THE SHAYBĀNIDES
The Mongol dynasty, established in China and known as the Yuen, founded
by Kubilāy Khān[423] _cir._ 1260, began to decline very soon after
his death (1294); and in 1353 a native of humble birth, named Chu
Yūan Chang, succeeded in overthrowing the alien line, and, in 1368,
originated the famous dynasty of Ming. The nomads’ rule was again
confined to the steppes of Mongolia.
Eastern and Western Turkestān continued, in the Ming period, to
constitute the dominions of the Chaghatāys.[424] This so-called
Middle-Empire originally included Transoxiana, but in the first half of
the fourteenth century Transoxiana came under the sway of a separate
line of Chaghatāy Khāns.
[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A KIRGHIZ TENT]
North of the Middle-Empire was that of the Dasht-i-Kipchāk, which
included the vast steppes extending east and north of the Sea of Aral,
a part of modern Siberia, the land north of the Caspian, and both sides
of the Lower Volga.[425] These broad realms had been given to Chingiz
Khān’s first son, Jūjī, on whose death, in 1225, it was divided into
two sections. The Eastern division, the habitat White Horde, fell
to Jūjī’s eldest son, Orda; while the Western, that of the Golden
Horde, was ruled over by Bātū, the conqueror of Russia, who had his
residence in Sarai, on the Lower Volga.[426]
Another branch of the house of Jūjī was the heritage of his fifth
son, Shaybān, whose dominions were contiguous with those of the White
Horde.[427] They became famous in the fifteenth century under the name
of Uzbegs, and the origin of their name has given rise to many strange
conjectures.
The real founder of the Uzbeg power was Abū-l-Khayr, a descendant of
Shaybān in the sixth degree, who was born in A.H. 816 (1413). His rule
extended over the western portion of the present Kirghiz steppes. About
the year A.H. 870 (1465) a number of these Uzbegs, discontented with
their Khān, Abū-l-Khayr, migrated into Moghūlistan, with the Sultans
Girāy and Jānībeg, of the line of Jūjī.[428] Isan Bughā, the then Khān
of Moghūlistan, or Jatah, received them hospitably, and allotted them
some territories on the river Chū, to the west of his own domains.
These emigrants were subsequently known as the Uzbeg-Kazāks, or simply
Kazāks.[429] After the death of Abū-l-Khayr, in A.H. 874 (1469), a
large number of his Uzbegs passed into Moghūlistan and joined their
kinsmen.[430]
Abū-l-Khayr overran Khwārazm and part of Turkestān; and at the
beginning of the sixteenth century his son Mohammad Shaybānī, also
known as Shāhī Beg, made himself master of Samarkand and Transoxiana,
and was the first of the so-called dynasty of the Shaybānides. It is
more than a mere coincidence that the appearance of the Uzbegs and
Kazāks in Southern Central Asia was contemporaneous with Russia’s
liberation from the Tartar yoke.
Shaybānī Khān achieved the conquest of Transoxiana in A.H. 906
(1500),[431] but soon after this event Zahīr ud-Dīn Bāber, then
aged nineteen, entered that country and captured Samarkand, Soghd,
Miyānkul, Karshī, and other strong places; Bokhārā alone remaining in
the possession of the Uzbegs. However, in the following year, A.H. 907
(1501), Shaybānī Khān defeated Bāber and regained the lost territory.
By A.H. 911 (1505), from which date historians reckon the commencement
of his reign,[432] he had made himself master of Transoxiana, Farghāna,
Khwārazm, and Hisār.
His attention was now turned towards Khorāsān, which was in the hands
of Husayn Mīrzā, also called Sultan Husayn Baykara, a descendant of
Tīmūr’s second son, `Omar Shaykh. In A.H. 912 (1506) Bāber, hearing
of the Uzbeg designs, marched northwards from Kābul to assist his
relatives.[433] But in the interval Mīrzā Husayn died, and Bāber, on
his arrival in Khorāsān, A.H. 913 (1507), found that the two sons of
the late prince had instituted a dual government. So disgusted was he
with their lack of definite policy and their mutual recriminations,
that he returned to Kābul and left them to fight their own battles. In
this year Shaybānī Khān, entering Khorāsān, defeated these ill-assorted
colleagues and made himself master of the country. The next three years
were passed in successful expeditions in the direction of Khorāsān and
India, and against the Kazāks. But in A.H. 916 (1510) his career of
conquest was brought to a sudden close. Shāh Isma`īl, the Safavī,--who
eight years previously had overthrown the Turkoman dynasty of the
“White Sheep” in Āzerbāyjān, and had set upon the conquest of all
Persia,--now marched into Khorāsān. Here he defeated and slew Shaybānī
Khān in the vicinity of Merv, thereby making himself master of the
whole country.[434]
For two years, from A.H. 916 to 918 (1510 to 1512) Transoxiana
practically passed out of the hands of the Uzbeg Sultans. At all
events, we find no coin of theirs during that period, though Persian
historians aver that Shaybānī Khān was succeeded in the chief Khānate
by Kuchunji. The nobles were probably too much occupied in providing
for their own safety, after the disaster of Merv, to give consideration
to the choice of a new chief.[435]
Bāber, on hearing of the death of Shaybānī Khān, and having been led
to suppose that his presence would be attended by most important
advantages, again set out from Kābul, and, entering Transoxiana,
entirely defeated the Uzbeg army sent out to meet him under Hamza
Sultan, A.H. 917 (1511). The Uzbegs were pursued as far as the Iron
Gates. Meanwhile Bāber’s victorious army assembled in Hisār, where it
was now reinforced by a larger body of Persians, sent by Shāh Isma`īl,
who made common cause with Bāber against the Uzbegs. The united forces,
numbering 60,000 men, next marched against Karshī, where Sultan
`Ubaydullah had fortified himself, while the most of the Uzbeg Sultans
had fled to Samarkand. On the march, Bāber learnt that `Ubaydullah
had abandoned Karshī and fled to Bokhārā. Bāber at once followed him,
marching day and night until he reached the city, whence he drove
`Ubaydullah into the deserts of Turkestān.[436] When the rest of the
Uzbeg Sultans in Samarkand learnt this disaster, they were filled with
terror and fled in disorder into different parts of Turkestān, leaving
Bāber absolute master of Transoxiana. He now entered Samarkand amid the
rejoicings of the people, who welcomed him as the rightful successor to
the realms of Tīmūr. But the enthusiasm of the orthodox Sunnis began to
cool when they found that Bāber still maintained cordial relations with
the Shi`ite Shāh Isma`īl and carried out the stipulation on which the
alliance was based by recognising his suzerainty.
Becoming aware of the popular discontent, the Uzbeg Sultans collected
their forces and marched out of Turkestān.[437] Their main body took
the direction of Tashkent, while `Ubaydullah, with the remainder,
proceeded to Bokhārā by way of Yati Kudūk.[438] Bāber also advanced
on Bokhārā at the head of 40,000 well-equipped men, and overtook
`Ubaydullah at Kūl-Melik.[439]
The Uzbeg had only 3000 men under his command; but, nothing daunted by
the fearful odds, he rallied his troops and attacked Bāber’s force with
such fury that, after a bloody encounter, he put them utterly to rout,
A.H. 918 (1512). After this disaster Bāber returned to Samarkand, but,
finding no supporters there, fled to Hisār, after a reign of just eight
months.[440]
Though the Uzbegs were again masters of Transoxiana, their position
was by no means secure. On the west, Bāber, with the aid of 60,000
Persians, sent at his request by Shāh Isma`īl, under Amīr Yār Ahmed
Isfahānī, known as Najm-i-Sāni, or the Second Star, passed the Iron
Gates and, entering Karshī, massacred the inhabitants and sacked the
town. On the east, the Khān of Moghūlistan, on learning Bāber’s success
at Karshī, marched out by way of Andijān to attack Suyunjik Khān, one
of the chief Uzbeg Sultans. An encounter took place at Bishkand,[441]
in which the Khān was utterly defeated.
Meanwhile Bāber and his Persian auxiliaries were marching in the
direction of Samarkand, causing great alarm among the Uzbegs. On
reaching Ghujduvān[442] they encountered Jānībeg Sultan,[443] who
had thrown himself into the fort. A fierce battle ensued, which is
vividly described by Mīrzā Haydar in the following words: “The Uzbeg
Sultans entered the fort on the same night on which the Turkomans
and Bāber, who were encamped before the place, were busy preparing
their siege implements. At dawn they arranged their forces in the
midst of the suburbs, and stood facing the enemy. On the other side,
too, preparations were made for a fight. Since the Uzbegs were in the
suburbs, the field of battle was a narrow one. The Uzbeg infantry began
to pour forth a shower of arrows from every quarter, so that soon
the grip of Islām wrenched aside the hands of heresy and unbelief,
and victory declared for the true faith.[444] The victorious breezes
of Islām overturned the banners of the schismatics. The Turkomans
were so completely routed that most of them perished on the field;
all the wounds that had been effected by the swords at Karshī were
now sewn up by the arrow-stitches of vengeance. They sent Mīr Najm
and all the Turkoman Amīrs to hell; and the emperor retired, broken
and crestfallen, to Hisār.” Bāber now determined on relinquishing
his designs on Transoxiana, and, returning to Kābul, he prepared
for an easier conquest--that of Hindustān. On gaining possession of
Transoxiana, the Shaybānides divided it into a number of appanages, the
eldest Sultan usually assuming the leadership of the rest. His name
alone was read in the public prayers throughout the whole empire, and
appeared on the coins of all the states which composed it.
For nearly ninety-nine years did the Shaybānīs, that is, the
descendants of Abū-l-Khayr Khān,[445] rule in Transoxiana. M.
Veliaminof-Zernof was the first to elucidate the complications in
their system of government during the sixteenth century.[446] In his
article on the coins of Bokhārā and Khiva, above quoted, he published a
list of the chief Khāns, whom he calls the _Khākāns_, of the Shaybānīs,
and also a genealogical table showing their descent from Abū-l-Khayr
Khān.[447]
The separate appanages passed from father to son, and thus the
residence of the Khākān, or chief Khān, was continually changing from
one city to another. Thus Bokhārā lost its proud position as capital
of Transoxiana, and took rank with other towns as the headquarters of
successive chiefs.[448]
After the battle of Ghujduvān, in A.H. 918 (1512), in accordance with
their established custom, _tūra_ and _yasāk_, the Shaybānī Sultans
proceeded to elect their Khākān. Kuchunji Khān, as the eldest, was
appointed to the high office; while Suyunjik was nominated _Kālgha_,
or heir-apparent. The latter, however, died before Kuchunji, whereupon
Jānībeg became the _Kālgha_; but he too predeceased Kuchunji, and the
title of _Kālgha_ passed to Abū Sa`īd Khān, who eventually became
Khākān, A.H. 936 (1529). On his death he was succeeded by `Ubaydullah
Khān, A.H. 939 (1533).
The various appanages of Transoxiana were thus apportioned in 918
by Jānībeg:--Kuchunji received Samarkand; Suyunjik, Tashkent; and
`Ubaydullah, Karakul and Karshī, besides Bokhārā, which was his by
inheritance. Jānībeg reserved for himself and his children all the
country of Miyānkul, Soghd of Samarkand, and the town of Kerminé,
which was his residence. Omitting the unimportant reigns of the seven
following _Khākās_,[449] we will pass at once to a short account of the
greatest of the Abū-l-Khayrides, `Abdullah II., the last but one of his
dynasty; and for this purpose we cannot do better than summarise the
account given by Professor Vambéry in his _History of Bokhara_[450].
In A.H. 964 (1556) he had put an end to the sub-dynasty of Bokhārā, and
in A.H. 968 (1560) proclaimed his father in that town as “Khākān of the
world”; in A.H. 986 (1578) he similarly abolished the sub-dynasty of
Samarkand, which had sprung up during Iskandar’s reign at Bokhārā; and
in A.H. 991 (1583), on his father’s death, he became Khākān.
“In imitation of Shaybānī Khān and `Ubaydullah, who, although
practically sovereigns of the country, had left the actual seat of the
Khānate to others, the more freely to pursue their military career,
`Abdullah placed his father Iskandar on the throne, and put himself at
the head of his army to re-conquer the original frontiers of Shaybānī’s
empire. The greater part of his life was spent in this enterprise, but
he was more fortunate in his conquests than any of his predecessors,
and also contributed more to the restoration of prosperity to the
countries of the Oxus and the Jaxartes.... Under him the frontiers of
the Khānate of Bokhārā were pushed forward in the north far beyond the
inhabited province of Turkestān. In the east, not only all Farghāna,
but also Kāshghar and Khotan, were subdued by the Shaybānides. In the
south, an aggressive policy had been pursued--on the one hand by the
family of Bāber, and on the other by the Safavīs, who both coveted the
possession of Balkh; but the power of the Uzbegs was even greater than
in the time of the first Shaybānides. Balkh was fortified, Tokhāristān
and Badakhshān were incorporated with Transoxiana, and once more the
bright green waters of the Murghāb became the frontiers of Turania. In
the west, the armies of `Abdullah were again victorious, in spite of
the united opposition of the Iranians and Khwārazmians. Astarābād was
surprised and taken; the Prince of Gilān, an ally of Sultan Murād III.,
had to take refuge at Constantinople, and the frontiers of the empire
of the Shaybānides were extended in this direction farther than they
had ever been before. For the moment `Abdullah ... got possession of a
great part of Khorāsān, including the towns of Herāt, Meshed, Sarakhs,
Merv, etc., all of which he retained very nearly to his death.”
Soon after `Abdullah’s death anarchy broke out in Transoxiana, and the
way was prepared for a change of dynasty. The line of Shaybānī, after
holding the government for nearly a century, gave place to the dynasty
of Astrakhan.[451] During its tenure of power the Khāns of Bokhārā and
Khwārazm were continually at variance. On the conquest of Transoxiana
by Abū-l-Khayr and Shaybānī, both Khānates were simultaneously occupied
by the invaders. Subsequently, when Shāh Isma`īl drove Shaybānī out
of Khwārazm, he placed a Persian governor in charge of the province,
but the Sunni people detested the Shi`ite Shāh, and expelled him in
921.[452] During the Khākānship of Kuchunji the Uzbegs founded an
independent principality in Khwārazm;[453] Ilbars, son of a chief named
Bereghe, being the first Khān of the new line.
THE UZBEG APPANGES.
A full account of the Uzbeg Khākāns, based on all available
authorities, will be found in Part II. of Howorth’s _Mongols_. Space
will not permit us to enter into details with regard to all these
petty chiefs. The following is a list of Khākāns and the genealogy
of Abū-l-Khayr’s descendants, with the locality of their respective
appanages, where information on the point is available. The _Khākāns_
are printed in capitals, and the numbers after their names represent
the order in which they ruled.
Abū-l-Khayr
|
+------------------+-------+----+--------------+
| | | |
Shāh Būdāk Khwāja Mohammad KUCHUNJI (2), Suyunj Khwāja
| | Samarkand, |
+---------+--------+ | A.H. 918–936 |
| | | (1512–1529) |
Mahmūd MOHAMMAD | | |
| SHAYBĀNĪ (1), | | |
`UBAYDULLA (4), A.H. 911–916 | | |
Bokhārā, (1505–1510) | | |
A.H. 939–946 | | NAWRŪZ AHMED (7),
(1532–1539) | | Tashkent,
| Jānībeg | A.H. 959–963
Abd ul-Azīz | | (1551–1556)
| |
+-----------------+ |
| | |
ISKANDAR (9), PĪR MOHAMMAD(8), |
Bokhārā, Balkh |
A.H. 968–991 A.H. 963–968 |
(1561–1583) (1556–1561) |
| |
`ABDULLAH II. (10), |
Bokhārā |
| |
`ABDUL-MŪ´MIN (11), |
Bokhārā, |
A.H. 1006–1007 |
(1598–1599) |
|
|
+------------------+-------------+-------+
| | |
ABŪ SA`ĪD (3), `ABDULLAH I. (5), `ABD UL-LATĪF (6),
Samarkand, Samarkand, Samarkand,
A.H. 936–939 A.H. 947 (1540) A.H. 947–959
(1529–1532) (1540–1551)
[Illustration: DECORATIONS IN THE SHĀH ZINDA, SAMARKAND]