THE KARA-KHĀNIDES, OR UÏGHŪRS
While the Sāmānides were thus harassed by the powerful Daylamites in
the west, by the growing power of Sabuktagin in the south, and the fear
of insubordination in their own states, a force still more formidable
had arisen on their northern frontier, where a Turkish state had been
founded which extended from Kāshghar to the Sea of Aral. The relations
of this state with its southern neighbours were at first of a peaceful
and even friendly character; but when the nomads perceived that Iranian
authority was on the wane they began to cast longing eyes across the
Jaxartes. They probably belonged to the tribe of _Uïghūr_, which had
been the first to separate from the main body of the Turkish race and
settle down in a home on the slopes of the Tien-shan.[244]
According to the Mohammedan historian Juvaynī,[245] the Uïghūrs
originally came from the valley of the Orkon River. The first king
whose name has come down to us was Būkū Khān, whom tradition has
identified with the great Afrāsiyāb.[246]
Būkū Khān, having learnt in a dream that he would possess the entire
world, assembled his troops and sent his brothers to wage war against
the Mongols, Kirghiz, Tanguts, and Khitāys.[247] They returned to
their dwelling-place with great booty, and founded the city of Urdu
Bālik. Būkū Khan again dreamt that a piece of jade was given him with
the assurance that as long as he preserved it he would rule the
world. The prospect induced him to turn his arms to the west and enter
Turkestān, where he built the city of Balāsāghūn.[248] We know from
Chinese sources that these Uïghūrs[249] had their abode in the seventh
century in the north-west of Mongolia; that in the eighth century
they dwelt near the place where, in the five hundred years later, the
Mongols built Karakorum. In the ninth century their empire in Mongolia
was destroyed by the Kirghiz, when they were dispersed, and apparently
split into two parties. The eastern branch came into contact with
Chingiz Khān. After and thenceforward they appear in the Mongol-Chinese
annals as under the name of Wei-wu-rh.[250] Of the Western Uïghūrs
little is known, but they may be identified with the Eastern Turks of
Mohammedan authors of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.[251]
The first of the Uïghūr Khāns of Turkestān who plays any great part
in Mohammedan history is Boghrā Khān, whose capital was Balāsāghūn,
and who ruled over Kāshghar (called Urdu Kend), Khotan, Karakorum,
Tarās, and Fārāb (Otrār).[252] He was contemporaneous with Nūh III.,
seventh of the Sāmānide line, whose reign was characterised by the
utmost confusion and anarchy. Two of Nūh’s most powerful nobles--Abū
`Alī Sīmjūr, governor of Khorāsān, and Fā´ik, governor of Herāt, whose
insubordination had received severe but well-merited punishment at the
hands of their master--made treacherous overtures to Boghrā Khān, and
invited him to attack Nūh. The invitation was accepted with alacrity
by the Uïghūr prince, who at once set out for Samarkand, which was
delivered over to him by the faithless Fā´ik, whom Nūh had intrusted
with its defence. The feeble representative of the Sāmānides, thus
betrayed, fled from his capital, which Boghrā Khān shortly after
entered in triumph, and became practically master of Transoxiana. But
the climate of Bokhārā did not suit him. He set out for his home,
when death overtook him ere he had gone many stages, A.H. 383 (993).
Meanwhile Nūh re-entered Bokhārā and regained possession of his
dominion. But though he was heartily welcomed by the people he did not
feel secure from the treachery of his nobles, and on this account he
invited the great Sabuktagin, in the year A.H. 384 (994), to come to
his aid. Sabuktagin immediately hastened over the mountain passes at
the head of 20,000 men, and, crossing the Oxus, joined Nūh at Kesh.
Seconded by his son Mahmūd, he gained three victories over the rebel
lieutenants at Herāt, Nīshāpūr, and finally at Tūs. Fā´ik had in the
meanwhile fled to Ilik Khān, the son and successor of Boghrā Khān, and
Bokhārā was threatened with a second Uïghūr invasion. In reply to the
menace, Sabuktagin, who had quarrelled with Nūh, concluded a peace with
Ilik, and appointed the rebellious Fā´ik governor of Samarkand.
In A.H. 387 (997) both Sabuktagin and Nūh died, and were respectively
succeeded by the valorous and talented Mahmūd, and by Mansūr II. who
exhibited qualities precisely the reverse.
Transoxiana fell into the power of Ilik Khān, while Mahmūd of Ghazna
gained possession of Khorāsān. Turks had long held high office in the
states of Islām in Central Asia, as well as in Baghdād and in Egypt,
where they had founded a powerful dynasty. It was, therefore, no
great change for them to find themselves, as a nation, masters of the
extensive kingdom of which Bokhārā was the capital.
Mansūr II., after a reign of less than two years, was deprived of
sight by one of his discontented courtiers named Bektuzun; and `Abd
el-Melik II., a mere child, was set up in his stead. All power was
now concentrated in the hands of Fā´ik and Bektuzun. When news of
these events reached Ilik Khān in Kāshghar he sent a message to `Abd
el-Melik to the effect that he would speedily take measures to protect
him. Bektuzun immediately set out to oppose Ilik Khān, but he was
unsuccessful, and in A.H. 389 (999) Ilik Khān entered Bokhārā. Instead,
however, of helping the young prince, he cast him into prison, where he
soon afterwards died.[253]
When, in A.H. 389 (999), Ilik Khān[254] wrested Transoxiana from the
Sāmānides, their capital was removed to Bokhārā. In A.H. 398 (1007)
they attempted to establish themselves south of the Oxus, but were
driven back by Mahmūd of Ghazna, and henceforward their territory was
restricted to Transoxiana, Kāshghar, and Eastern Tartary.[255]
About the beginning of the tenth century a prince of the hereditary
house of the Khāns of Kāshghar, named Satuk Boghrā Khān,[256] became
the first convert in that country to Islām, which he proceeded to
force upon his subjects at the point of the sword, in the face of a
determined and protracted opposition which prevented its spread beyond
the limits of his own territory. It was only on the downfall of the
Sāmānides that the creed of Mohammed, through proselytising zeal--of
Mahmūd in the direction of Hindustān, and of Ilik Khān in that of
Turkestān--received a fresh impetus, and spread north, south, and
east with a rapidity only equalled by the violence employed by its
propagators.[257]
According to Narshakhi,[258] Ilik Khān died in A.H. 403 (1012), and
was succeeded by his brother Toghān Khān, who, a few days after his
accession, was attacked by what appeared to be an incurable malady.
The Sultans of Khitāy and Khotan, thinking to take advantage of
his helpless state, advanced with an enormous host to attack his
dominions.[259] But, on hearing of the approaching invasion, the Khān
miraculously recovered his health and forthwith set out to oppose his
enemies. We are told that they retreated without striking a blow as
soon as they learnt that their quarry had regained his strength, but
were hotly pursued and harassed by the Khān for three months.
Toghān Khān died in A.H. 408 (1018). He is spoken of in terms of the
highest praise, both on account of his piety and his learning. His
successor was Arslān Khān, who, however, was unable to preserve the
integrity of his kingdom. Coming into conflict with Sultan Mahmūd, he
was defeated and killed in the year A.H. 410 (1020).
Kādir[260] Khān, who now ascended the throne at Samarkand, is said to
have brought the whole of Kāshghar and Khotan under his subjection.
He died in A.H. 423 (1031), and was succeeded by his son Arslān Khān.
During his reign he received a deputation from some Turks of Tibet,
who, hearing of his justice and clemency, asked permission to settle
in the neighbourhood of Balāsāghūn. He granted their request, and when
they arrived he tried to compel their acceptance of Islām. This they
refused, but as they were otherwise loyal and obedient he gave way and
allowed them to remain in a state of heathenism.[261] Arslān Khān was
overthrown in A.H. 425 (1033) by his brother Boghrā Khān, during whose
reign the immigrant Turks embraced Islām (A.H. 432).[262] He died by
poison in A.H. 439 (1047), and was succeeded by his son Ibrāhīm--the
last chief of the house of Boghrā Khān.[263]
The kingdom of Kāshghar seems shortly afterwards to have fallen into
the hands of another branch of the Eastern Uïghūrs, called by Narshakhi
the Tufghāj,[264] the first of whose representatives, Ibrāhim, was
killed in battle against Alp Arslān, the Seljūk, in A.H. 472 (1079),
and was succeeded by his brother Khidhr Khān.[265] He apparently died
in the same year, when his son Ahmed Khān came to the throne. The
latter, in A.H. 482 (1089), was attacked and defeated by Melik Shāh,
and sent prisoner to Isfahān; but soon afterwards he was reinstated as
governor of Transoxiana. In 488 he was condemned to death by the mullās
or doctors of Samarkand, on the ground that he professed heretical
tenets acquired during his residence in Persian `Irāk. After him Mas`ūd
Khān[266] reigned for a short period, and was succeeded by Kādir Khān,
who in A.H. 495 (1101) perished in an insurrection fomented by him
against Sanjar, the then governor of Khorāsān.
The next ruler of Samarkand was Mohammad Khān[267] ibn Sulaymān, who in
A.H. 503 (1109) successfully defended his capital against the attack
of a large Turkish force under a certain Sāghir Beg. He held this post
until his death, and apparently continued in his loyalty to Sanjar,
who, as we have seen, ascended the throne of the Seljūks in 511. We are
not told when he died, but Narshakhi says that his son Nasr Khān was
killed during a revolt in Samarkand in A.H. 523 (1128). On the death
of his father, Nasr’s son Mohammad Khān wrote to inform Sanjar of what
had passed. Sanjar thereupon set out with a force to establish order
in Samarkand, but when he approached the town Mohammad Khān sent him
an insolent message that the Sultan would do well to retreat, inasmuch
as he (Mohammad) had subdued his opponents. Sanjar was much incensed,
and promptly invested the city. After a protracted siege he captured
Samarkand and took Mohammad prisoner, A.H. 524 (1129). A new governor
was now appointed, but he died two years later, when the reins of power
were given to Mahmūd Khān, the son of Mohammad.[268]
In the meanwhile another mighty host was advancing on Transoxiana; but
before describing their progress we must retrace our steps and recount
the downfall of the Ghaznavides and the rise of the great Seljūk
dynasty of Persia.