THE SWAN
The Manor of Paris Garden,[241] situated on the Bankside just to the
west of the Liberty of the Clink and to the east of the Lambeth
marshes, had once been in the possession of the Monastery of
Bermondsey. At the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII, the
property passed into the possession of the Crown; hence it was free
from the jurisdiction of the Lord Mayor and Aldermen of London, and
was on this account suitable for the erection of a playhouse. From the
Crown the property passed through several hands, until finally, in
1589, the entire "lordship and manor of Paris Garden" was sold for
L850 to Francis Langley, goldsmith and citizen of London.[242]
[Footnote 241: Or "Parish Garden." See the note on page 121.]
[Footnote 242: The sale took the form of a lease for one thousand
years.]
Langley had purchased the Manor as an investment, and was ready to
make thereon such improvements as seemed to offer profitable returns.
Burbage and Henslowe were reputed to be growing wealthy from their
playhouses, and Langley was tempted to erect a similar building on his
newly acquired property. Accordingly at some date before November,
1594, he secured a license to erect a theatre in Paris Garden. The
license was promptly opposed by the Lord Mayor of London, who
addressed to the Lord High Treasurer on November 3, 1594, the
following letter:
I understand that one Francis Langley ... intendeth to erect
a new stage or theatre (as they call it) for the exercising
of plays upon the Bankside. And forasmuch as we find by
daily experience the great inconvenience that groweth to
this city and the government thereof by the said plays, I
have emboldened myself to be an humble suitor to your good
Lordship to be a means for us rather to suppress all such
places built for that kind of exercise, than to erect any
more of the same sort.[243]
[Footnote 243: The Malone Society's _Collections_, I, 74-76.]
The protest of the Lord Mayor, however, went unheeded, and Langley
proceeded with the erection of his building. Presumably it was
finished and ready for the actors in the earlier half of 1595.
[Illustration: THE MANOR OF PARIS GARDEN AND THE SWAN
A survey executed in 1627 by royal command.
(Printed from Rendle's _The Bankside_.)]
The name given to the new playhouse was "The Swan." What caused
Langley to adopt this name we do not know;[244] but we may suppose
that it was suggested to him by the large number of swans which
beautified the Thames. Foreigners on their first visit to London were
usually very much impressed by the number and the beauty of these
birds. Hentzner, in 1598, stated that the river "abounds in swans,
swimming in flocks; the sight of them and their noise is vastly
agreeable to the boats that meet them in their course"; and the
Italian Francesco Ferretti observed that the "broad river of Thames"
was "most charming, and quite full of swans white as the very
snow."[245]
[Footnote 244: The swan was not uncommon as a sign, especially along
the river; for example, it was the sign of one of the famous brothels
on the Bankside, as Stow informs us.]
[Footnote 245: Quoted in Rye, _England as Seen by Foreigners_, p.
183.]
From a map of the Manor of Paris Garden carefully surveyed by order of
the King in 1627[246] (see page 163), we learn the exact situation of
the building. It was set twenty-six poles, or four hundred and
twenty-six feet, from the bank of the river, in that corner of the
estate nearest London Bridge. Most of the playgoers from London,
however, came not over the Bridge, but by water, landing at the Paris
Garden Stairs, or at the near-by Falcon Stairs, and then walking the
short distance to the theatre.
[Footnote 246: Reproduced by Rendle, _The Bankside, Southwark, and the
Globe Playhouse_.]
[Illustration: THE SWAN PLAYHOUSE
(From Visscher's _View of London_, 1616).]
An excellent picture of the exterior of the Swan is furnished by
Visscher's _View of London_, 1616, (see page 165). From this, as well
as from the survey of 1627 just mentioned, we discover that the
building was duodecahedral--at least on the outside, for the interior
probably was circular. At the time of its erection it was, so we are
told, "the largest and the most magnificent playhouse" in London. It
contained three galleries surrounding an open pit, with a stage
projecting into the pit; and probably it differed in no essential
respect from the playhouses already built. In one point, however, it
may have differed--although of this I cannot feel sure: it may have
been provided with a stage that could be removed so as to allow the
building to be used on occasions for animal-baiting. The De Witt
drawing shows such a stage; and possibly Stow in his _Survey_ (1598)
gives evidence that the Swan was in early times employed for
bear-baiting:
And to begin at the west bank as afore, thus it followeth.
On this bank is the bear gardens, in number twain; to wit,
the old bear garden [i.e., the one built in 1583?] and the
new [i.e., the Swan?], places wherein be kept bears, bulls,
and other beasts, to be baited at stakes for pleasure; also
mastiffs to bait them in several kennels are there
nourished.[247]
[Footnote 247: Stow's original manuscript (Harl. MSS., 544), quoted by
Collier, _History of English Dramatic Poetry_ (1879), III, 96, note 3.
The text of the edition of 1598 differs very slightly.]
Moreover, in 1613 Henslowe used the Swan as the model for the Hope, a
building designed for both acting and animal-baiting. It should be
noted, however, that in all documents the Swan is invariably referred
to as a _playhouse_, and there is no evidence--beyond that cited
above--to indicate that the building was ever employed for the baiting
of bears and bulls.
In the summer of 1596 a Dutch traveler named Johannes de Witt, a
priest of St. Mary's in Utrecht, visited London, and saw, as one of
the most interesting sights of the city, a dramatic performance at the
Swan. Later he communicated a description of the building to his
friend Arend van Buchell,[248] who recorded the description in his
commonplace-book, along with a crude and inexact drawing of the
interior (see page 169), showing the stage, the three galleries, and
the pit.[249] The description is headed: "Ex Observationibus
Londinensibus Johannis de Witt." After a brief notice of St. Paul's,
and a briefer reference to Westminster Cathedral, the traveler begins
to describe what obviously interested him far more. I give below a
translation of that portion relating to the playhouses:
There are four amphitheatres in London [the Theatre,
Curtain, Rose, and Swan] of notable beauty, which from their
diverse signs bear diverse names. In each of them a
different play is daily exhibited to the populace. The two
more magnificent of these are situated to the southward
beyond the Thames, and from the signs suspended before them
are called the Rose and the Swan. The two others are outside
the city towards the north on the highway which issues
through the Episcopal Gate, called in the vernacular
Bishopgate.[250] There is also a fifth [the Bear Garden],
but of dissimilar structure, devoted to the baiting of
beasts, where are maintained in separate cages and
enclosures many bears and dogs of stupendous size, which are
kept for fighting, furnishing thereby a most delightful
spectacle to men. Of all the theatres,[251] however, the
largest and the most magnificent is that one of which the
sign is a swan, called in the vernacular the Swan
Theatre;[252] for it accommodates in its seats three
thousand persons, and is built of a mass of flint stones (of
which there is a prodigious supply in Britain),[253] and
supported by wooden columns painted in such excellent
imitation of marble that it is able to deceive even the most
cunning. Since its form resembles that of a Roman work, I
have made a sketch of it above.
[Footnote 248: Apparently he allowed Van Buchell to transcribe the
description and the rough pen-sketch from his notebook or traveler's
diary.]
[Footnote 249: This interesting document was discovered by Dr. Karl T.
Gaedertz, and published in full in _Zur Kenntnis der altenglischen
Buehne_ (Bremen, 1888).]
[Footnote 250: "Via qua itur per Episcopalem portam vulgariter
Biscopgate nuncupatam."]
[Footnote 251: "Theatrorum."]
[Footnote 252: "Id cuius intersignium est cygnus (vulgo te theatre off
te cijn)." Mr. Wallace proposes to emend the last clause to read: "te
theatre off te cijn off te Swan," thus making "cijn" mean "sign"; but
is not this Flemish, and does not "cijn" mean "Swan"?]
[Footnote 253: It is commonly thought that De Witt was wrong in
stating that the Swan was built of flint stones. Possibly the plaster
exterior deceived him; or possibly in his memory he confused this
detail of the building with the exterior of the church of St. Mary
Overies, which was indeed built of "a mass of flint stones." On the
other hand, the long life of the building after it had ceased to be of
use might indicate that it was built of stones.]
Exactly when the Swan was opened to the public, or what troupes of
actors first made use of it, we do not know. The visit of Johannes de
Witt, however, shows that the playhouse was occupied in 1596; and this
fact is confirmed by a statement in the lawsuit of Shaw _v._
Langley.[254] We may reasonably suppose that not only in 1596, but
also in 1595 the building was used by the players.
[Footnote 254: Discovered by Mr. Wallace and printed in _Englische
Studien_ (1911), XLIII, 340-95. These documents have done much to
clear up the history of the Swan and the Rose in the year 1597.]
[Illustration: THE INTERIOR OF THE SWAN PLAYHOUSE
Sketched by Johannes de Witt in 1596.]
Our definite history of the Swan, however, begins with 1597. In
February of that year eight distinguished actors, among whom were
Robert Shaw, Richard Jones, Gabriel Spencer, William Bird, and
Thomas Downton, "servants to the right honorable the Earl of
Pembroke," entered into negotiations with Langley, or, as the legal
document puts it, "fell into conference with the said Langley for and
about the hireing and taking a playhouse of the said Langley, situate
in the old Paris Garden, in the Parish of St. Saviours, in the County
of Surrey, commonly called and known by the name of the sign of the
Swan." The result of this conference was that the members of
Pembroke's Company[255] became each severally bound for the sum of
L100 to play at the Swan for one year, beginning on February 21, 1597.
[Footnote 255: I cannot agree with Mr. Wallace that Langley induced
these players to desert Henslowe, secured for them the patronage of
Pembroke, and thus was himself responsible for the organization of the
Pembroke Company.]
This troupe contained some of the best actors in London; and Langley,
in anticipation of a successful year, "disbursed and laid out for
making of the said house ready, and providing of apparel fit and
necessary for their playing, the sum of L300 and upwards." Since he
was at very little cost in making the Swan ready, "for the said house
was then lately afore used to have plays in it," most of this sum went
for the purchase of "sundry sort of rich attire and apparel for them
to play withall."
Everything seems to have gone well until near the end of July, when
the company presented _The Isle of Dogs_, a satirical play written in
part by the "young Juvenal" of the age, Thomas Nashe, and in part by
certain "inferior players," chief of whom seems to have been Ben
Jonson.[256] The play apparently attacked under a thin disguise some
persons high in authority. The exact nature of the offense cannot now
be determined, but Nashe himself informs us that "the troublesome stir
which happened about it is a general rumour that hath filled all
England,"[257] and the Queen herself seems to have been greatly
angered. On July 28, 1597, the Privy Council sent a letter to the
Justices of Middlesex and of Surrey informing them that Her Majesty
"hath given direction that not only no plays shall be used within
London or about the city or in any public place during this time of
summer, but that also those playhouses that are erected and built only
for such purposes shall be plucked down." Accordingly the Council
ordered the Justices to see to it that "there be no more plays used in
any public place within three miles of the city until Allhallows
[i.e., November 1] next"; and, furthermore, to send for the owners of
the various playhouses "and enjoin them by vertue hereof forthwith to
pluck down quite the stages, galleries, and rooms that are made for
people to stand in, and so to deface the same as they may not be
employed again to such use."[258]
[Footnote 256: For an account of _The Isle of Dogs_ see E.K. Chambers,
_Modern Language Review_ (1909), IV, 407, 511; R.B. McKerrow, _The
Works of Thomas Nashe_, V, 29; and especially the important article by
Mr. Wallace in _Englische Studien_ already referred to.]
[Footnote 257: _Nashes Lenten Stuffe_ (1599), ed. McKerrow, III, 153.]
[Footnote 258: Dasent, _Acts of the Privy Council_, XXVII, 313.
Possibly the other public playhouses were suppressed along with the
Swan in response to the petition presented to the Council on July 28,
(i.e. on the same day) by the Lord Mayor and Aldermen requesting the
"final suppressing of the said stage plays, as well at the Theatre,
Curtain, and Bankside as in all other places in and about the city."
See The Malone Society's _Collections_, I, 78.]
The Council, however, did not stop with this. It ordered the arrest of
the authors of the play and also of the chief actors who took part in
its performance. Nashe saved himself by precipitate flight, but his
lodgings were searched and his private papers were turned over to the
authorities. Robert Shaw and Gabriel Spencer, as leaders of the
troupe, and Ben Jonson, as one of the "inferior players" who had a
part in writing the play,[259] were thrown into prison. The rest of
the company hurried into the country, their speed being indicated by
the fact that we find them acting in Bristol before the end of July.
[Footnote 259: In a marginal gloss to _Nashes Lenten Stuffe_ (1599),
ed. McKerrow, III, 154, Nashe says: "I having begun but the induction
and first act of it, the other four acts without my consent or the
best guess of my drift or scope, by the players were supplied, which
bred both their trouble and mine too."]
Some of these events are referred to in the following letter,
addressed by the Privy Council "to Richard Topclyfe, Thomas Fowler,
and Richard Skevington, esquires, Doctor Fletcher, and Mr.
Wilbraham":
Upon information given us of a lewd play that was played in
one of the playhouses on the Bankside, containing very
seditious and slanderous matter, we caused some of the
players [Robert Shaw, Gabriel Spencer, and Ben Jonson[260]]
to be apprehended and committed to prison, whereof one of
them [Ben Jonson] was not only an actor but a maker of part
of the said play. Forasmuch as it is thought meet that the
rest of the players or actors in that matter shall be
apprehended to receive such punishment as their lewd and
mutinous behaviour doth deserve, these shall be therefore to
require you to examine those of the players that are
committed (whose names are known to you, Mr. Topclyfe), what
is become of the rest of their fellows that either had their
parts in the devising of that seditious matter, or that were
actors or players in the same, what copies they have given
forth[261] of the said play, and to whom, and such other
points as you shall think meet to be demanded of them,
wherein you shall require them to deal truly, as they will
look to receive any favour. We pray you also to peruse such
papers as were found in Nashe his lodgings, which Ferrys, a
messenger of the Chamber, shall deliver unto you, and to
certify us the examinations you take.[262]
[Footnote 260: The identity of the three players is revealed in an
order of the Privy Council dated October 8, 1597: "A warrant to the
Keeper of the Marshalsea to release Gabriel Spencer and Robert Shaw,
stage-players, out of prison, who were of late committed to his
custody. The like warrant for the releasing of Benjamin Jonson."
(Dasent, _Acts of the Privy Council_, XXVIII, 33.)]
[Footnote 261: Such a copy was formerly preserved in a volume of
miscellaneous manuscripts at Alnwick Castle, but has not come down to
modern times. See F.J. Burgoyne, _Northumberland Manuscripts_ (London,
1904).]
[Footnote 262: Dasent, _Acts of the Privy Council_, XXVII, 338.]
This unfortunate occurrence destroyed Langley's dream of a successful
year. It also destroyed the splendid Pembroke organization, for
several of its chief members, even before the inhibition was raised,
joined the Admiral's Men. On August 6 Richard Jones went to Henslowe
and bound himself to play for two years at the Rose, and at the same
time he bound his friend Robert Shaw, who was still in prison; on
August 10 William Bird came and made a similar agreement; on October 6
Thomas Downton did likewise. Their leader, Gabriel Spencer, also
probably had an understanding with Henslowe, although he signed no
bond; and upon his release from the Marshalsea he joined his friends
at the Rose.[263]
[Footnote 263: Langley sued these actors on their bond to him of L100
to play only at the Swan; see the documents printed by Mr. Wallace.
Ben Jonson also joined Henslowe's forces at the Rose, as did Anthony
and Humphrey Jeffes, who were doubtless members of the Pembroke
Company.]
In the meantime the Queen's anger was abating, and the trouble was
blowing over. The order to pluck down all the public playhouses was
not taken seriously by the officers of the law, and Henslowe actually
secured permission to reopen the Rose on October 11. The inhibition
itself expired on November 1, but the Swan was singled out for further
punishment. The Privy Council ordered that henceforth license should
be granted to two companies only: namely, the Admiral's at the Rose,
and the Chamberlain's at the Curtain. This meant, of course, the
closing of the Swan.
In spite of this order, however, the members of Pembroke's Company
remaining after the chief actors had joined Henslowe, taking on
recruits and organizing themselves into a company, began to act at the
Swan without a license. For some time they continued unmolested, but
at last the two licensed companies called the attention of the Privy
Council to the fact, and on February 19, 1598, the Council issued the
following order to the Master of the Revels and the Justices of both
Middlesex and Surrey:
Whereas license hath been granted unto two companies of
stage players retayned unto us, the Lord Admiral and Lord
Chamberlain ... and whereas there is also a third company
who of late (as we are informed) have by way of intrusion
used likewise to play ... we have therefore thought good to
require you upon receipt hereof to take order that the
aforesaid third company may be suppressed, and none suffered
hereafter to play but those two formerly named, belonging to
us, the Lord Admiral and Lord Chamberlain.[264]
[Footnote 264: Dasent, _Acts of the Privy Council_, XXVIII, 327.]
Thus, after February 19, 1598, the Swan stood empty, so far as plays
were concerned, and we hear very little of it during the next few
years. Indeed, it never again assumed an important part in the history
of the drama.
In the summer of 1598[265] it was used by Robert Wilson for a contest
in extempore versification. Francis Meres, in his _Palladis Tamia_,
writes: "And so is now our witty Wilson, who for learning and
extemporall wit in this faculty is without compare or compeere, as, to
his great and eternal commendations, he manifested in his challenge at
the Swan on the Bankside."
[Footnote 265: After the order of February 19, when the "intruding
company" was driven out, and before September 7 when Meres's _Palladis
Tamia_ was entered in the Stationers' Registers.]
On May 15, 1600, Peter Bromvill was licensed to use the Swan "to show
his feats of activity at convenient times in that place without let or
interruption."[266] The Privy Council in issuing the license observed
that Bromvill "hath been recommended unto Her Majesty from her good
brother the French King, and hath shewed some feats of great activity
before Her Highness."
[Footnote 266: Dasent, _Acts of the Privy Council_, XXX, 327.]
On June 22, 1600, the Privy Council "with one and full consent"
ordered "that there shall be about the city two houses, and no more,
allowed to serve for the use of the common stage plays; of the which
houses, one [the Globe] shall be in Surrey ... and the other [the
Fortune] in Middlesex."[267] This order in effect merely confirmed the
order of 1598 which limited the companies to two, the Admiral's and
the Chamberlain's.
[Footnote 267: _Ibid._, 395.]
Early in 1601 Langley died; and in January, 1602, his widow, as
administratrix, sold the Manor of Paris Garden, including the Swan
Playhouse, to Hugh Browker, a prothonotary of the Court of Common
Pleas. The property remained in the possession of the Browker family
until 1655.[268]
[Footnote 268: For this and other details as to the subsequent history
of the property see Wallace, _Englische Studien_, XLIII, 342; Rendle,
_The Antiquarian Magazine_, VII, 207; and cf. the map on page 163.]
On November 6, 1602, the building was the scene of the famous hoax
known as _England's Joy_, perpetrated upon the patriotic citizens of
London by one Richard Vennar.[269] Vennar scattered hand-bills over
the city announcing that at the Swan Playhouse, on Saturday, November
6, a company of "gentlemen and gentlewomen of account" would present
with unusual magnificence a play entitled _England's Joy_, celebrating
Queen Elizabeth. It was proposed to show the coronation of Elizabeth,
the victory of the Armada, and various other events in the life of
"England's Joy," with the following conclusion: "And so with music,
both with voice and instruments, she is taken up into heaven; when
presently appears a throne of blessed souls; and beneath, under the
stage, set forth with strange fire-works, diverse black and damned
souls, wonderfully described in their several torments."[270] The
price of admission to the performance was to be "two shillings, or
eighteen pence at least." In spite of this unusually high price, an
enormous audience, including a "great store of good company and many
noblemen," passed into the building. Whereupon Vennar seized the money
paid for admission, and showed his victims "a fair pair of heels." The
members of the audience, when they found themselves thus duped,
"revenged themselves upon the hangings, curtains, chairs, stools,
walls, and whatsoever came in their way, very outrageously, and made
great spoil."[271]
[Footnote 269: Many writers, including Mr. Wallace, have confused this
Richard Vennar with William Fennor, who later challenged Kendall to a
contest of wit at the Fortune. For a correct account, see T.S. Graves,
"Tricks of Elizabethan Showmen" (in _The South Atlantic Quarterly_,
April, 1915, XIV) and "A Note on the Swan Theatre" (in _Modern
Philology_, January, 1912, IX, 431).]
[Footnote 270: From the broadside printed in _The Harleian
Miscellany_, X, 198. For a photographic facsimile, see Lawrence, _The
Elizabethan Playhouse_ (Second Series), p. 68.]
[Footnote 271: _Letters Written by John Chamberlain_, Camden Society
(1861), p. 163; _The Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1601-1603_,
p. 264. See also Manningham's _Diary_, pp. 82, 93.]
On February 8, 1603, John Manningham recorded in his _Diary_: "Turner
and Dun, two famous fencers, playd their prizes this day at the
Bankside, but Turner at last run Dun so far in the brain at the eye,
that he fell down presently stone dead; a goodly sport in a Christian
state, to see one man kill another!" The place where the contest was
held is not specifically mentioned, but in all probability it was the
Swan.[272]
[Footnote 272: This seems to be the source of the statement by Mr.
Wallace (_Englische Studien_, XLIII, 388), quoting Rendle (_The
Antiquarian Magazine_, VII, 210): "In 1604, a man named Turner, in a
contest for a prize at the Swan, was killed by a thrust in the eye."
Rendle cites no authority for his statement.]
For the next eight years all is silence, but we may suppose that the
building was occasionally let for special entertainments such as those
just enumerated.
In 1611 Henslowe undertook to manage the Lady Elizabeth's Men,
promising among other things to furnish them with a suitable
playhouse. Having disposed of the Rose in 1605, he rented the Swan and
established his company there. In 1613, however, he built the Hope,
and transferred the Lady Elizabeth's Men thither.
The Swan seems thereafter to have been occupied for a time by Prince
Charles's Men. But the history of this company and its intimate
connection with the Lady Elizabeth's Company is too vague to admit of
definite conclusions. So far as we can judge, the Prince's Men
continued at the Swan until 1615, when Henslowe transferred them to
the Hope.[273]
[Footnote 273: These dates are in a measure verified by the records of
the Overseers of the Poor for the Liberty of Paris Garden, printed by
Mr. Wallace (_Englische Studien_, XLIII, 390, note 1). Mr. Wallace
seems to labor under the impression that this chapter in the history
of the Swan (1611-1615) was unknown before, but it was adequately
treated by Fleay and later by Mr. Greg.]
After 1615 the Swan was deserted for five years so far as any records
show. But in 1621 the old playhouse seems to have been again used by
the actors. The Overseers of the Poor in the Liberty of Paris Garden
record in their Account Book: "Monday, April the 9th, 1621, received
of the players L5 3_s._ 6_d._"[274] From this it is evident that in
the spring of 1621 some company of players, the name of which has not
yet been discovered, was occupying the Swan. Apparently, however, the
company did not remain there long, for the Account Book records no
payment the following year; nor, although it extends to the year 1671,
does it again record any payments from actors at the Swan. There is,
indeed, no evidence to connect the playhouse with dramatic
performances after 1621.[275] In the map of 1627 it is represented as
still standing, but is labeled "the _old_ playhouse," and is not even
named.
[Footnote 274: Wallace, _op. cit._, p. 390, note 1.]
[Footnote 275: Rendle quotes a license of 1623 for "T.B. and three
assistants to make shows of Italian motions at the Princes Arms or the
Swan." (_The Antiquarian Magazine_, 1885, VII, 211.) But this may be a
reference to an inn rather than to the large playhouse.]
Five years later it is referred to in Nicolas Goodman's _Holland's
Leaguer_ (1632), a pamphlet celebrating one of the most notorious
houses of ill fame on the Bankside.[276] Dona Britannica Hollandia,
the proprietress of this house, is represented as having been much
pleased with its situation:
Especially, and above all the rest, she was most taken with
the report of three famous amphitheatres, which stood so
near situated that her eye might take view of them from the
lowest turret. One was the _Continent of the World_ [i.e.,
the Globe], because half the year a world of beauties and
brave spirits resorted unto it; the other was a building of
excellent _Hope_, and though wild beasts and gladiators did
most possess it, yet the gallants that came to behold those
combats, though they were of a mixt society, yet were many
noble worthies amongst them; the last which stood, and, as
it were, shak'd hands with this fortress, being in times
past as famous as any of the other, was now fallen to decay,
and like a dying _Swanne_, hanging down her head, seemed to
sing her own dirge.
[Footnote 276: What seems to be a picture of this famous house may be
seen in Merian's _View of London_, 1638 (see opposite page 256), with
a turret, and standing just to the right of the Swan.]
This is the last that we hear of the playhouse, that was "in times
past as famous as any of the other." What finally became of the
building we do not know. It is not shown in Hollar's _View of London_,
in 1647, and probably it had ceased to exist before the outbreak of
the Civil War.