Creighton). (A. F. P.)
JEWELRY (O. Fr. _jouel_, Fr. _joyau_, perhaps from _joie_, joy; Lat.
_gaudium_; retranslated into Low Lat. _jocale_, a toy, from _jocus_, by
misapprehension of the origin of the word), a collective term for
jewels, or the art connected with them--jewels being personal ornaments,
usually made of gems, precious stones, &c., with a setting of precious
metal; in a restricted sense it is also common to speak of a gem-stone
itself as a jewel, when utilized in this way. Personal ornaments appear
to have been among the very first objects on which the invention and
ingenuity of man were exercised; and there is no record of any people so
rude as not to employ some kind of personal decoration. Natural objects,
such as small shells, dried berries, small perforated stones, feathers
of variegated colours, were combined by stringing or tying together to
ornament the head, neck, arms and legs, the fingers, and even the toes,
whilst the cartilages of the nose and ears were frequently perforated
for the more ready suspension of suitable ornaments.
Amongst modern Oriental nations we find almost every kind of personal
decoration, from the simple caste mark on the forehead of the Hindu to
the gorgeous examples of beaten gold and silver work of the various
cities and provinces of India. Nor are such decorations mere ornaments
without use or meaning. The hook with its corresponding perforation or
eye, the clasp, the buckle, the button, grew step by step into a special
ornament, according to the rank, means, taste and wants of the wearer,
or became an evidence of the dignity of office. Nor was the jewel deemed
to have served its purpose with the death of its owner, for it is to the
tombs of ancient peoples that we must look for evidence of the early
existence of the jeweller's art.
The jewelry of the ancient Egyptians has been preserved for us in their
tombs, sometimes in, and sometimes near the sarcophagi which contained
the embalmed bodies of the wearers. An amazing series of finds of the
intact jewels of five princesses of the XIIth Dynasty (c. 2400 B.C.) was
the result of the excavations of J. de Morgan at Dahshur in 1894-1895.
The treasure of Princess Hathor-Set contained jewels with the names of
Senwosri (Usertesen) II. and III., one of whom was probably her father.
The treasure of Princess Merit contained the names of the same two
monarchs, and also that of Amenemhe III., to whose family Princess
Nebhotp may have belonged. The two remaining princesses were Ita and
Khnumit.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
The art of the nameless Memphite jewellers of the XIIth Dynasty is
marked by perfect accuracy of execution, by sureness of intention, by
decorative instinct and sobriety in design, and by the serviceable
nature of the jewels for actual wear. All forms of work are
represented--including chiselling, soldering, inlaying with coloured
stones, moulding and working with twisted wires and filigree. Here
also occurs the earliest instance of granulated work, with small
grains of gold, soldered on a flat surface (fig. 1). The principal
items in this dazzling group are the following: Three gold pectorals
(fig. 2 and Plate I. figs. 35, 36) worked _à jour_ (with the
interstices left open); on the front side they are inlaid with
coloured stones, the fine _cloisons_ being the only portion of the
gold that is visible; on the back, the gold surfaces are most
delicately carved, in low relief. Two gold crowns (Plate I. figs. 32,
34), found together, are curiously contrasted in character. The one
(fig. 32) is of a formal design, of gold, inlaid (the plume, Plate I.
fig 33, was attached to it); the other (fig. 34) has a multitude of
star-like flowers, embodied in a filigree of daintily twisted wires. A
dagger with inlaid patterns on the handle shows extraordinary
perfection of finish.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
Nearly a thousand years later we have another remarkable collection of
Egyptian art in the jewelry taken from the coffin of Queen Aah-hotp,
discovered in 1859 by Mariette in the entrance to the valley of the
tombs of the kings and now preserved in the Cairo museum. Compared with
the Dahshur treasure the jewelry of Aah-hotp is in parts rough and
coarse, but none the less it is marked by the ingenuity and mastery of
the materials that characterize all the work of the Egyptians. Hammered
work, incised and chased work, the evidence of soldering, the
combinations of layers of gold plates, together with coloured stones,
are all present, and the handicraft is complete in every respect.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
A diadem of gold and enamel, found at the back of the head of the
mummy of the queen (fig. 3), was fixed in the back hair, showing the
cartouche in front. The box holding this cartouche has on the upper
surface the titles of the king, "the son of the sun, Aahmes, living
for ever and ever," in gold on a ground of lapis lazuli, with a
chequered ornament in blue and red pastes, and a sphinx couchant on
each side. A necklace with three pendant flies (fig. 4) is entirely of
gold, having a hook and loop to fasten it round the neck. Fig. 5 is a
gold drop, inlaid with turquoise or blue paste, in the shape of a fig.
A gold chain (fig. 6) is formed of wires closely plaited and very
flexible, the ends terminating in the heads of water fowl, and having
small rings to secure the collar behind. To the centre is suspended by
a small ring a scarabaeus of solid gold inlaid with lapis lazuli. We
have an example of a bracelet, similar to those in modern use (fig.
7), and worn by all persons of rank. It is formed of two pieces joined
by a hinge, and is decorated with figures in repoussé on a ground
inlaid with lapis lazuli.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--From _Archaeologia_, vol. 59, p. 447, by
permission of the Society of Antiquaries of London.]
That the Assyrians used personal decorations of a very distinct
character, and no doubt made of precious materials, is proved by the
bas-reliefs from which a considerable collection of jewels could be
gathered, such as bracelets, ear-rings and necklaces. Thus, for example,
in the British Museum we have representations of Assur-nazir-pal, king
of Assyria (c. 885-860 B.C.), wearing a cross (fig. 8) very similar to
the Maltese cross of modern times. It happens, however, that the
excavations have not hitherto been fertile in actual remains of gold
work from Assyria. Chance also has so far ordained that the excavations
in Crete should not be particularly rich in ornaments of gold. A few
isolated objects have been found, such as a duck and other pendants, and
also several necklaces with beads of the Argonaut shell-fish pattern.
More striking than these is a short bronze sword. The handle has an
agate pommel, and is covered with gold plates, engraved with spirited
scenes of lions and wild goats (fig. 9, A. J. Evans in _Archaeologia_,
59, 447). In general, however, the gold jewelry of the later Minoan
periods is more brilliantly represented by the finds made on the
mainland of Greece and at Enkomi in Cyprus. Among the former the gold
ornaments found by Heinrich Schliemann in the graves of Mycenae are
pre-eminent.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
The objects found ranged over most of the personal ornaments still in
use; necklaces with gold beads and pendants, butterflies (fig. 10),
cuttlefish (fig. 11), single and concentric circles, rosettes and
leafage, with perforations for attachment to clothing, crosses and
stars formed of combined crosses, with crosses in the centre forming
spikes--all elaborately ornamented in detail. The spiral forms an
incessant decoration from its facile production and repetition by
means of twisted gold wire. Grasshoppers or tree crickets in gold
repoussé suspended by chains and probably used for the decoration of
the hair, and a griffin (fig. 12), having the upper part of the body
of an eagle and the lower parts of a lion, with wings decorated with
spirals, are among the more remarkable examples of perforated
ornaments for attachment to the clothing. There are also perforated
ornaments belonging to necklaces, with intaglio engravings of such
subjects as a contest of a man and lion, and a duel of two warriors,
one of whom stabs his antagonist in the throat. There are also
pinheads and brooches formed of two stags lying down (fig. 13), the
bodies and necks crossing each other, and the horns meeting
symmetrically above the heads, forming a finial. The heads of these
ornaments were of gold, with silver blades or pointed pins inserted
for use. The bodies of the two stags rest on fronds of the date-palm
growing out of the stem which receives the pin. Another remarkable
series is composed of figures of women with doves. Some have one dove
resting on the head; others have three doves, one on the head and the
others resting on arms. The arms in both instances are extended to the
elbow, the hands being placed on the breasts. These ornaments are also
perforated, and were evidently sewed on the dresses, although there is
some evidence that an example with three doves has been fastened with
a pin.
An extraordinary diadem was found upon the head of one of the bodies
discovered in the same tomb with many objects similar to those noticed
above. It is 25 in. in length, covered with shield-like or rosette
ornaments in repoussé, the relief being very low but perfectly
distinct, and further ornamented by thirty-six large leaves of
repoussé gold attached to it. As an example of design and perfection
of detail, another smaller diadem found in another tomb may be noted
(fig. 14). It is of gold plate, so thick as to require no "piping" at
the back to sustain it; but in general the repoussé examples have a
piping of copper wire.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
The admirable inlaid daggers of the IVth grave at Mycenae are unique
in their kind, with their subjects of a lion hunt, of a lion chasing a
herd of antelopes, of running lions, of cats hunting wild duck, of
inlaid lilies, and of geometric patterns. The subjects are inlaid in
gold of various tints, and silver, in bronze plates which are inserted
in the flat surfaces of the dagger-blades. In part also the subjects
are rendered in relief and gilded. The whole is executed with
marvellous precision and vivid representation of motion. To a certain
limited extent these daggers are paralleled by a dagger and hatchet
found in the treasure of Queen Aah-hotp mentioned above, but in their
most characteristic features there is little resemblance. The gold
ornaments found by Schliemann at Hissarlik, the supposed site of Troy,
divide themselves, generally speaking, into two groups, one being the
"great treasure" of diadems, ear-rings, beads, bracelets, &c., which
seem the product of a local and uncultured art. The other group, which
were found in smaller "treasures," have spirals and rosettes similar
to those of Mycenae. The discovery, however, of the gold treasures of
the Artemision at Ephesus has brought out points of affinity between
the Hissarlik treasures and those of Ephesus, and has made any
reasoning difficult, in view of the uncertainties surrounding the
Hissarlik finds. The group with Mycenaean affinities (fig. 15)
includes necklaces, brooches, bracelets (g), hair-pins (a), ear-rings
(c, d, e, f), with and without pendants, beads and twisted wire drops.
The majority of these are ornamented with spirals of twisted wire, or
small rosettes, with fragments of stones in the centres. The twisted
wire ornaments were evidently portions of necklaces. A circular plaque
decorated with a rosette (h) is very similar to those found at
Mycenae, and a conventionalized eagle (k) is characteristic of much of
the detail found at that place as well as at Hissarlik. They were all
of pure gold, and the wire must have been drawn through a plate of
harder metal--probably bronze. The principal ornaments differing from
those found at Mycenae are diadems or head fillets of pure hammered
gold (b) cut into thin plates, attached to rings by double gold wires,
and fastened together at the back with thin twisted wire. To these
pendants (of which those at the two ends are nearly three times the
length of those forming the central portions) are attached small
figures, probably of idols. It has been assumed that these were worn
across the forehead by women, the long pendants falling on each side
of the face.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
The jewelry of the close of the Mycenaean period is best represented by
the rich finds of the cemetery of Enkomi near Salamis, in Cyprus. This
field was excavated by the British Museum in 1896, and a considerable
portion of the finds is now at Bloomsbury. It was rich in all forms of
jewelry, but especially in pins, rings and diadems with patterns in
relief. In its geometric patterns the art of Enkomi is entirely
Mycenaean, but special stress is laid on the mythical forms that were
inherited by Greek art, such as the sphinx and the gryphon.
Figs. 37-48 (Plate I.) are examples of the late Mycenaean treasures
from Enkomi.
" 37, 38 " Ear-rings.
" 39 " Diadem, to be tied on the forehead. The impressed
figure of a sphinx is repeated twelve times.
" 40, 41, 46 " Ear-rings, originally in bull's head form (fig.
40). Later, the same general form is retained,
but decorative patterns (figs. 41, 46) take
the place of the bull's head.
" 42 " Pin, probably connected by a chain with a fellow,
to be used as a cloak fastening.
" 43 " Pomegranate pendant, with fine granulated work.
" 44, 45 " Pins as No. 42. The heads are of vitreous paste.
" 46 (See above.)
" 47 " Pendant ornament, in lotus-form, of a pectoral,
inlaid with coloured pastes.
" 48 " Small slate cylinder, set in filigree.
Another find of importance was that of a collection of gold ornaments
from one of the Greek islands (said to be Aegina) which also found its
way to the British Museum. Here we find the themes of archaic Greek art,
such as a figure holding up two water-birds, in immediate connexion with
Mycenaean gold patterns.
Figs. 49-53 (Plate I.) are specimens from this treasure.
" 49 " Plate with repoussé ornament for sewing on a
dress.
" 50 " Pendant. Figure with two water-birds, on a lotus
his base, and having serpents issuing from
near middle, modified from Egyptian forms.
Fig. 51 (Plate I.) Ring, with cut blue glass-pastes in the
grooves.
" 52 " Pendant ornament, repoussé, and originally
inlaid with pieces of cut glass-paste.
" 53 " Pendant ornament, with dogs and apes, modified
from Egyptian forms.
For the beginnings of Greek art proper, the most striking series of
personal jewels is the great deposit of ornaments which was found in
1905 by D. G. Hogarth in the soil beneath the central basis of the
archaic temple of Artemis of Ephesus. The gold ornaments in question
(amounting in all to about 1000 pieces) were mingled with the closely
packed earth, and must necessarily, it would seem, have been in the
nature of votive offerings, made at the end of the 7th or the beginning
of the 6th century B.C. The hoard was rich in pins, brooches, beads and
stamped disks of gold. The greater part of the find is at
Constantinople, but a portion was assigned to the British Museum, which
had undertaken the excavations.
Figs. 54-58 (Plate II.) Examples of the Ephesus hoard.
" 54 " Electrum pin, with pomegranate head.
" 55 " Hawk ornament.
" 56 " Electrum pin.
" 57, 58 " Electrum ornaments for sewing on drapery.
The cemeteries of Cyprus have yielded a rich harvest of jewelry of
Graeco-Phoenician style of the 7th and following centuries B.C. Figs. 16
and 17 are typical examples of a ring and ear-ring from Cyprus.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
Greek, Etruscan and Roman ornaments partake of very similar
characteristics. Of course there is variety in design and sometimes in
treatment, but it does not rise to any special individuality. Fretwork
is a distinguishing feature of all, together with the wave ornament, the
guilloche, and the occasional use of the human figure. The workmanship
is often of a character which modern gold-workers can only rival with
their best skill, and can never surpass.
[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
[Illustration: PLATE I.