time France had declared war against him as King of Hungary and Bohemia. In
1795, in the third partition of Poland, West Galicia fell to Austria, and
by the Peace of Campo-Formio (1797) she received the largest part of the
Venetian territory as compensation for her loss of Lombardy and the
Netherlands. In 1799 Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed the war with
France until 1801, when the Peace of Luneville was concluded. In 1804
Francis declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria as Francis I, and
united all his States under the name of the Empire of Austria, immediately
taking up arms once more with his allies Russia and Great Britain against
France. The war of 1805 was terminated by the Peace of Pressburg (26th
Dec.), by which Francis had to cede to France the remaining provinces of
Italy, as well as to give up portions of territory to Bavaria, Wuertemberg,
and Baden, receiving in return Salzburg and Berchtesgaden. After the
formation of the Confederation of the Rhine (12th July, 1806) Francis was
forced to resign his dignity as Emperor of Germany, which had been in his
family more than 500 years. A new war with France in 1809 cost the monarchy
42,380 sq. miles of territory and 3,500,000 subjects. Napoleon married
Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor, and in 1812 concluded an alliance
with him against Russia. But in 1813 Francis again declared war against
France, and formed an alliance with Britain, Prussia, and Sweden against
his son-in-law. By the Congress of Vienna (1815) Austria gained Lombardy
and Venetia, and recovered, together with Dalmatia, the hereditary
territories which it had been obliged to cede.
In the troubled period following the French revolution of 1830
insurrections took place in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States (1831-2),
but were suppressed without much difficulty; and though professedly neutral
during the Polish insurrections Austria clearly showed herself on the side
of Russia, with whom her relations became more intimate as those between
Great Britain and France grew more cordial. The death of Francis I (1835)
and accession of his son, Ferdinand I, made little change in the Austrian
system of government, and much discontent was the consequence. In 1846 the
failure of the Polish insurrection led to the incorporation of Cracow with
Austria. In Italy the declarations of Pio Nono in favour of reform
increased the difficulties of Austria, and in Hungary the opposition under
Kossuth and others assumed the form of a great constitutional movement. In
1848, when the expulsion of Louis Philippe shook all Europe, Metternich
found it impossible any longer to guide the helm of the State, and the
Government was compelled to admit a free press and the right of citizens to
arms. Apart from the popular attitude in Italy and in Hungary, where the
Diet declared itself permanent under the presidency of Kossuth, the
insurrection made equal progress in Vienna itself, and the royal family, no
longer in safety, removed to Innsbruck. After various ministerial changes
the Emperor abdicated in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph; more
vigorous measures were adopted; and Austria, aided by Russia, reduced
Hungary to submission.
The year 1855 is memorable for the Concordat with the Pope, which put the
educational and ecclesiastical affairs of the Empire entirely into the
hands of the Papal see. In 1859 the hostile intentions of France and
Sardinia against the possessions of Austria in Italy became so evident that
she declared war by sending an army across the Ticino; but after disastrous
defeats at Magenta and Solferino she was compelled to cede Milan and the
north-west portion of Lombardy to Sardinia. In 1864 she joined with the
German States in the war against Denmark, but a dispute about
Schleswig-Holstein involved her in a war with her allies (1866), while at
the same time Italy renewed her attempts for the recovery of Venice. The
Italians were defeated at Custozza and driven back across the Mincio; but
the Prussians, victorious at Koeniggraetz (or Sadowa), threatened Vienna.
Peace was concluded with Prussia on 23rd Aug. and with Italy on 3rd Oct.,
the result of the war being the cession of Venetia through France to Italy
and the withdrawal of Austria from all interference in the affairs of
Germany.
For nearly half a century (from 1866 to 1914) the internal affairs of
Austria-Hungary gave much occupation to statesmen of the dual monarchy.
Hungarian demands for self-government were finally agreed to, and the
Empire was divided into the two parts already mentioned--Austria and
Hungary. This settlement was consummated by the coronation of the Emperor
Francis Joseph I, at Budapest, as King of Hungary, on 8th June, 1867. In
the same year the Concordat of 1855 came up for discussion, and measures
were passed for the re-establishment of civil marriage, the emancipation of
schools from the domination of the Church, and the placing of different
creeds on a footing of equality. The fact of the Austro-Hungarian dominions
comprising so many different nationalities gave the central Government much
trouble, both in regard to internal and to external affairs. In regard to
the 'Eastern Question', for instance, the action of Austria was hampered by
the sympathies shown by the Magyars for their blood relations, the Turks,
while the Slavs were naturally more favourable to Russia. During the war
between Russia and Turkey in 1877-8 Austria remained neutral; but at its
close it was decided at the Congress of Berlin that Bosnia and Herzegovina
should in future be administered by Austria instead of Turkey. In 1908,
taking advantage of the condition of Turkey, Austria formally annexed these
provinces. By the middle of Oct., 1918, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy began
to break up into independent national States. Four States of some size laid
claim to independence, viz. German-Austria, Czecho-Slovakia (recognized by
the Allies), Hungary, and Yugo-Slavia. On 13th Oct., 1921, German Austria
signed with Hungary the Burgenland pact, agreeing to a plebiscite in
several districts. For recent history of Austria, see _Francis Joseph;
European War._--Cf. S. Whitman, _Austria_ (in Story of the Nations Series);
H. W. Steed, _The Hapsburg Monarchy._
AUTEUIL ([=o]-t[.e]-y[.e]), formerly a suburban village of Paris, but now
enclosed within the fortifications.
AUTOBIOG'RAPHY, a department of literature of which, as a definite branch
or form at least, we have no very ancient examples, though many
autobiographical details are contained, for instance, in Cicero's and
Pliny's letters, while St. Augustine has left a fragmentary autobiography
in his _Confessions_. Various writers of note, without claiming or perhaps
intending to write a formal autobiography, have left similar materials in
the form of their own memoirs or reminiscences, or, for a portion of their
lives, in diaries. The chief English diarists are Pepys and Evelyn, while
Crabb Robinson is an admirable modern example. Brief autobiographies were
written by Gibbon, Hume, and Sir Walter Scott (of his early life only), and
among other writers who have given us autobiographies or kindred works are
Fanny Burney, Cobbett, Haydon, Miss Mitford, Harriet Martineau, Leigh Hunt,
Hugh Miller (in _My Schools and Schoolmasters_), John Stuart Mill, Anthony
Trollope, Sir Henry Taylor, Miss F. P. Cobbe, Carlyle, Ruskin, Herbert
Spencer, Alexander Bain, and Alfred Russel Wallace. Lord Roberts's
_Forty-one Years in India_ and General Grant's _Personal Memoirs_ are most
interesting autobiographical works by men of action. One of the most famous
of autobiographies is that of the Italian Benvenuto Cellini. See
_Biography_.
AUTOCHROME. See _Photography_.
AUTOCHTHONES ([a:]-tok'tho-n[=e]z), the Greek name for the aboriginal
inhabitants of a country. See _Aborigines_.
AU'TOCLAVE (derived from the Gr. _autos_, self, and Lat. _clavis_, key) is
a strong steam-tight vessel in which hydrolysis of liquids can be carried
out, under pressure, at temperatures considerably higher than their normal
boiling-points. The vessels may be of copper, iron, or other suitable
material, are sometimes enamelled within, or may have renewable refractory
linings when used for corrosive liquids. Some types have mechanical
agitators. Used in the manufacture of candles, coal-tar colours, &c. May be
heated by high-pressure steam or in baths of oil or molten lead. See
_Papin_.
AU'TOCRAT (Gr. _autos_, self, _kratos_, rule), an absolute or uncontrolled
ruler; the head of a State who is not controlled by any constitutional
limitations, such as the Tsars of Russia till 1917.
AUTO-DE-FE (Sp.); AUTO-DA-FE (Pg.), literally, 'act of faith'. See
_Inquisition_.
AU'TOGRAPH, a person's own handwriting; an original manuscript or
signature, as opposed to a copy. The practice of collecting autographs or
signatures originated in Germany and the Low Countries, chiefly among
members of the universities, and dates at least from the sixteenth century.
Among the earliest collections known are those of John Cotton and Hans
Sloane in the British Museum, and of Philippe de Bethune, brother of Sully,
and Lomenie de Brienne at the Bibliotheque Nationale. The most celebrated
collection formed in England in recent years is that of Alfred Morrison.
AUTOMATIC WRITING. See _Psychical Research_; _Spiritualism_.
AUTOM'ATISM, the confinement of activity in men or animals within a purely
mechanical limit, resulting from injury to or partial removal of the brain.
AUTOM'ATON (Gr. _automatos_, spontaneous), a self-moving machine performing
actions like those of a living being, and often shaped like one. The
walking statues of Daedalus, the flying dove of Archytas, the brazen head
of Friar Bacon, the iron fly of Regiomontanus, the door-opening figure of
Albertus Magnus, the parading knights of the clock presented to Charlemagne
by Harun al Rashid, the toy carriage and attendants constructed by Camus
for Louis XIV, the flute-player, tambour-player, and duck of Vaucanson, and
the writing child of the brothers Droz are among the more noteworthy of
traditional automata. See _Conjuring_.
AUTOMOBILE. See _Motor Vehicles_.
AUTON'OMY, the power of a State, institution, &c., to legislate for itself.
AUTOPH'AGI (-j[=i]), birds which feed themselves as soon as hatched.
AU'TOPLASTY, the operation by which wounds and diseased parts are repaired
with healthy tissues taken from other parts of the same person's body.
AUTOPLATE. See _Printing_.
AUTOP'SY, literally, personal observation or inspection, commonly
restricted to post-mortem examination. See _Coroner_.
AU'TOTYPE, a species of photographic print. A thin sheet of gelatine on
paper is rendered sensitive to light by treatment with bichromate of
potash, and then exposed under an ordinary photographic negative. The
portions of gelatine affected by the light become insoluble, the remainder
of the gelatine is then washed away, and the picture remains reproduced in
the gelatine, there being slight elevations and depressions corresponding
with the distribution of light and shade. This may be printed from, but it
is more often made use of to obtain electrotypes or other reverses, from
which impressions can more easily be taken.
AUTUMN, the season between summer and winter, in the northern hemisphere
often regarded as embracing August, September, and October, or three months
about that time. The beginning of the astronomical autumn is 22nd Sept.,
the autumnal equinox; and the end is 21st Dec., the shortest day. The
autumn of the southern hemisphere takes place at the time of the northern
spring.
AUTUN ([=o]-t[.u]n; ancient, BIBRACTE, later, AUGUSTODUNUM), a town,
South-Eastern France, department of Saone-et-Loire. It has two Roman gates
of exquisite workmanship, the ruins of an amphitheatre and of several
temples, the cathedral of St. Lazare, a fine Gothic structure of the
twelfth century with chapels added in the fifteenth; manufactures of
carpets, woollens, cotton, velvet, hosiery, &c. Pop. 15,498.
AUTUNITE, a hydrous phosphate of uranium and calcium, crystallizing in the
rhombic system in yellow plates. Like other minerals of the uranium series
it shows radio-activity.
AUVERGNE ([=o]-v[=a]r-ny[.e]), a province, Central France, now merged into
departments Cantal and Puy-de-Dome, and an arrondissement of Haute-Loire.
The Auvergne Mountains, separating the basins of the Allier, Cher, and
Creuse from those of the Lot and Dordogne, contain the highest points of
Central France: Mount Dor, 6188 feet; Cantal, 6093 feet, and Puy-de-Dome,
4806 feet. The number of extinct volcanoes and general geologic formation
make the district one of great scientific interest. The minerals include
iron, copper, and lead, and there are warm and cold mineral springs.
Auvergne contributes a large supply to the labour markets of Paris and
Belgium, there being in Paris alone some 50,000 Auvergnats.
AUXERRE ([=o]-s[=a]r), a town, France, department of Yonne, 110 miles S.E.
of Paris. Principal edifices: a fine Gothic cathedral, unfinished; the
abbey of St. Germain, with curious crypts; and an old episcopal palace, now
the Hotel de Prefecture; it manufactures woollens, hats, casks, leather,
earthenware, violin strings, &c.; trade, chiefly in wood and wines, of
which the best known is white Chablis. Pop. 21,930.
AUXOM'ETER, an instrument to measure the magnifying powers of an optical
apparatus.
AUXONNE ([=o]-son; ancient, AUSSONA), a town, France, department of
Cote-d'Or (Burgundy), on the Saone; a fortified place, with some
manufactures. Pop. 6300.
A'VA, a town in Asia, formerly the capital of Burma, on the Irawadi, now
almost wholly in ruins.
AVA-AVA, ARVA, KAVA, or YAVA (_Macropiper methysticum_), a plant of the
nat. ord. Piperaceae (pepper family), so called by the inhabitants of
Polynesia, who make an intoxicating drink out of it. Its leaves are chewed
with betel, in South-Eastern Asia.
AVAD'AVAT. See _Amadavat_.
AV'ALANCHES, large masses of snow or ice precipitated from the mountains,
and distinguished as _wind_ or _dust avalanches_ when they consist of
fresh-fallen snow whirled like a dust-storm into the valleys; as _sliding
avalanches_ when they consist of great masses of snow sliding down a slope
by their own weight; and as _glacier_ or _summer avalanches_ when
ice-masses are detached by heat from the high glaciers.
AVAL ISLANDS. Same as _Bahrein Islands_.
AVALLON ([.a]-v[.a]-l[=o]n), a town of Central France, department Yonne.
Pop. 5900.
AV'ALON, a sort of fairyland or elysium mentioned in connection with the
legends of King Arthur, being his abode after disappearing from the haunts
of men: called also _Avilion_. The name is also identified with
Glastonbury; and has been given to a peninsula of Newfoundland.
AVAN'TURINE, or AVEN'TURINE, a variety of quartz containing glittering
spangles of mica through it; also a sort of artificial gem of similar
appearance.
AV'ARS, a nation, probably of Turanian origin, who at an early period may
have migrated from the region east of the Tobol in Siberia to that about
the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the Volga. A part advanced to the Danube in
A.D. 555, and settled in Dacia. They served in Justinian's army, aided the
Lombards in destroying the kingdom of the Gepidae, and in the sixth century
conquered under their Khan Bajan the region of Pannonia. They then won
Dalmatia, pressed into Thuringia and Italy against the Franks and Lombards,
and subdued the Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as well as the Bulgarians on
the Black Sea. But they were ultimately limited to Pannonia, where they
were overcome by Charlemagne, and nearly extirpated by the Slavs of
Moravia. After 827 they disappear from history. Traces of their fortified
settlements are found, and known as Avarian rings. See _Lesghians_.
AVATAR', more properly AVATARA, in Hindu mythology, an incarnation of the
Deity. Of the innumerable avatars the chief are the ten incarnations of
Vishnu, who appeared successively as a fish, a tortoise, a boar, a
man-lion, a dwarf, &c.
AVATCH'A, a volcano and bay in Kamchatka. The volcano, which is 9000 feet
high, was last active in 1855. The town of Petropavlovsk lies in the bay.
AVEBURY ([=a]v'be-ri), a village of England, in Wiltshire, occupying the
site of a so-called Druidical temple, which originally consisted of a large
outer circle of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in height, and about 40 feet
in circumference, surrounded by a broad ditch and lofty rampart, and
enclosing two smaller circles. Few traces now remain of the structure. On
the neighbouring downs are numerous barrows or tumuli, one of which, called
Silbury Hill, rises to the height of 130 feet, with a circumference of 2027
feet at the base, covering fully 5 acres.
AVEBURY, John Lubbock, first Baron. See _Lubbock_.
AVEIRO ([.a]-v[=a]'i-r[u:]), a coast town in Portugal, province of Douro,
with a cathedral, an active fishery, and a thriving trade. Pop. 11,523.
AVELLINO ([.a]-vel-l[=e]'n[=o]), a town in Southern Italy, capital of the
province of Avellino, 29 miles east of Naples, the seat of a bishop.
Avellino nuts were celebrated under the Romans. Pop. 24,620. Area of the
province, 1165 sq. miles; pop. 411,813.
A'VE MARI'A ('Hail, Mary'), the first two words of the angel Gabriel's
salutation (_Luke_, i, 28), and the beginning of the very common Latin
prayer to the Virgin in the Roman Catholic Church. Its lay use was
sanctioned at the end of the twelfth century, and a papal edict of 1326
ordains the repetition of the prayer thrice each morning, noon, and
evening, the hour being indicated by sound of bells called the Ave Maria or
Angelus Domini. The prayers are counted upon the small beads of the rosary,
as the pater-nosters are upon the large ones.
AVE'NA. See _Oat_.
AV'ENS, the English name of two rosaceous plants of the genus Geum. Common
avens, or herb-bennet, _G. urb[=a]num_, possesses astringent properties,
and was formerly used in medicine. The mountain avens, _Dryas octopetala_,
belongs to the same nat. ord.
AV'ENTAILE, the movable face-guard of the helmet, through which the wearer
breathed.
AV'ENTINE, one of the seven hills of Rome, east of the Tiber. It was
included in the city by Servius Tullius.
AVEN'TURINE. See _Avanturine_.
AV'ERAGE, in maritime law, any charge or expense over and above the freight
of goods, and payable by their owner.--_General average_ is the sum falling
to be paid by the owners of ship, cargo, and freight, in proportion to
their several interests, to make good any loss or expense intentionally
incurred for the general safety of ship and cargo, e.g. throwing goods
overboard, cutting away masts, port dues in cases of distress,
&c.--_Particular average_ is the sum falling to be paid for unavoidable
loss when the general safety is not in question, and therefore chargeable
on the individual owner of the property lost. A policy of insurance
generally covers both general and particular average, unless specially
excepted.--_Averaging_, in Stock Exchange language, denotes the operation
of a speculator in increasing transactions at a higher or lower price when
the price is moving against him, so that the average price of the whole
will be higher or lower than his original purchase or sale.
AVER'NUS, a lake, now called LAGO D'AVERNO, in Campania, Italy, between the
ancient Cumae and Puteoli, about 8 miles from Naples. It is the crater of
an old volcano, and is in some places 180 feet deep. Formerly the gloom of
its forest surroundings and its mephitic exhalations caused it to be
regarded as the entrance to the infernal regions. It was the fabled abode
of the Cimmerians, and especially dedicated to Proserpine.
AVERROES (a-ver'o-es; corrupted from IBN ROSHD), the most renowned Arabian
philosopher, born at Cordova, in Spain, 1126, died at Morocco 1198. His
ability procured him the succession to his father's office of chief
magistrate, and the King of Morocco appointed him at the same time cadi in
the province of Mauretania. Accused of being an infidel, he was, however,
deprived of his offices, and banished to Spain; but, being persecuted there
also, he fled to Fez, where he was condemned to recant and undergo public
penance. Upon this he went back to his own country, where the Caliph
Almansur finally restored him to his dignities. Averroes regarded Aristotle
as the greatest of all philosophers, and devoted himself so largely to the
exposition of his works as to be called among the Arabians _The
Interpreter_. He wrote a compendium of medicine, and treatises on theology,
philosophy, jurisprudence, &c. His commentaries upon Aristotle appeared
before 1250 in a Latin translation attributed to Michael Scott, the reputed
wizard (1194-1250), and others. Averroes was at once a philosopher, a
theologian, and a theosophist.
AVERRUNCA'TOR, a garden implement for pruning trees without a ladder,
consisting of two blades similar to stout shears, one fixed rigidly to a
long handle, and the other moved by a lever to which a cord passing over a
pulley is attached.
AVER'SA, a well-built town of Southern Italy, 7 miles N. of Naples, in a
beautiful vine and orange district, the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral
and various religious institutions, and a large lunatic asylum. Andreas of
Hungary, husband of Queen Joanna I, was strangled in a convent here, 18th
Sept., 1345. Pop. 23,203.
AVESNES ([.a]-v[=a]n), a town of France, department Nord. Pop. 5829.
AVESTA. See _Zendavesta_.
AVEYRON ([.a]-v[=a]-r[=o][n.]), a department occupying the southern
extremity of the central plateau of France, traversed by mountains
belonging to the Cevennes and the Cantal ranges; principal rivers: Aveyron,
Lot, and Tarn, the Lot alone being navigable. The climate is cold, and
agriculture is in a backward state, but considerable attention is paid to
sheep-breeding. It is noted for its 'Roquefort cheese'. It has coal, iron,
and copper mines, besides other minerals. Area, 3385 sq. miles; capital,
Rhodez. Pop. (1921), 332,940.
AVEZZANO ([.a]-vet-zae'n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Aquila. Pop.
11,279.
AV'IARY, a building or enclosure for keeping, breeding, and rearing birds.
Aviaries appear to have been used by the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, and
are highly prized in China. In England they were in use at least as early
as 1577, when William Harrison refers to "our costlie and curious
aviaries". An aviary may be simply a kind of very large cage, or a series
of enclosures.
AVIATIK, a German type of biplane. It was originally built at Mulhausen in
Alsace.
AVIATION. See _Aeronautics_.
AVICEN'NA, or EBN-SINA, an Arabian philosopher and physician, born at
Kharmaithen, in the province of Bokhara, A.D. 980. After practising as a
physician he quitted Bokhara at the age of twenty-two, and for a number of
years led a wandering life, settling at last at Hamadan, subsequently as
vizier of the Emir. On the death of his patron he lived in retirement at
Hamadan, but having secretly offered his services to the Sultan of Ispahan
he was imprisoned by the new Emir. Escaping, he fled to Ispahan, was
received with great honour by the Sultan, and passed there in quietness the
last fourteen years of his life, writing upon medicine, logic, metaphysics,
astronomy, and geometry. His philosophy was Aristotelianism mingled with
neo-Platonism, and his influence is most marked in Dante and the Mystics.
He died at Hamadan, in Northern Persia, 1037, leaving many writings, mostly
commentaries on Aristotle. Of his 100 treatises the best known is the
_Canon Medicinae_, which was still in use as a textbook at Louvain and
Montpellier in the middle of the seventeenth century. His _Philosophia
Orientalis_, mentioned by Roger Bacon, is lost.
AVIE'NUS, Rufus Festus, a Latin descriptive poet, who flourished about the
end of the fourth century A.D., and wrote _Descriptio Orbis Terrae_, a
general description of the earth; _Ora Maritima_, an account of the
Mediterranean coasts, &c.
AVIFAU'NA, a collective term for the birds of any region.
AVIGLIANO ([.a]-v[=e]l-yae'n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Potenza.
Pop. 17,413.