THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE IN THE STUDY OF PHYSIOLOGY.
[Sidenote: 1. The will of the Creator, by what obeyed? The power of a
muscle? Amount of duty performed by the liver?]
1. THE LAW OF THE TISSUES.--The will of an infinite Creator is obeyed by
atoms as well as by worlds. He has seen fit to commit all the functions of
life to structures or tissues so small as to be invisible to the naked eye.
A muscle, for example, as we have already learned, is composed of
innumerable filaments, visible only by the aid of the microscope; and the
power of the muscular mass is but the sum of the contractile power of the
filaments which enter into its composition. Again, each cell of the liver,
invisible to unassisted sight, is a secreting organ, and the liver performs
as much duty as the sum of these minute organs renders possible and no
more.
[Sidenote: 2. Necessity for using the microscope? The advantages gained by
its use?]
2. THE NECESSITY OF THE MICROSCOPE.--If, therefore, we would know the real
structure of the human body, we must make use of the microscope. We are not
at liberty either to use it or not; we _must_ have recourse to it in order
to obtain a real knowledge of the human body. Our eyes are constructed for
the common offices of life, to provide for our wants and guard us from the
ordinary sources of danger; but by arming them with _lenses_, the real
structure of plants and animals is revealed to our intelligence; and
enemies, otherwise invisible, that lie in wait in the air we breathe, and
in our daily food and drink, to destroy life, are guarded against.
[Sidenote: 3. What are convex lenses? Kind of lenses used in microscopes?
Experiment? Picture thrown upon the eye? Derivation of the word
microscope?]
3. CONVEX LENSES, or magnifying glasses, are disks of glass or other
transparent substance, which have the {237} property of picturing upon the
retina of the eye an image of an object larger than the image produced
there without their aid. The glasses used in microscopes are either double
convex lenses (_a_) or plano-convex lenses (_b_). If a double convex lens
or a plano-convex one be placed over a hole in the shutter of a darkened
room, or over the key-hole of a door, and a piece of paper be held at a
proper distance, a picture of all objects in front of the lens will be
thrown on the paper, as in the camera-obscura or the magic-lantern. Now, in
the same manner, a lens throws a picture of objects to which it is directed
on the retina of the eye, and when that picture is larger than the image
made in the eye by the object, without the aid of the lens, it is
magnified, or the lens has served as a _microscope_, so called, from its
use in seeing small objects, from _mikros_, small, and _skopeo_, to see.
[Illustration]
[Sidenote: 4. Kinds of microscope? What are simple microscopes?]
4. DIFFERENT KINDS OF MICROSCOPES.--Microscopes are either _simple_ or
_compound_. The glasses of magnifying spectacles, like those commonly used
by aged persons, are simple microscopes. Magnifying glasses, mounted in
frames such as are for sale by opticians and others, for the detection of
counterfeit money, are simple microscopes, and are useful in studying the
coarser structure of plants and animals.
[Sidenote: 5. Construction of the most powerful simple microscopes? In
practice? A doublet? Triplet? Why are compound microscopes superior to
simple ones?]
5. The most powerful simple microscopes are made by melting in a flame a
thread of spun glass, so as to form a {238} minute globule or bead, which,
when set in a piece of metal and used to examine objects on a plate of
glass held up to the light, gives a high magnifying power. In practice,
however, it is found better to use several magnifying glasses of moderate
power, than a simple lens alone of high power. A combination of two lenses
is called a _doublet_--of three, a _triplet_. All _simple_ microscopes
throw an enlarged image of the object upon the retina. _Compound_
microscopes are so constructed that the enlarged image of an object is
again magnified by a second lens, and hence their magnifying power is
vastly superior to that of simple microscopes.
[Sidenote: 6. Explain, by means of the diagram, the action of the compound
microscope.]
6. The accompanying diagrams will explain the action of the compound
microscope compared with that of the simple microscope. In Fig. 58, which
represents the working of the simple microscope, the rays from the object
(_a b_), passing through the lens (L), form an image (_a' b'_) in the
retina of the eye (E), and as all images are inverted in the eye, the
object is seen as all other objects are, and appears erect. In Fig. 59 is
seen the action of the compound microscope. An inverted image (_a' b'_) of
the object (_a b_) is magnified by the second lens (L'), and an erect image
is thrown upon the retina, which, as all other objects seen erect with the
naked eye are inverted, gives to the image a contrary direction, or inverts
it to the mind.
[Illustration: FIG. 58.--SIMPLE MICROSCOPE.]
{239}
[Sidenote: 7. Portions, in a compound microscope? The glasses?]
7. A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE consists of two portions: the optical portion, or
the lenses, and the mechanical portion, or the instrument which bears the
lenses. The glasses of a compound microscope are two: the _object-glass_
(D), Fig. 60, and the lower lens of Fig. 59, and the _ocular_ or
_eye-piece_ (A), Fig. 60, and the upper piece of Fig. 59. Both the
object-glass and the eye-piece may, and usually do, consist of more than
one lens, for, as previously mentioned, better results are obtained by a
combination of lenses of moderate power than by single lenses of high power
and great curvature.
[Sidenote: 8. How to choose a microscope? How to use it?]
8. HOW TO CHOOSE AND USE A MICROSCOPE.--No attractiveness in the mechanical
part of a microscope can compensate for inferior lenses; and the very first
consideration in the choice of an instrument should be the excellence of
the optical part of the instrument. In the use of the instrument, care
should be exercised to keep the lenses clean, free from dust, not to press
the object-glass upon the object under observation, and not to wet it in
the water in which most objects are examined. A good microscope requires
its own table; and when not in use should be covered by a bell glass or a
clean linen cloth.
[Illustration: FIG. 59. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE.]
{240} [Illustration: FIG. 60.
A, Eye-piece. B, Body. C, Collar. D, Object-glass. E, Stage. F, Hinge.
G, Mirror. H, Stand.]
[Sidenote: 9. The characteristics of the best instrument? What special
requisites should be insisted upon? Why, as to a horizontal stage?]
9. The mechanical portion of the instrument varies greatly in different
instruments. That one is the best which is simplest, the most solid and
easily managed. The stage (E), upon which the object is placed, should not
be movable: it should be solid and firm. The screw by which the focal
distance is adjusted, and which {241} is in constant use, should be so
placed that it can be worked by the hand resting on the table: otherwise
fatigue is soon induced. The direction of the tube carrying the glasses
should be perpendicular, and the stage therefore horizontal. Most objects
in human anatomy are examined in water or in other liquids, or they are
themselves liquids; hence an oblique stage is often inconvenient.
[Illustration: FIG. 61.]
{242}
[Sidenote: 10. Slides? Covers, square and circular? How kept?]
10. ADDITIONAL APPARATUS.--As almost all objects in human anatomy are
examined by transmitted light thrown up from the mirror (G, Fig. 60)
beneath the stage through the object to the eye, they must be placed upon
strips of clear glass about three inches long and one inch wide, commonly
called "slides." These should be procured with the microscope. Again, most
objects seen with high powers require to be covered with a thin plate of
glass, very properly called a "cover," that the moisture of the specimen
may not tarnish the object-glass. Square or circular covers of very thin
glass are therefore provided; and a good supply of these should be always
on hand. These glasses should be kept in a covered dish filled with a
mixture of alcohol and water. Simple water will not remove the fatty matter
which exists in all animal tissues, and, therefore, the glasses cannot be
thoroughly cleaned with it alone.
[Sidenote: 11. Cleaning the glasses? Knives, scissors, etc.? Various
liquids?]
11. When glasses are required for use, they should be removed from the
liquid and wiped clean and dry with a soft linen handkerchief. Delicate
knives, scissors, needles mounted in handles, forceps, pipettes or little
tubes for taking up water, should be obtained; these are essential to all
microscopical study. The table should be supplied with glass-stoppered
bottles containing the various liquids ordinarily used in the study of
physiology. Thus, tincture of iodine is indispensable in studying vegetable
structure, acetic acid in the study of animal tissues; and other articles
will have to be added from time to time, as your progress in study demands
them. {243}
[Sidenote: 12. Bodies, in air and water? The examination of starch?]
12. PRELIMINARY STUDIES.--In order to prepare the way for the study of any
department of science with the aid of the microscope--for the microscope is
but an eye, and can be turned in almost any direction for purposes of
investigation--it is necessary to become acquainted with the many objects
which are liable to complicate the examination of particular structures.
Both air and water are full of floating bodies, and the most common of
these should first occupy the attention. In the city, particles of starch
are always floating in the air. Take a very minute portion of wheat flour,
place it in the middle of a clean glass "slide," drop upon it a drop of
pure water, cover it with a plate of thin glass, and examine it with a
power of from one hundred to six hundred diameters. It will be found to be
composed of minute grains or granules, the largest of which are made up of
coats or layers, like an onion, arranged around a central spot called the
_hilum_.
[Sidenote: 13. The examination with solution of iodine? Advice respecting
other articles?]
13. Make another preparation in the same manner, and, after adding the
water and before covering with the thin glass cover, add a small drop of a
solution of iodine. Now, upon examining the specimen, every grain will be
seen to be of a beautiful deep blue color. After thus studying wheat
starch, the starch of Indian corn, of arrowroot, and of various grains
should be examined in like manner, and their resemblances and differences
noted. The granules of potato-starch are as distinctly marked as any. (See
Fig. 15, page 61.)
[Sidenote: 14. Directions for examining cotton and other fibres? Vegetable
hairs?]
14. Fibres of cotton, lint, and wool are liable to be found in every
specimen prepared for microscopical examination. In order to study these,
any cotton, woollen, or linen fabric, or garment, may be scraped, and the
scrapings placed on a piece of glass moistened with water, covered with the
thin glass plate or cover as before, and {244} examined with the same
magnifying power, namely, from one hundred to six hundred diameters.
Vegetable hairs or down are constantly floating in air and water. These are
of very various forms, are simple or grouped, and form very interesting
objects of study. They are readily procured from the epidermis or outer
membrane of the leaves or stems of plants, by section with a delicate
knife.
[Sidenote: 15. Directions for examining various tissues? Down of moths, and
other structures?]
15. The tissues of plants, epidermis, ducts, and woody fibres are
constantly found in microscopic preparations. They may be studied in
delicate sections made with a sharp knife, or by tearing vegetable tissues
apart with needles. The down of moths, the hairs of different animals, the
fibres of paper, the most common animalcules in water, the dust of shelves,
and generally the structures found in all vegetable and animal substances
by which we are surrounded, should be studied as a preliminary to any
special line of microscopical investigation.
[Sidenote: 16. Directions for examining a drop of blood?]
16. THE STUDY OF HUMAN TISSUES.--When this has been done and familiarity
with the use of the instrument has been obtained, proceed to the study of
the human body, for human physiology is our subject. If the end of the
finger be pricked with a pin, a drop of blood may be procured for
examination. Place this on one of the glass slides, cover it with a thin
piece of glass, press down the cover so as to make a thin layer, and then
examine with the magnifying power just mentioned. Do not add water, for
that will cause the blood corpuscles to disappear. If the drop of blood is
placed under the microscope at once after being drawn from the finger, most
interesting phenomena will be observed. The red corpuscles will be seen to
arrange themselves in rows, like piles of coin, while the blood is
coagulating. The spherical, white corpuscles will {245} be left out of the
rows of red disks, and, if the highest power be used, will be seen to
change their shape constantly.
[Sidenote: 17. Examination of the scales of the mouth? Dandruff?]
17. If you scrape with a dull knife the inside of the cheek, the flattened
scales of "pavement epithelium," or of the insensible covering which,
analogous to the scarf-skin on the outer surface of the body, lines the
cavities of its interior, may be readily studied. They have the appearance
of transparent tiles, each enclosing a round or oval body, called its
nucleus. Dandruff and the scrapings from the skin of the body are composed
of scales like those of the mouth, but they differ somewhat in being
hardened by horny matter, and in having a very faint central body or
nucleus.
[Sidenote: 18. In what, as respects the tissues, do the warm blooded
animals differ? Statement of Milne Edwards?]
18. THE TISSUES OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS.--The warm-blooded animals do not
differ in the tissues, or microscopic structures, that compose them, but
only in the amount and arrangement of these tissues. Milne Edwards says
these tissues "do not differ much in different animals, but their mode of
association varies; and it is chiefly by reason of the differences in the
combination of these associations in various degrees, that each species
possesses the anatomical properties and characters which are peculiar to
it."
[Sidenote: 19. How to procure materials for the study of the tissues of
man?]
19. Hence the butcher's stall will furnish all the materials for the study
of the microscopic tissues. The structure of the heart, lungs, liver,
brain, and muscle may all be studied, and well studied, by using minute
pieces of the flesh of the lower animals, especially of the quadrupeds.
Such portions of these animals as are not exposed for sale can be readily
obtained by order from the slaughter-house. To examine with the powers of
which we have been speaking, it is only necessary to cut off {246}
exceedingly small pieces, tear them apart with needles, or make very
delicate sections with a sharp knife.
20. INCENTIVES TO STUDY.--A complete knowledge of all minute structures is
not to be expected at once, for you are here introduced into a new realm of
Nature, a world of little things as vast, as wonderful, and as carefully
constructed as the starry firmament,--that other realm of grand objects
which the astronomer nightly scans with the telescope. It will not appear
singular, therefore, if, at first, you feel strange and awkward in this new
creation. With a little perseverance, however, and with the attention
directed toward simple objects at the outset, it will not be long before an
increasing experience will engender confidence.
21. If to all this there be added an enthusiastic study of the standard
authorities on the subject, the rate of progress will be by so much the
more rapid. As compared with similar studies, few possess more interest
than microscopy, and to the one who pursues it with fondness, it constantly
affords sources of pleasure and agreeable surprises; and in the end, often
leads to new and valuable additions to the sum of human knowledge. The
depths which the microscope is employed to fathom are no more completely
known, than are the heights above us explored and comprehended by the
astronomer.
QUESTIONS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW.
_State what you can on the following subjects_:
1. Voice and speech 227, 228
2. The organ of the voice 228, 229
3. The vocal cords 230, 231
4. The production of the voice 232, 233
5. The varieties of voice 233, 234
6. Ventriloquism 235
7. The law of the tissues 236
8. Necessity of the microscope 236
9. Convex lenses 236, 237
10. Kinds of microscope 237, 238
11. Choosing a microscope 239, 242
12. Preliminary studies 243, 244
13. The study of human tissues 244
14. The study of the inferior animals 245
* * * * *
{247}
APPENDIX.
------o------
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES.
Accidents from poisoning are of such frequent occurrence, that every one
should be able to administer the more common antidotes, until the _services
of a physician can be obtained_. As many poisons bear a close resemblance
to articles in common use, no dangerous substance should be brought into
the household without having the word _poison_ plainly written or printed
on the label; and any package, box, or vial, without a label, should be at
once destroyed, if the contents are not positively known.
When a healthy person is taken severely and _suddenly_ ill _soon after some
substance has been swallowed_, we may suspect that he has been poisoned. In
all cases where poison has been taken into the stomach, it should be
quickly and thoroughly evacuated by some active emetic, which can be
speedily obtained. This may be accomplished by drinking a tumblerful of
warm water, containing either a tablespoonful of powdered mustard or of
common salt, or two teaspoonfuls of powdered alum in two tablespoonfuls of
syrup. When vomiting has already taken place, it should be maintained by
copious draughts of warm water or mucilaginous drinks, such as gum-water or
flaxseed tea, and tickling the throat with the finger until there is reason
to believe that all the poisonous substance has been expelled from the
stomach.
The following list embraces only the more common poisons, together with
such antidotes as are usually at hand, to be used until the physician
arrives.
POISONS.
ACIDS.--_Hydrochloric acid_; _muriatic acid_ (spirits of salt); _nitric
acid_ (aqua fortis); _sulphuric acid_ (oil of vitriol).
ANTIDOTE.--An antidote should be given at once to neutralize the acid.
Strong soapsuds is an efficient remedy, and can always be obtained. It
should be followed by copious draughts of warm water or flaxseed tea.
Chalk, magnesia, soda or saleratus (with water) or {248} lime-water, are
the best remedies. When sulphuric acid has been taken, water should be
given sparingly, because, when water unites with this acid, intense heat is
produced.
_Oxalic acid._
ANTIDOTE.--Oxalic acid resembles Epsom salts in appearance, and may easily
be mistaken for it. The antidotes are magnesia, or chalk mixed with water.
PRUSSIC ACID; _oil of bitter almonds_; _laurel water_; _cyanide of
potassium_ (used in electrotyping).
ANTIDOTE.--Cold douche to the spine. Chlorine water, or water of ammonia
largely diluted, should be given, and the vapor arising from them may be
inhaled.
ALKALIES AND THEIR SALTS.--AMMONIA (hartshorn), _liquor or water of
ammonia_. POTASSA:--_caustic potash_, _strong ley_, _carbonate of potassa_
(pearlash), _nitrate of potassa_ (saltpetre).
ANTIDOTE.--Give the vegetable acids diluted, as weak vinegar, acetic,
citric, or tartaric acids dissolved in water. Castor oil, linseed oil, and
sweet oil may also be used; they form soaps when mixed with the free
alkalies, which they thus render harmless. The poisonous effects of
saltpetre must be counteracted by taking mucilaginous drinks freely, so as
to produce vomiting.
ALCOHOL.--_Brandy_, _wine_; _all spirituous liquors_.
ANTIDOTE.--Give as an emetic ground mustard or tartar emetic. If the
patient cannot swallow, introduce a stomach pump; pour cold water on the
head.
GASES.--_Chlorine_, _carbonic acid gas_, _carbonic oxide_, _fumes of
burning charcoal_, _sulphuretted hydrogen_, _illuminating or coal-gas_.
ANTIDOTE.--For poisoning by chlorine, inhale, cautiously, ammonia
(hartshorn). For the other gases, cold water should be poured upon the
head, and stimulants cautiously administered; artificial respiration. (See
_Marshall Hall's Ready Method_, page 250.)
METALS.--_Antimony_, _tartar emetic_, _wine of antimony_, etc.
ANTIDOTE.--If vomiting has not occurred, it should be produced by tickling
the throat with the finger or a feather, and the abundant use of warm
water. Astringent infusions, such as common tea, oak bark, and solution of
tannin, act as antidotes.
ARSENIC.--_White arsenic_, _Fowler's solution_, _fly-powder_, _cobalt_,
_Paris green_, etc.
ANTIDOTE.--Produce vomiting at once with a tablespoonful or two of powdered
mustard in a glass of warm water, or with ipecac. The antidote is hydrated
peroxide of iron. If Fowler's solution has been taken, lime-water must be
given. {249}
COPPER.--_Acetate of copper_ (verdigris), _sulphate of copper_ (blue
vitriol), food cooked in dirty _copper vessels_, or pickles made green by
_copper_.
ANTIDOTE.--Milk or white of eggs, with mucilaginous drinks (flaxseed tea,
etc.), should be freely given.
IRON.--_Sulphate of iron_ (copperas), etc.
ANTIDOTE.--Carbonate of soda in some mucilaginous drink, or in water, is an
excellent antidote.
LEAD.--_Acetate of lead_ (sugar of lead), _carbonate of lead_ (white lead),
water kept in _leaden pipes_ or _vessels_, food cooked in _vessels_ glazed
with _lead_.
ANTIDOTE.--Induce vomiting with ground mustard or common salt in warm
water. The antidote for soluble preparations of lead is Epsom salts; for
the insoluble forms, sulphuric acid largely diluted.
MERCURY.--_Bichloride of mercury_ (corrosive sublimate), _ammoniated
mercury_ (white precipitate), _red oxide of mercury_ (red precipitate),
_red sulphuret of mercury_ (vermilion).
ANTIDOTE.--The white of eggs, or wheat flour beaten up with water and milk,
are the best antidotes.
SILVER.--_Nitrate of silver_ (lunar caustic).
ANTIDOTE.--Give a teaspoonful of common salt in a tumbler of water. It
decomposes the salts of silver and destroys their activity.
ZINC.--_Sulphate of zinc_, etc. (white vitriol).
ANTIDOTE.--The vomiting may be relieved by copious draughts of warm water.
The antidote is carbonate of soda administered in water.
NARCOTIC POISONS.--_Opium_ (laudanum, paregoric, salts of morphia,
Godfrey's cordial, Dalby's carminative, soothing syrup, cholera mixtures),
_aconite_, _belladonna_, _hemlock_, _stramonium_, _digitalis_, _tobacco_,
_hyosciamus_, _nux vomica_, _strychnine_.
ANTIDOTE.--Evacuate the stomach by the most active emetics, as mustard,
alum, or sulphate of zinc. The patient should be kept in motion, and cold
water dashed on the head and shoulders. Strong coffee must be given. The
physician will use the stomach pump and electricity. In poisoning by nux
vomica or strychnine, etc., chloroform or ether should be inhaled to quiet
the spasms.
IRRITANT VEGETABLE POISONS.--_Croton oil_, _oil of savine_, _poke_, _oil of
tansy_, etc.
ANTIDOTE.--If vomiting has taken place, it may be rendered easier by
copious draughts of warm water. But if symptoms of insensibility have come
on without vomiting, it ought to be immediately excited by ground mustard
mixed with warm water, or some other active emetic {250} and after its
operation an active purgative should be given. After evacuating as much of
the poison as possible, strong coffee or vinegar and water may be given
with advantage.
POISONOUS FISH.--_Conger eel_, _mussels_, _crabs_, etc.
ANTIDOTE.--Evacuate, as soon as possible, the contents of the stomach and
bowels by emetics (ground mustard mixed with warm water or powdered alum),
and castor oil, drinking freely at the same time of vinegar and water.
Ether, with a few drops of laudanum mixed with sugar and water, may
afterward be taken freely.
POISONOUS SERPENTS.--ANTIDOTE.--A ligature or handkerchief should be
applied moderately tight above the bite, and a cupping-glass over the
wound. The patient should drink freely of alcoholic stimulants containing a
small quantity of ammonia. The physician may inject ammonia into the veins.
POISONOUS INSECTS.--_Stings of scorpion_, _hornet_, _wasp_, _bee_, etc.
ANTIDOTE.--A piece of rag moistened with a solution of carbolic acid may be
kept on the affected part until the pain is relieved; and a few drops of
carbolic acid may be given frequently in a little water. The sting may be
removed by making strong pressure around it with the barrel of a small
watch-key.
DROWNING.
MARSHALL HALL'S "READY METHOD" of treatment in asphyxia from drowning,
chloroform, coal gas, etc.
1st. Treat the patient _instantly on the spot_, in the _open air_, freely
exposing the face, neck, and chest to the breeze, except in severe weather.
2d. In order _to clear the throat_, place the patient gently on the face,
with one wrist under the forehead, that all fluid, and the tongue itself,
may fall forward, and leave the entrance into the windpipe free.
3d. _To excite respiration_, turn the patient slightly on his side, and
apply some irritating or stimulating agent to the nostrils, as _veratrine_,
_dilute ammonia_, etc.
4th. Make the face warm by brisk friction; then dash cold water upon it.
5th. If not successful, lose no time; but, _to imitate respiration_, place
the patient on his face, and turn the body gently, but completely _on the
side, and a little beyond_; then again on the face, and so on, alternately.
Repeat these movements, deliberately and perseveringly, {251} _fifteen
times only_ in a minute. (When the patient lies on the thorax, this cavity
is _compressed_ by the weight of the body, and _ex_piration takes place.
When he is turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and _in_spiration
occurs.)
6th. When the prone position is resumed, make a uniform and efficient
pressure _along the spine_, removing the pressure immediately, before
rotation on the side. (The pressure augments the _ex_piration: the rotation
commences _in_spiration.) Continue these measures.
7th. Rub the limbs _upward_, with _firm pressure_ and with _energy_. (The
object being to aid the return of venous blood to the heart.)
8th. Substitute for the patient's wet clothing, if possible, such other
covering as can be instantly procured, each bystander supplying a coat or
cloak, etc. Meantime, and from time to time, _to excite inspiration_, let
the surface of the body be _slapped_ briskly with the hand.
9th. Rub the body briskly till it is dry and warm, then dash _cold_ water
upon it, and repeat the rubbing.
Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it involves a _dangerous
loss of time_--also, the use of bellows, or any _forcing_ instrument; also,
the _warm bath_, and _all rough treatment_.
* * * * *
{252}
GLOSSARY.
------o------
AB-DO´MEN (Latin _abdo_, to conceal). The largest cavity of the body
containing the liver, stomach, intestines, etc.; the belly.
AB-SOR´BENTS (L. _ab_ and _sorbeo_, to suck up). The vessels which take
part in the process of absorption.
AB-SORP´TION. The process of sucking up fluids by means of an animal
membrane.
AC-COM-MO-DA´TION of the Eye. The alteration in the shape of the
crystalline lens, which accommodates or adjusts the eye for near and remote
vision.
AC´ID, LACTIC (L. _lac_, milk). The acid ingredient of sour milk; the
gastric juice also contains it.
AL-BU´MEN, or Albumin (L. _albus_, white). An animal substance resembling
white of egg.
AL-BU´MI-NOSE (from _albumen_). A soluble animal substance produced in the
stomach by the digestion of the albuminoid substances.
AL-BU´MIN-OID substances. A class of proximate principles resembling
albumen; they may be derived from either the animal or vegetable kingdoms.
AL´I-MENT (L. _alo_, to nourish). That which affords nourishment; food.
AL-I-MENT´A-RY CA-NAL (from _aliment_). A long tube in which the food is
digested, or prepared for reception into the system.
AN-ÆS-THET´ICS (Greek, [Greek: an], _an_, without, [Greek: aisthesia],
_aisthesia_, feeling).--Those medicinal agents which prevent the feeling of
pain, such as chloroform, laughing-gas, etc.
AN-I-MAL´CULE (L. _animal´culum_, a small animal). Applied to animals which
can only be seen with the aid of the microscope. Animalculum (plural,
animalcula) is used with the same meaning.
A-OR´TA (Gr. [Greek: aorteomai], _aorteomai_, to be lifted up). The largest
artery of the body, and main trunk of all the arteries. It arises from the
left ventricle of the heart. The name was first applied to the two large
branches of the trachea, which appear to be lifted up by the heart.
{253} A´QUE-OUS HUMOR (L. _aqua_, water). A few drops of watery colorless
fluid occupying the space between the cornea and crystalline lens.
A-RACH´NOID MEM´BRANE (Gr. [Greek: arachne], _arachne_, a cobweb, and
[Greek: eidos], _eidos_, like). An extremely thin covering of the brain and
spinal cord. It lies between the _dura mater_ and the _pia mater_.
AR´BOR VI´TÆ (L.). Literally, "the tree of life;" a name given to the
peculiar appearance presented by a section of the cerebellum.
AR´TER-Y (Gr. [Greek: aer], _aer_, air, and [Greek: terein], _terein_, to
contain). A vessel by which blood is conveyed away from the heart. It was
supposed by the ancients to contain air; hence the name.
AR-TIC-U-LA´TION (L. _articulo_, to form a joint). The more or less movable
union of bones, etc.; a joint.
A-RYT´E-NOID CAR´TI-LA-GES (Gr. [Greek: arutaina], _arutaina_, a pitcher).
Two small cartilages of the larynx, resembling the mouth of a pitcher.
AS-SIM-I-LA´TION (L. _ad_, to, and _similis_, like). The conversion of food
into living tissue.
AU-DI´TION (L. _audio_, to hear). The act of hearing sounds.
AU´DI-TO-RY NERVE. One of the cranial nerves; it is the special nerve of
hearing.
AU´RI-CLE (L. _auris_, the ear). A cavity of the heart.
BAR´I-TONE (Gr. [Greek: barus], _barus_, heavy, and [Greek: tonos],
_tonos_, tone). A variety of male voice between the bass and tenor.
BEL-LA-DON´NA (It. beautiful lady). A vegetable narcotic poison. It has the
property of enlarging the pupil, and thus increasing the brilliancy of the
eye; so called from its use by Italian ladies.
BI-CUS´PID (L. _bi_, two, and _cuspis_, prominence). The name of the fourth
and fifth teeth on each side of the jaw; possessing two prominences.
BILE. The gall, or peculiar secretion of the liver; a viscid, yellowish
fluid, and very bitter to the taste.
BRONCH´I (Gr. [Greek: bronkos], _bronkos_, the windpipe). The two first
divisions or branches of the trachea; one enters each lung.
BRONCH´I-AL TUBES. The smaller branches of the trachea within the substance
of the lungs, terminating in the air-cells.
BRONCH-I´TIS (from _bronchia_, and _itis_, a suffix signifying
inflammation). An inflammation of the larger bronchial tubes; a "cold"
affecting the lungs.
CAL-CA´RE-OUS (L. _calx_, lime). Containing lime.
CA-NAL´ (L.). In the body, any tube or passage.
CA-NINE´ (L. _canis_, a dog). Name given to the third tooth on each {254}
side of the jaw; in the upper jaw it is also known as the eye-tooth:
pointed like the tusks of a dog.
CAP´IL-LA-RY (L. _capil´lus_, a hair, _capilla´ris_ hair-like). The name of
the extremely minute blood-vessels which connect the arteries with the
veins.
CAR´BON DIOX-IDE (CO_{2}). Chemical name for carbonic acid gas.
CAR-BON´IC A-CID. The gas which is present in the air expired from the
lungs; a waste product of the animal kingdom, and a food of the vegetable
kingdom.
CAR´DI-AC (Gr. [Greek: kardia], _cardia_, the heart). The cardiac orifice
of the stomach is the upper one, and is near the heart; hence its name.
CAR-NIV´O-ROUS (L. _ca´ro_, flesh, and _vo´ro_, to devour). Subsisting upon
flesh.
CA-ROT´ID AR-TE-RY. The large artery of the neck, supplying the head and
brain.
CAR´TI-LAGE. A solid but flexible material, forming a part of the joints,
air-passages, nostrils, etc.; gristle.
CA´SE-INE (L. _ca´seus_, cheese). The albuminoid substance of milk; it
forms the basis of cheese.
CER-E-BEL´LUM (diminutive for _cer´ebrum_, the brain). The little brain,
situated beneath the posterior third of the cerebrum.
CER´E-BRUM (L.). The brain proper, occupying the entire upper portion of
the skull. It is nearly divided into two equal parts, called "hemispheres,"
by a cleft extending from before backward.
CHO´ROID (Gr. [Greek: chorion], _chorion_, a membrane or covering). The
middle tunic or coat of the eyeball.
CHYLE (Gr. [Greek: chulos], chulos, juice). The milk-like fluid formed by
the digestion of fatty articles of food in the intestines.
CHYME (Gr. [Greek: chumos], _chumos_, juice). The pulpy liquid formed by
digestion within the stomach.
CIL´I-A (pl. of _cil´i-um_, an eyelash). Minute, vibratile, hair-like
processes found upon the cells of the air-passages, and other parts that
are habitually moist.
CIR-CU-LA´TION (L. _cir´culus_, a ring). The circuit, or course of the
blood through the blood-vessels of the body, from the heart to the
arteries, through the capillaries into the veins, and from the veins back
to the heart.
CO-AG-U-LA´TION (L. _coag´ulo_, to curdle). Applied to the process by which
the blood clots or solidifies.
COCH´LE-A (L. _coch´lea_, a snail-shell). The spiral cavity of the internal
ear.
{255} CONCH´A (Gr. [Greek: konchê], _konche_, a mussel-shell). The external
shell-shaped portion of the external ear.
CON-JUNC-TI´VA (L. _con_ and _jun´go_, to join together). A thin layer of
mucous membrane which lines the eyelids and covers the front of the
eyeball; thus joining the latter to the lids.
CON-TRAC-TIL´I-TY (L. _con_ and _tra´ho_, to draw together). The property
of a muscle which enables it to contract, or draw its extremities closer
together.
CON-VO-LU´TIONS (L. _con_ and _vol´vo_, to roll together). The tortuous
foldings of the external surface of the brain.
CON-VUL´SION (L. _convel´lo_, to pull together). A more or less violent
agitation of the limbs or body.
COR´NE-A (L. _cor´nu_, a horn). The transparent, horn-like substance which
covers the anterior fifth of the eyeball.
COR´PUS-CLES, BLOOD (L. dim. of _cor´pus_, a body). The small biconcave
disks which give to the blood its red color; the _white_ corpuscles are
globular and larger.
COS-MET´IC (Gr. [Greek: kosmeô], _kosmeo_, to adorn). Beautifying; applied
to articles which are supposed to increase the beauty of the skin, etc.
CRA´NI-AL (L. _cra´nium_, the skull). Pertaining to the skull. The nerves
which arise from the brain are called cranial nerves.
CRI´COID (Gr. [Greek: krikos], _kri´kos_, a ring). A cartilage of the
larynx, resembling a seal-ring in shape.
CRYS´TAL-LINE LENS (L. _crystal´lum_, a crystal). One of the so-called
humors of the eye; a double convex body situated in the front part of the
eyeball.
CU´TI-CLE (L. dim. of _cu´tis_, the skin). The scarf-skin; also called the
_epider´mis_.
CU´TIS (Gr. [Greek: skutos], _skutos_, a skin or hide). The true skin,
lying beneath the cuticle; also called the _der´ma_.
DE-CUS-SA´TION (L. _decus´sis_, the Roman numeral ten, X). A reciprocal
crossing of fibres from side to side.
DI´A-PHRAGM (Gr. [Greek: diaphrassô], _diaphrasso_, to divide by a
partition). A large, thin muscle which separates the cavity of the chest
from the abdomen; a muscle of respiration.
DIF-FUS´ION OF GASES. The power of gases to become intimately mingled,
without reference to the force of gravity.
DUCT (L. _du´co_, to lead). A narrow tube; the _thoracic duct_ is the main
trunk of the absorbent vessels.
DU-O-DE´NUM (L. _duode´ni_, twelve). The first division of the small
intestines, about twelve fingers-breadth long.
{256} DU´RA MA´TER (L.). Literally, the hard mother; the tough membrane
which envelops the brain.
DYS-PEP´SI-A (Gr. [Greek: dus], _dus_, difficult, and [Greek: peptô],
_pep´to_, to digest). Difficult or painful digestion; a disordered
condition of the stomach.
E-MUL´SION (L. _emul´geo_, to milk). Oil in a finely divided state
suspended in water.
EN-AM´EL (Fr. _email_). The dense material which covers the crown of the
tooth.
EN´ER-GY, Specific, of a Nerve. When a nerve of special sense is excited,
whatever be the cause, the sensation experienced is that peculiar to the
nerve; this is said to be the law of the specific energy of the nerves.
EP-I-GLOT´TIS (Gr. [Greek: epi], _epi_, upon, and [Greek: glôttis],
_glottis_, the entrance to the windpipe). A leaf-shaped piece of cartilage
which covers the top of the larynx during the act of swallowing.
EX-CRE´TION (L. _excer´no_, to separate). The separation from the blood of
the waste particles of the body; also the materials excreted.
EX-PI-RA´TION (L. _expi´ro_, to breathe out). The act of forcing air out of
the lungs.
EX-TEN´SION (L. _ex_, out, and _ten´do_, to stretch). The act of restoring
a limb, etc., to its natural position after it has been flexed, or bent;
the opposite of _Flexion_.
FE-NES´TRA (L.). Literally, a window; the opening between the middle and
internal ear.
FI´BRIN (L. _fi´bra_, a fibre). An albuminoid substance found in the blood;
in coagulating it assumes a fibrous form.
FLEX´ION (L. _flec´to_, to bend). The act of bending a limb, etc.
FOL´LI-CLE (L. dim. of _fol´lis_, a bag). A little pouch or depression in a
membrane; it has generally a secretory function.
FUN´GOUS GROWTHS (L. _fun´gus_, a mushroom). A low grade of vegetable life.
GAN´GLI-ON (Gr. [Greek: ganglion], _ganglion_, a knot). A knot-like
swelling in the course of a nerve; a smaller nerve-centre.
GAS´TRIC (Gr. [Greek: gastêr], _gaster_, stomach). Pertaining to the
stomach.
GLAND (L. _glans_, an acorn). An organ consisting of follicles and ducts,
with numerous blood-vessels interwoven; it separates some particular fluid
from the blood.
GLOS´SO-PHAR-YN-GE´AL NERVE (Gr. [Greek: glôssa], _glossa_, the tongue, and
[Greek: pharunx], _pharunx_, the throat). The nerve of taste supplying the
posterior third of the tongue; it also supplies the throat.
GLU´TEN (L.). Literally, glue: the glutinous albuminoid ingredient of
wheat.
{257} GRAN´ULE (L. dim. of _gra´num_, a grain). A little grain; a
microscopic object.
GUS-TA´TION (L. _gus´to_, to taste) The sense of taste.
GUS´TA-TO-RY NERVE. The nerve of taste supplying the front part of the
tongue; a branch of the "fifth" pair.
HÆM´OR-RHAGE (Gr. [Greek: haima], _hai´ma_, blood, and [Greek: rhêgnumi],
_regnumi_, to burst). Bleeding, or the loss of blood.
HEM-I-PLE´GIA (Gr. [Greek: hêmisus], _hemisus_, half, and [Greek: plêssô],
_plesso_, to strike). Paralysis, or loss of power, affecting one side of
the body.
HEM´I-SPHERES (Gr. [Greek: sphaira], _sphaira_, a sphere). Half a sphere,
the lateral halves of the cerebrum, or brain proper.
HE-PAT´IC (Gr. [Greek: hêpar], _hepar_, the liver). Pertaining to the
liver.
HER-BIV´O-ROUS (L. _her´ba_, an herb, and _vo´ro_ to devour). Applied to
animals that subsist upon vegetable food.
HU´MOR (L.). Moisture: the humors are transparent contents of the eyeball.
HY-DRO-PHO´BI-A (Gr. [Greek: hudor], _hudor_, water, and [Greek: phobeô],
_phobeo_, to fear). A disease caused by the bite of a rabid dog or other
animal. In a person affected with it, convulsions are occasioned by the
sight of a glittering object, like water, by the sound of running water,
and by almost any external impression.
HY´GI-ENE (Gr. [Greek: hugieia], _huygieia_, health). The art of preserving
health and preventing disease.
HY´PER-O-PI-A. Abbreviated from HY´PER-MET-RO´PI-A (Gr. [Greek: huper],
_huper_, beyond, [Greek: metron], _metron_, the measure, and [Greek: ôps],
_ops_, the eye). A defect of vision dependent upon a too short eyeball; so
called because the rays of light are brought to a focus at a point behind
the retina; the true "far sight."
IN-CI´SOR (L. _inci´do_, to cut). Applied to the four front teeth of both
jaws, which have sharp cutting edges.
IN´CUS (L). An anvil; the name of one of the bones of the middle ear.
IN-SAL-I-VA´TION (L. _in_, and _sali´va_, the fluid of the mouth). The
mingling of the saliva with the food during the act of chewing.
IN-SPI-RA´TION (L. _in_, and _spi´ro_, _spira´tum_, to breathe). The act of
drawing in the breath.
IN-TEG´U-MENT (L. _in_, and _te´go_, to cover). The skin, or outer covering
of the body.
IN-TES´TINE (L. _in´tus_, within). The part of the alimentary canal which
is continuous with the lower end of the stomach; also called the
intestines, or the bowels.
I´RIS (L. _i´ris_, the rainbow). The thin muscular ring which lies {258}
between the cornea and crystalline lens, and which gives the eye its brown,
blue, or other color.
JU´GU-LAR (L. _ju´gulum_, the throat). The name of the large veins which
run along the front of the neck.
LAB´Y-RINTH (Gr. [Greek: laburinthos], _laburin´thos_, a building with many
winding passages). The very tortuous cavity of the inner ear, comprising
the vestibule, semicircular canals, and the cochlea.
LACH´RY-MAL APPARATUS (L. _lach´ryma_, a tear). The organs for forming and
conveying away the _tears_.
LAC´TE-ALS (L. _lac_, _lac´tis_, milk). The absorbent vessels of the small
intestines; during digestion they are filled with chyle, which has a milky
appearance.
LA-RYN´GO-SCOPE (Gr. [Greek: larunx], _larunx_, the larynx, and [Greek:
skopeô], _skopeo_, to look at). The instrument by which the larynx may be
examined in the living subject.
LAR´YNX (Gr.). The cartilaginous tube situated at the top of the windpipe,
or trachea; the organ of the voice.
LENS (L.). Literally, a lentil; a piece of transparent glass or other
substance so shaped as either to converge or disperse the rays of light.
LIG´A-MENT (L. _li´go_, to bind). A strong, fibrous material binding bones
or other solid parts together; it is especially necessary to give strength
to joints.
LIG´A-TURE. A thread of silk or other material used in tying around an
artery.
LYMPH (L. _lym´pha_, spring-water). The colorless, watery fluid conveyed by
the lymphatic vessels.
LYM-PHAT´IC VESSELS. A system of absorbent vessels.
MAL´LE-US (L.). Literally, the mallet; one of the small bones of the middle
ear.
MAR´ROW. The soft, fatty substance contained in the central cavities of the
bones: the spinal marrow, however, is composed of nervous tissue.
MAS-TI-CA´TION (L. _mas´tico_, to chew). The act of cutting and grinding
the food to pieces by means of the teeth.
ME-DUL´LA OB-LON-GA´TA. The "oblong marrow," or nervous cord, which is
continuous with the spinal cord within the skull.
MEM-BRA´NA TYM´PAN-I (L.). Literally, the membrane of the drum; a delicate
partition separating the outer from the middle ear; it is sometimes
incorrectly called the drum of the ear.
MEM´BRANE. A thin layer of tissue serving to cover some part of the body.
MI´CRO-SCOPE (Gr. [Greek: mikros], _mikros_, small, and [Greek: skopeô],
_skopeo_, to {259} look at). An optical instrument which assists in the
examination of minute objects.
MO´LAR (L. _mo´la_, a mill). The name applied to the three back teeth of
each side of the jaw; the grinders, or mill-like teeth.
MO´TOR (L. _mo´veo_, _mo´tum_, to move). Causing motion; the name of those
nerves which conduct to the muscles the stimulus which causes them to
contract.
MU´COUS MEMBRANE. The thin layer of tissue which covers those internal
cavities or passages which communicate with the external air.
MU´CUS. The glairy fluid which is secreted by mucous membranes, and which
serves to keep them in a moist condition.
MY-O´PI-A (Gr. [Greek: muô], _muo_, to contract, and [Greek: ôps], _ops_,
the eye). A defect of vision dependent upon an eyeball that is too long,
rendering distant objects indistinct; near-sight.
NA´SAL (L. _na´sus_, the nose). Pertaining to the nose; the _nasal
cavities_ contain the distribution of the special nerve of smell.
NERVE (Gr. [Greek: neuron], _neuron_, a cord or string). A glistening,
white cord of cylindrical shape, connecting the brain or spinal cord with
some other organ of the body.
NERVE CELL. A minute, round and ashen-gray cell found in the brain and
other nervous centres.
NERVE FI´BRE. An exceedingly slender thread of nervous tissue found in the
various nervous organs, but especially in the nerves; it is of a white
color.
NU-TRI´TION (L. _nu´trio_, to nourish). The processes by which the
nourishment of the body is accomplished.
OE-SOPH´A-GUS (Gr.). Literally, that which carries food. The tube leading
from the throat to the stomach; the gullet.
O-LE-AG´I-NOUS (L. _o´leum_, oil). Of the nature of oil: applied to an
important group of food-principles--the fats.
OL-FAC´TO-RY (L. _olfa´cio_, to smell). Pertaining to the sense of smell.
OPH-THAL´MO-SCOPE (Gr. [Greek: ophthalmos], _ophthalmos_, the eye, and
[Greek: skopeô], _skopeo_, to look at). An instrument devised for examining
the interior of the globe of the eye.
OP´TIC (Gr. [Greek: optô], _opto_, to see). Pertaining to the sense of
sight.
OR´BIT (L. _or´bis_, the socket). The bony socket or cavity in which the
eyeball is situated.
OS´MOSE (Gr. [Greek: ôsmos], _osmos_, a thrusting or impulsion). The
process by which liquids are impelled through a moist membrane.
OS´SE-OUS (L. _os_, a bone). Consisting of, or resembling bone.
PAL´ATE (L. _pala´tum_, the palate). The roof of the mouth, consisting of
the hard and soft palate.
{260} PAL´MAR. Relating to the palm of the hand.
PAN´CRE-AS (Gr. [Greek: pas], [Greek: pantos], _pas_, _pantos_, all, and
[Greek: kreas], _kreas_, flesh). A long, flat gland situated near the
stomach; in the lower animals the analogous organ is called the
sweet-bread.
PA-PIL´LÆ (L. _papil´la_). The minute prominences in which terminate the
ultimate fibres of the nerves of touch and taste.
PA-RAL´Y-SIS. A disease of the nervous system marked by the loss of
sensation, or voluntary motion, or both; palsy.
PAR-A-PLE´GI-A (Gr. [Greek: paraplêssô], _paraplesso_, to strike amiss). A
form of paralysis affecting the lower half of the body.
PA-TEL´LA (L. dim. of _pat´ina_, a pan). The knee-pan; a small bone.
PEL´VIS (L.). Literally a basin; the bony cavity at the lower part of the
trunk.
PEP´SIN (Gr. [Greek: peptô], _pepto_, to digest). The organic principle of
the gastric juice.
PER-I-STAL´TIC MOVE´MENTS (Gr. [Greek: peristellô], _peristello_, to
contract). The slow, wave-like movements of the stomach and intestines.
PER-I-TO-NE´UM (Gr. [Greek: periteinô], _periteino_, to stretch around).
The investing membrane of the stomach, intestines, and other abdominal
organs.
PER-SPI-RA´TION (L. _perspi´ro_, to breathe through). The sweat, or watery
exhalation of the skin; when visible, it is called _sensible_ perspiration,
when invisible, it is called _insensible_ perspiration.
PE´TROUS (Gr. [Greek: petra], _petra_, a rock). The name of the hard
portion of the temporal bone, in which is situated the drum of the ear and
labyrinth.
PHAR´YNX (Gr. [Greek: pharunx], _pharunx_, the throat). The cavity between
the back of the mouth and gullet.
PHYS-I-OL´O-GY (Gr. [Greek: phusis], _phusis_, nature, and [Greek: logos],
_logos_, a discourse). The science of the functions of living, organized
beings.
PI´A MA´TER (L.). Literally, the tender mother; the innermost of the three
coverings of the brain. It is thin and delicate; hence the name.
PLEU´RA (Gr. [Greek: pleura], a rib). A membrane covering the lung and
lining the chest. There is one for each lung.
PLEU´RI-SY. An inflammation affecting the pleura.
PNEU-MO-GAS´TRIC (Gr. [Greek: pneumôn], _pneumon_, the lungs, and [Greek:
gastêr], _gaster_, the stomach). The name of a nerve distributed to the
lungs and stomach; it is the principal nerve of respiration.
PNEU-MO´NIA (Gr.). An inflammation affecting the air-cells of the lungs.
{261} PRES-BY-O´PI-A (Gr. [Greek: presbus], _presbus_, old, and [Greek:
ôps], _ops_, the eye). A defect of the accommodation of the eye, caused by
the hardening of the crystalline lens; the "far-sight" of adults and aged
persons.
PROC´ESS (L. _proce´do_, _proces´sus_, to proceed, to go forth). Any
projection from a surface. Also, a method of performance; a procedure.
PTY´A-LIN (Gr. [Greek: ptualon], _ptualon_, saliva). The peculiar organic
ingredient of the saliva.
PUL´MO-NA-RY (L. _pul´mo_, _pulmo´nis_, the lungs). Pertaining to the
lungs.
PULSE (L. _pel´lo_, _pul´sum_, to beat). The striking of an artery against
the finger, occasioned by the contraction of the heart, commonly felt at
the wrist.
PU´PIL (L. _pupil´la_). The central, round opening in the iris, through
which light passes into the depths of the eye.
PY-LO´RUS (Gr. [Greek: pulôros], _puloros_, a gate-keeper). The lower
opening of the stomach, at the beginning of the small intestine.
RE´FLEX ACTION. An involuntary action of the nervous system, by which an
external impression conducted by a sensory nerve is reflected, or converted
into a motor impulse.
RES-PI-RA´TION (L. _res´piro_, to breathe frequently). The function of
breathing, comprising two acts: _inspiration_, or breathing in, and
_expiration_, or breathing out.
RET´I-NA (L. _re´te_, a net). The innermost of the three tunics or coats of
the eyeball, being an expansion of the optic nerve.
SAC´CHA-RINE (L. _sac´charum_, sugar). Of the nature of sugar; applied to
the important group of food substances which embraces the different
varieties of sugar, starch, and gum.
SA-LI´VA (L.). The moisture or fluids of the mouth, secreted by the
salivary glands, etc.
SCLE-ROT´IC (Gr. [Greek: sklêros], _skleros_, hard). The tough, fibrous
outer tunic of the eyeball.
SE-BA´CEOUS (L. _sebum_, fat). Resembling fat, the name of the oily
secretion by which the skin is kept flexible and soft.
SE-CRE´TION (L. _secer´no_, _secre´tum_, to separate). The process of
separating from the blood some essential important fluid; which fluid is
also called a secretion.
SEM-I-CIR´CU-LAR CANALS. A portion of the internal ear.
SEN-SA´TION. The perception of an external impression by the nervous
system; a function of the brain.
SEN-SI-BIL´I-TY, GENERAL. The power possessed by nearly all parts {262} of
the human body of recognizing the presence of foreign objects that come in
contact with them.
SE´RUM (L.). The watery constituent of the blood, which separates from the
clot during the process of coagulation.
SKEL´E-TON (Gr.). The bony framework of an animal, the different parts of
which are maintained in their proper relative positions.
SPEC´TRO-SCOPE (from _spec´trum_ and [Greek: skopeô], _scopeo_, to examine
the spectrum). An instrument employed in the examination of the spectrum of
the sun or any other luminous body.
SPHYG´MO-GRAPH (Gr. [Greek: sphugmos], _sphugmos_, the pulse, and [Greek:
graphô], _grapho_, to write). An ingenious instrument by means of which the
pulse is delineated upon paper.
STA´PES (L.). Literally, a stirrup; one of the small bones of the tympanum,
or middle ear, resembling somewhat a stirrup in shape.
SYM-PA-THET´IC SYSTEM OF NERVES. A double chain of nervous ganglia,
connected together by numerous small nerves, situated chiefly in front of
and on each side of the spinal column.
SYN-O´VI-A (Gr. [Greek: sun], _sun_, and [Greek: ôon], _oon_, resembling an
egg). The lubricating fluid of joints, so called because it resembles the
white of egg.
SYS´TO-LE (Gr. [Greek: sustellô], _sustello_, to contract). The contraction
of the heart, by which the blood is expelled from that organ.
TAC´TILE (L. _tac´tus_, touch). Relating to the sense of touch.
TEM´PO-RAL (L. _tem´pus_, time, and _tem´pora_, the temples). Pertaining to
the temples; the name of an artery: so called, because the hair begins to
turn white with age in that portion of the scalp.
TEN´DON (L. _ten´do_, to stretch). The white, fibrous cord or band by which
a muscle is attached to a bone; a sinew.
TET´A-NUS (Gr. [Greek: teinô], _teino_, to stretch). A disease marked by
persistent contractions of all or some of the voluntary muscles; those of
the jaw are sometimes solely affected: the disorder is then termed
locked-jaw.
THO´RAX (Gr. [Greek: thôrax], _thorax_, a breastplate). The upper cavity of
the trunk of the body, containing the lungs, heart, etc.; the chest.
THY´ROID (Gr. [Greek: thureos], _thureos_, a shield). The largest of the
cartilages of the larynx; its angular projection in the front of the neck
is called "Adam's apple."
TRA´CHE-A (Gr. [Greek: trachus], _trachus_, rough). The windpipe, or the
largest of the air-passages; composed in part of cartilaginous rings, which
render its surface rough and uneven.
TRANS-FU´SION (L. _transfun´do_, to pour from one vessel to another). {263}
The operation of injecting blood taken from one person into the veins of
another; other fluids than blood are sometimes used.
TRICH-I´NA SPI-RA´LIS. (L.) A minute species of parasite or worm, which
infests the flesh of the hog, and which may be introduced into the human
system by eating pork not thoroughly cooked.
TYM´PA-NUM (Gr. [Greek: tumpanon], _tumpanon_, a drum). The cavity of the
middle ear, resembling a drum in being closed by two membranes, and in
having communication with the atmosphere.
U´VU-LA (L. _uva_, a grape). The small pendulous body attached to the back
part of the palate.
VAS´CU-LAR (L. _vas´culum_, a little vessel). Pertaining to, or containing
blood-vessels.
VE´NOUS (L. _ve´na_, a vein). Pertaining to, or contained within a vein.
VEN-TI-LA´TION. The introduction of fresh air into a room or building, in
such a manner as to keep the air within it in a pure condition.
VEN-TRIL´O-QUISM (L. _ven´ter_, the belly, and _lo´quor_, to speak). A
modification of natural speech by which the voice is made to appear to come
from a distance. The ancients supposed that the voice was formed in the
belly; hence the name.
VEN´TRI-CLES of the heart. The two largest cavities of the heart, situated
at its apex or point.
VER´TE-BRAL COLUMN (L. _ver´tebra_, a joint). The back-bone, consisting of
twenty-four separate bones, called vertebræ, firmly jointed together; also
called the spinal column and spine.
VES´TI-BULE. A portion of the internal ear, communicating with the
semicircular canals and the cochlea; so called from its fancied resemblance
to the vestibule or porch of a house.
VIL´LI (L. _vil´lus_, the nap of cloth). Minute thread-like projections
found upon the internal surface of the small intestine, giving it a velvety
appearance.
VIT´RE-OUS (L. _vi´trum_, glass). Having the appearance of glass; applied
to the humor occupying the largest part of the cavity of the eyeball.
VIV-I-SEC´TION (L. _vi´vus_, alive, and _se´co_, to cut). The practice of
operating upon living animals, for the purpose of studying some
physiological process.
VOCAL CORDS. Two elastic bands or ridges situated in the larynx; they are
the essential parts of the organs of the voice.
* * * * *
{265}
INDEX.
------o------
A.
PAGE
Absorbent vessels, 97
Absorption, 96
by blood-vessels, 96
by the lacteals, 96
of the food, 96
Accommodation, function of, 213
Achilles, tendon of, 27
Adam's apple, 229
Air, atmospheric, 131
Changes in, in respiration, 132
Carbonic acid in, 138
Composition of, 131
Dust in the, 137
Effects of impure, 139
Impurities in, 136
Matters in the expired, 132
Provision for purifying, 141
Renovation by ventilation, 142
Air-cells of the lungs, 125
Air-passages, 125
Albinos, 44
Albumen, 58
of the blood, 102
Albuminoid substance, 57
Varieties of, 57
Properties of, 57-58
Albuminose, 94
Alcoholic liquors, 77
Physiological action of, 78
Alimentary canal, 81
Animal functions, 143
Animal heat, 143
how produced, 143
regulated by perspiration, 145
Animals, relative strength of, 28
Apoplexy, 171
Aqueous humor, 210
Arachnoid membrane, 152
Arbor vitæ, 154
Arterial blood, 107-135
differs from venous, 135
Arteries, 114
Arrangement of, 115
Carotid, 116
Distribution of, 115
Pulsation of, 115
Radial, 116
Temporal, 116
Arytenoid cartilage, 229
Asphyxia, 250
Assimilation, 80, 121
Audition, 215
Auditory canal, 218
nerve, 222
Auricles of the heart, 109
B.
Back-bone, 21
Bathing, 47
Importance of, 47
Time and manner of, 49
Baths, 48
Different kinds of, 48
Belladonna, 206
dilates the pupil, 206
Use as a cosmetic, 206
Bile, 95
Secretion of, in the liver, 95
Accumulation of, in the
gall-bladder, 95
Uses of, 95
Biliary duct, 95
Bladder, Gall-, 95
Bleeding, how stopped, 121
Blind-spot, 207
Blood, 101
Arterial, 107-135
Change of color, 107
Circulation of, 107, 133
Coagulation of, 105
Composition of, 102
corpuscles, 102, 103
fluid, 105
Microscopic appearance of, 102
Respiratory changes in, 133
Uses of the, 105
Venous, 107, 135
Blood-vessels, 114, 118
Absorption by, 96
Injuries to the, 121
Body, renovation of the, 66
Bones, 15
Form and composition of, 16
Growth of, 22
Microscopic structure of, 17
Repair of, 23
Structure of, 17
Uses of, 15
Bowels, 94
Brain, 150
Anatomical structure of, 152
Function of the, 172
Injuries of the, 173
Membranes of the, 152
Reflex action of the, 174
{266}
Bread, 72
Bronchial tubes, 125
Bronchitis, 128
C.
Canals, Semicircular, 223
Capillary blood-vessels, 118
Circulation in the, 118
Carbonic acid, 132
exhaled from the lungs, 132
in the air, 138
retention in the blood, 134
Cartilage, 20
Arytenoid, 229
Cricoid, 229
Thyroid, 229
Casein, 58
Cataract, 210
Cells, Nerve, 150, 159
Ciliated, 128
Cerebellum, 153
Function of the, 172
Cerebro-spinal nervous system, 150
Cerebrum, 152
Function of the, 172
Cheese, 58
Chest, Framework of, 19
Contents of the, 19
Chocolate, 77
Chorea, 169
Choroid coat of the eye, 204
Chyle, 95
Chyme, 94
Cilia, 128
Circulation, 107
in the frog's foot, 119
of the blood, 107
Rapidity of, 120
through the heart, 112
through the lungs, 123
Clothing, 51
Coagulation of milk, 58
of the blood, 104
Cochlea, 223
Coffee, 75
Effects of, 75, 76
Collar-bone, 19
Color-blindness, 209
Column, Spinal, 21
Combustion, Spontaneous, 145
Complexion, 44
Concha of the ear, 217
Conjunctiva, 200
Contraction of heart, 111
of muscles, 27
Convulsions, 169
Cooking, 70
Cords, Vocal, 126, 230
Cornea, 203
Corpuscles, Blood, 102
Cosmetics, 51
Cranial ganglia, 150
Functions of, 171
Cranial nerves, 154
Cranium, 19
Cricoid cartilage, 229
Crystalline lens, 209
Uses of, 210
Cuticle, 41
Function of, 183
Cutis, 42
D.
Decussation of motor and sensory
fibres of spinal cord, 164
Dentition of infancy, 82
Diaphragm, Movements of the, in
respiration, 128, 129
Diastole of the heart, 111
Diet, Mixed, 66, 85
Necessity for changing, 67
Necessity of a regulated, 62
The best, 63
Digestion, 80
Circumstances affecting, 97
Gastric, 93
Intestinal, 94
Nature of, 81
Organs of, 81-91
Drowning, 250
Duct, Biliary, 95
Nasal, 201
Pancreatic, 95
Thoracic, 97
Dura Mater, 152
E.
Ear, 217
External, 217
Internal, 222
Middle, 219
Foreign bodies in, 225
Drum of the, 219
Bones of the, 220
Ear-sand, 223
Ear-stones, 223
Ear-wax, 219
Eggs, 68
Composition of, 68
Emulsion of fats, in digestion, 95
Enamel of the teeth, 82
Epiglottis, 126, 229
Uses of, 126, 220
Eustachian tube, 221
Exercise, 30
Different modes of, 31
Effects of, 30
Importance of, 30
Open-air, 33
Expiration, 128
Movements of, 129
Extensor muscles, 26
Eye, 198
Eyeball, 203
Eyelashes, 200
Eyelids, 200
F.
Fats, 59
Emulsion of, 59
Source of, in food, 59
Fenestra ovalis, 224
Fibres, Muscular, 25
{267}
Fibres, Nervous, 149
Fibrine in food, 58
of the blood, 102
Fish, as food, 71
Flexor muscles, 26
Food, 53
Animal, 67
Daily quantity of, 65
Ingredients of, 54-62
Necessity for, 64
Source of, 53
Vegetable, 71
G.
Gall-bladder, 95
Ganglia, cranial, Functions of the, 171
Gases, Interchange of, in the lungs, 134
Gastric digestion, 93
Gastric juice, 91
Action of, 93
Daily quantity of, 92
General sensibility, 179
Glands, Perspiratory, 45
Salivary, 86
Sebaceous, 44
Glossary, 252
Glosso-pharyngeal nerve, 189
Gullet, 90
Gum, 61
as food, 62
Gustatory nerve, 189
Gymnastics, 33-38
for schools and colleges, 33
H.
Hair, 42
Uses of, 44
Hearing, Sense of, 215
Protection of, 224
Heart, 107
Cavities of the, 109, 110
Circulation through the, 112
Frequency of action, 112
Movements of the, 111
Valves of the, 112
Heat, Animal, 143
Production of, 143
Regulation of, 145
Hemiplegia, 165
Humor, Aqueous, 210
Crystalline, 209
Vitreous, 210
Hunger, 65
Seat of the sensation of, 65
Hydra, 149
Hydrophobia, 169
Hygiene, 13
Hyperopia, 212
I.
Incus, 220
Inorganic substances in food, 54
Insalivation, 86, 88
Insensible perspiration, 46
Inspiration, 128
Intestinal juice, 95
Action of, 96
Intestines, 94
Complete digestion in the small, 94
Villi of the, 96
Iris, 205
Function of, 205
Iron, 56
Proportion in the blood, 57
Proportion in the food, 57
J.
Joints, 19
Varieties of, 20
Juice, gastric, 91
Intestinal, 95
Pancreatic, 95
L.
Labyrinth, 222
Lachrymal canals, 201
gland, 201
Lacteals, 96
Absorption by, 96
Lactic acid in gastric juice, 92
Lactometer, 68
Large intestines, 94
Laryngoscope, 231
Larynx, 125, 228
Production of the voice in
the, 126, 228
Lens, crystalline, 209
Ligaments, 19
Light, theory of, 197
Lime in the bones, 16
in the food, 56
Importance of, 56
Liver, 95
Secretion of the, 95
Locked jaw, 169
Long-sight, 212
Lungs, 123
Capacity of, 130
Structure of, 125
Lymph, 97
Lymphatic vessels, 97
M.
Magendie, on pain, 181
Magnesia, Compounds of, in food, 57
Malleus, 220
Marrow of the bones, 17
Mastication, 82
Importance of, 88, 89
Meats, 68
The cooking of, 69
The preservation of, 69
Membrane of the tympanum, 219
Medulla oblongata, 154
Function of the, 171
Microscope, 236
The value of the, 236
Simple, 237
Compound, 239
The use of the, 239
{268}
Milk, 68
Composition of, 68
Specific gravity of, 68
Milk-teeth, 82
Mucous membrane of air passages, 127
Muscles, 25
Function of the, 25
Flexion and extension of, 26
Voluntary and involuntary, 26
Muscular contraction, 27
fibres, 25
sense, 188
Myopia 212
N.
Nails, 42
Uses of the, 44
Nasal cavities, 192
duct, 201
Nerve, Auditory, 222
Glossopharyngeal, 189
Gustatory, 189
Olfactory, 193
Optic, 197
Sympathetic, 158
Nerve cells, 150, 159
Nerve fibres, 149
Nerves, Cranial, 154
Spinal, 156
Functions of the, 160
Sensory, functions of the, 160
Motor, functions of the, 160
Sympathetic system of, 158
Nervous system, 148, 149
Cerebro-spinal, 150
Nervous tissue, Properties of, 159
Nose, 192
Nutrition, Processes of, 80
O.
Oesophagus, 90
Oil, Sources of, in food, 59
Old-sight, 215
Olfactory nerve, 193
Optic nerve, 197
Orbicular bone, 220
Orbit of the eye, 199
Organic substances as food, 57-62
Organs of circulation, 107
Digestion, 81-91
Respiration, 123
Sight, 198
Voice, 228
Oxygen, 131
Amount of, consumed in
respiration, 132
Continually supplied to the
atmosphere, 141
P.
Pain, Relations of, to pleasure, 181
Sensation of, 180
Uses of, 180
Pancreatic juice, 95
Uses of, 95
Pancreatin, 95
Paraplegia, 163
Parlor gymnasium, 36
Passages, Air, 125
Pelvis, 19
Pepsin, 92
Peristaltic action of the stomach, 92
Peritoneum, 94
Perspiration, Daily amount of, 46
Sensible and insensible, 46
Uses of, 46, 145
Perspiratory glands, 45
Physical strength, 29
Culture, 33
Physiology, 11
Animal, 11
Comparative, 11
Human, 11
Vegetable, 11
Pia mater, 152
Plasma of the blood, 102
Pleura, 124
Pleurisy, 128
Pneumo gastric nerve, 171
Pneumonia, 128
Poisons and their antidotes, 247
Potash in the blood, 57
Potato, 73
Presbyopia, 215
Preservation of the teeth, 85
Ptyalin, 88
Pulsation of the heart, 113
of the arteries, 116
Pulse, 115
Form of the, 116
Writer, 116
Pylorus, 90
R.
Radial artery, 116
Red corpuscles of the blood, 102
Reflex action of the spinal cord, 165
Requisites for, 167
Uses of, 167, 170
Causing convulsions, 169
Objects of, 170
of the brain, 174, 175
Rennet, 58
Respiration, 123
Change of blood in, 123-133
Frequency of, 129
Movements of, 128
Object of, 123
Organs of, 123
Respiratory labor, 135
Rest, necessity for, 38
Retina, 206
Retinal light, 207
Ribs, Movements of, in respiration, 128
S.
Saccharine substances, 60
Saliva, 86
Importance of, 88
Secretion of, 86
Salivary glands, 86, 87
{269}
Salt, Common, 55
Importance of, 56
Sclerotic coat of the eyeball, 204
Sebaceous glands, 44
Secretion of, 45
Semicircular canals, 223
Sensation of pain, 180
Relations of, to pleasure, 181
of temperature, 187
of weight, 188
Modification of, 178
Production of, 177
Variety of, 178
Sense of hearing, 215
sight, 196
smell, 192
taste, 189
touch, 184
Sense, muscular, 188
thermal, 187
Senses, Special, 177
Sensibility, General, 179
Short-sight, 212
Sinews, 27
Sight, Sense of, 196
Organs of, 198
Skeleton, 19
Skin, 41
Structure of, 41
Skull, 19
Uses of the, 19
Sleep, Necessity for, 38
Amount required, 39
Small intestines, 94
Smell, Sense of, 192
Nerve of, 193
Uses of, 194
Soda in the food, 57
Sound, Production of, 215
Special senses, 177
Spectroscope, 104
Speech, 227
Relation of, to the sense of
hearing, 228
Sphygmograph, 116
Spinal column, 21
Spinal cord, 155
Decussation of the, 164
Direction of fibres in, 164
Functions of the, 162
Nerves of, 156
Reflex action of, 165
Spontaneous combustion, 145
Stapes, 220
Starch, 61
Its change into sugar, 61
Different kinds, 61
Effect of boiling, 61
Microscopic appearance, 61
Stimulating substances, 62
Stomach, 90, 92
Digestion, 93
Movements of, 92
Secretion of, 92
St. Vitus' dance, 169
Sugar, 60
Varieties, 60
Sources of, 61
Sun-bath, 50
Sympathetic system of nerves, 158
Synovia, 20
Systole of the heart, 111
T.
Taste, Association of, 190
Education of, 191
Organ of, 188
Sense of, 189
Tea, Effect of, 76
Kinds of, 76
Tears, 201
Escape of the, 201
Teeth, 82
Temporary set of, 82
Permanent set of, 83
Bicuspid, 83
Canine, 83
Incisor, 83
Molar, 84
Arrangement of, 85
of different animals, 85
Preservation of, 85
Temperature of the body, 146
Extremes of, 146
Sensations of, 187
Tendon of Achilles, 27
Tendons, 27
Tetanus, 169
Thermal, 50
Thermæ sense, 187
Thirst, 65
Thoracic duct, 97
Thorax, 19
Thyroid cartilage, 229
Tissues, intimate structure of the, 236
Human, 244
of the lower animals, 245
Tongue, 188
Nerves of, 189
Sensibility, 189
Touch, Delicacy of, 186
Organs of, 183
Sense of, 184
Trachea, 125
Transfusion, 106
Trichina spiralis, 71
Trunk, 19
Tympanum of the ear, 219
Membrane of, 219
V.
Valves of the heart, 112
of the veins, 117
Vapor, Animal, in breath, 132
Vegetable food, 71
Vegetative functions, 148
Veins, 117
Valves of, 117
Venous blood, 135
Changes of, in respiration, 133
Ventilation, 142
Ventricles of the larynx, 229
of the heart, 110
Ventriloquism, 235
{270}
Vertebrae, 21
Vestibule of the internal ear, 223
Villi of the intestines, 96
Absorption by, 96
Vital knot, 171
Vitreous humor, 210
Vocal cords, 126, 230
Observation of, with laryngoscope, 231
Voice, 227
Organ of, 228
Production of, 232
Varieties of, 233
W.
Water, 74
Action of, on lead, 75
Chemically pure, 74
Croton, 74
exhaled with the breath, 132
from springs and wells, 74
Proportion of, in the blood 55
" of, in the tissues and
fluids of the body, 54
Ridgewood, 74
Walking, as a means of exercise, 31
White corpuscles of the blood, 104
Wisdom teeth, 84
* * * * *
Changes made to printed original
Page 45, Sect. 12. "(4, Fig. 14)": '(4, Fig. 13)' in original.
Page 20, Sect. 20, note. "philosophy": 'philosphy' in original.
Page 101, heading. "Sphygmograph": 'Spygmograph' in original. So also in
Table of Contents, but cf. p. 116 and Index.
Page 144, Sect. 46, note. "zoologists": 'zooligsts' in original.
Page 199, Sect. 53. "considerable": 'considera-ale' (on line break) in
original.
Page 255, s.v. Convolutions. "external": 'extenal' in original.