_Derreen Lake._--There were here found an iron hatchet and a pair of

stirrup irons.[250]

_Kilglass._[251]--Of this site the name alone is given.

_Cloonfree_, _Cloonfinlough._--In the year 1852, by the operation

of drainage works in the vicinity of Strokestown, the level of the

three lakes of Cloonfree,[252] Cloonfinlough, and Ardakillen was

greatly lowered, and one artificial islet in the first-named sheet

of water, and two in Cloonfinlough were laid bare. Of the latter,

one island was one hundred and thirty feet in diameter, constructed

on oak piles driven into the soft marl at regular distances, bound

together by horizontal oak stretchers forming a triple stockade, with

an interval of five feet between each. To the N. W. were a number of

irregularly-placed piles, stretching a short distance from the islet.

The centre of the stockades was laid with trunks of small oak-trees,

placed flat on the marl; they all pointed to a common centre, thus

forming a platform whereon the island itself was constructed. When

first observed, there was jutting out from the island, towards the

west, a kind of jetty or pier, formed of a double row of piles and

stretchers running parallel, and about eight feet asunder, on which

logs of timber were laid closely and horizontally.

In a short time very little of either the gangway or stockades

remained, so much had been broken up and removed by the peasantry.

A trench--twenty feet long by five wide--having been cut as near

the centre of the island as possible, there was found, at about

eight inches under the surface, a very closely-laid pavement of

irregular-sized boulder stones; then a stratum of black earth, with

occasional fragments of bones through it, became exposed, and about

six inches beneath this was a considerable layer of burnt earth, with

several inches of unburnt clay under it. It is evident that the height

of the island had been raised and a new surface pavement laid, for then

came a second very closely-laid floor of large-sized, flat-surfaced

stones, beneath which were alternate layers of black earth, burnt

clay, and marl, reaching down to the log flooring, and interspersed,

like the one above it, with occasional bones and fragments of bones.

A human skull, and portions of others, were got on the exterior edge.

Between the island and the ruined church were found two single-piece

oak canoes, little more than two feet wide, the stern of one being

perforated with numerous auger holes about an inch in diameter.[253]

Close to the island were numerous articles of a miscellaneous

description, some of great antiquity, others of more modern date;

also a deposit of bones of _Bos longifrons_, _Cervus elaphus_, _Equus

caballus_, _Sus scrofa_, _Capra hircus_, fallow deer, sheep, fowl,

dogs, &c. One or two osseous fragments, said to be human, were found

in the lowest stratum, together with splintered bones and horns of

the _Megaceros hibernicus_. Traces of this great “Bighorn” have (as

already noticed) been found also in the crannog of Breagho, in the

lacustrine settlement in Loughrea, and in Ballinlough, _i.e._ in

connection with four crannog sites, whilst the exploration of the cave

of Ballynamintra,[254] situated near Cappagh, county Waterford, has

proved the contemporaneity of man with the _Megaceros_. In that cave,

and lying but a little over the stratum which contained the bones of

the _Megaceros_, was found the bone handle of what, judging from its

ferruginous colour, appeared to have been an iron blade.[255]

[Illustration: Fig. 230. Bronze Lamp, from Cloonfinlough.]

Amongst the bronze relics, not the least remarkable was a lamp,

of which the accompanying illustration affords a correct idea. It

measures in extreme length four inches and five-eighths. The bottom

was perforated, evidently for the admission of a support or stand, up

or down which the lamp could have been slid to suit the convenience of

anyone using it. Lamps fashioned in this way are still in common use

in Italy. The aperture to admit a stand has been covered by a small

plate of iron about the thickness of a shilling. A similar lamp in the

collection of Celtic antiquities formed by the late Dean Dawson, as

well as the Cloonfinlough specimen, are now in the Museum of the Royal

Irish Academy. The design is graceful and classic, so much so, indeed,

as to suggest the idea that the little object may have formed portion

of a spoil taken from Britain at a time while yet Roman influence

there prevailed. Raids by the Irish on the coasts of Britain were very

frequent, from whence they generally returned laden with spoil: this

may account for traces of Roman civilization discovered in Ireland, for

hoards of Roman coin have been unearthed in various localities.

_Ardakillen._--In this lake one of the four crannogs discovered was

constructed of both stones and oak piling. Fig. 231 represents a

section of this island. The upper line (_a_) shows the former high

water-level before the drainage operations; (_b_) the ordinary winter

flood; and (_c_) the average summer level.

[Illustration: Fig. 231.--Section of one of the Ardakillen Crannogs.]

[Illustration: Fig. 232.

Skull and Iron Fetters from the Crannog of Ardakillen. One-eighth real

size.

Fig. 233.

Iron Fetters from one of the Strokestown Crannogs. One-third real size.]

Under a slight earthy deposit there was a deep layer of loose stones,

bounded by an enclosing wall, the foundation supported by piling.

The lower portion of the island consisted of clay, peat, and stones,

mingled with strata of ashes, bones, and logs of timber. The various

rows of oak-piling are shown in the section; the sheet-piling, driven

in obliquely, formed an unbroken circle round the island. When the

level of the lake was lowered, four islands became visible, and on the

largest upwards of fifty tons of bones were found: this is probably

the crannog mentioned in the _Irish Annals_, under dates 1368 and

1388 (_ante_, p. 154). The scene which this site presented shortly

after the lowering of the water-level was very remarkable; scores of

persons visited it, at first in search of bones, for which they found

a ready sale as manure, and afterwards with the view of picking up

antiques, with which the bog-matter around the sheet-piling or stockade

was plentifully studded. Large numbers of these were disposed of to

an English collector, and amongst the objects known to have been

obtained by him was a beautifully-formed vessel of wood, bound round

with plates of thin golden bronze, upon which a variety of designs

were displayed.[256] What appears to have been a very similar article

was found many years ago in deepening the bed of the Kinnegad river,

and is figured (p. 67) in Wilde’s _Boyne and Blackwater_. A “dug

out,” eighteen feet in length, discovered lying on the bottom of the

lake, was wantonly destroyed, and ultimately utilised for firewood.

Near the crannog was a canoe, forty feet in length, and four feet

across the bow; it was hollowed out of a single trunk of oak, and

in it were a skull, a spear-head, and a bronze pin. The skull bears

the mark of no less than twenty sword-cuts, showing the murderous

conflict in which its owner must have been engaged. Near it was found

a neck-piece of iron with twenty feet of rude chain attached[257]

(fig. 232). Another set of “irons” (fig. 233) came from a crannog in

the immediate neighbourhood, and from the size it is likely they were

intended for ankle-fetters; it is stated that similar instruments have

elsewhere occurred in Irish lacustrine sites, and, strange to say, in

one instance there were traces of gilding. In Irish MSS. allusions

frequently occur to the practice of putting captives in fetters; they

were sometimes so severely manacled as to produce almost unbearable

torture. Prisoners were often slain when fettered. One instance, though

a comparatively modern one, will suffice:--According to the _Annals of

Loch Cé_, in the year 1585, a son of Teige O’Rorke, and a son of Magnus

Oge O’Currin, were captured, “placed in irons on _Loch-na-cula_,” in

the county Leitrim, and slain.

The skull found lying in the bottom of the canoe was of the oval or

elliptical (_Dolicho cephalic_) type, characteristic of the natives of

western or southern Europe. There is a theory that in primeval times

in Erin there were two races, each distinctly marked both by features

and the form of the cranium. The one possessed thick elliptical skulls,

low foreheads, deep orbits, high cheek-bones, prominent mouths, and

narrow chins; the other had round, or globular (_Brachi cephalic_)

skulls, possessed more intellect, and less marked features. Wilde

observes that the two fragments of human skulls discovered in the

crannog of Lagore[258] (_ante_, p. 204) partook of the character of the

long-headed race, whilst the antiquities found with them would lead to

the belief that the persons to whom the skulls had belonged did not

live later than the tenth century. Good examples of both races may

still be seen amongst the modern Irish.

“There are reasons for considering that the Ardakillen skull belonged

to a young adult, or to a man in the prime of life. This opinion

is based upon the fact that the coronal and sagittal sutures were

not obliterated. (The coronal suture is the name given to the line

of articulation between the frontal and parietal bones; it forms a

_vertical transverse_ line over the top of the front of the skull. The

sagittal, or interparietal suture, occupies a _median longitudinal_

position between the two parietal bones.) The coalescence into one

plate of bone (calvarium, or skull-cap) of the frontal and the two

parietal bones, and the consequent obliteration of the sutures (coronal

and sagittal), generally occurs between thirty and forty years of age;

however, the period at which this union commences, and the order in

which it proceeds, is subject to so much variation, that no more than

an approximation to the age of the skull is attainable thereby.

“Examination of the teeth remaining in one side of the upper jaw--the

opposite side of the jaw was broken away--showed that the third molar

tooth (_dens sapientiæ_) had been erupted.

“The many marks of cutting instruments upon the skull were found

chiefly over the vertex and the frontal and occipital regions. In many

the force had been applied at right angles to the cranium, resulting in

nicks or linear marks; in several horizontally, so as to slice or shave

off a portion of the outer table of the bone. In no case was there a

perforation of the inner table apparent, nor a fracture or fissure of

the entire thickness of the skull, whence it might be inferred that the

weapons were not of any great weight; the force of the blows might have

been broken by protecting headgear, thick coils of matted hair, or by

defensive movements of the arms. There were no appearances to negative

the idea that all, or the majority of, the cuts were received about

the same date. They have all the characters of _ante mortem_ injuries,

as contrasted with such injuries as the skull is liable to from rough

usage, or from its being knocked about. From the distribution of the

marks it may be assumed that the man was in an upright or semi-upright

position. In the hacking of a dead and prostrate enemy the wounds would

be on the part of the head which was uppermost.

“Though there is no single wound which must have proved fatal _ex

necessitate rei_, death might have ensued from the accumulation of

injuries, from concussion, erysipelas, or secondary inflammation of the

brain or its membranes.”[259]

COUNTY LEITRIM.

Twenty crannogs were discovered in this county during the working of

the Commission for the arterial drainage of Ireland: these sites have

all been identified.

_Drumaleague_ may be cited as a good example of a lacustrine dwelling:

the form circular, and, with the exception of the hearth-stones, it was

composed wholly of wood, principally alder. Drumaleague lake, situated

in the vicinity of Lough Scur, was originally about a mile in length.

The level of the water having been lowered thirteen feet, two crannogs

became visible, as also a canoe--hollowed out of a single trunk of

oak--eighteen feet long, twenty-two inches broad, square at stem and

stern, and having apertures or row-locks cut in the sides.

[Illustration: Fig. 234.--Plan of Crannog in Drumaleague Lake. Scale,

twenty feet to one inch.]

The annexed plan of one of the islands conveys a good idea of the

general arrangement of this class of structure. The outer line of

stakes enclosed a circle sixty feet in diameter, and within the

enclosure there were groups of stakes--in some parts two or three

deep--driven into the ground, seemingly for purposes connected with

some internal arrangement. A, the central oblong portion, consists

of a platform of round logs cut in lengths of from four to six feet,

possibly the floor of the hut; B, a collection of stones with marks

of fire on them; C, a heap of stiff clay; D, the root of a large tree

nearly buried in the peat, the surface of the wood bevelled off, so as

to form a sort of table, under which was found a considerable quantity

of bones, apparently those of deer and swine.

[Illustration: Fig. 235.--Section of second Crannog in Drumaleague

Lake.]

Fig. 235 is a section of the second crannog, which was surrounded by

a tolerably regular circular enclosure formed of a single row of oak

stakes F, F; it was seventy-two feet in diameter. The upper stratum

B, consisted of horizontal logs of alder, reposing upon a black

peaty surface; the logs were from three to eight inches in diameter,

completely water soaked and rotten: this stratum of timber was three

feet six inches deep. A, a heap of stones with marks of fire on them.

Other hearths were found in different parts of the island. C, the

lower stratum of decayed and blackened sticks and branches of all

descriptions lying in every direction: this layer extended as far as

it was pierced in the examination, viz., about four feet, but was

evidently of greater depth. D, D, two heaps of stones found in the

lower stratum. E, the kitchen midden, in which was a large quantity of

bones of deer, swine, oxen, &c., that lay four feet below the surface.

There was here found also the thin topstone of a quern, formed of

micaceous quartzite, smooth upon the grinding surface, but otherwise

rude and unfinished: the hole for the handle passes quite through; the

grain-hole, two and a-half inches in diameter, is not directly in the

centre.[260]

_Lough Scur._--This crannog is alluded to in the _Annals of Loch Cé_,

under the following dates:--1345, four sons of _Cathal Mac-in-caich

Mac Raghnaill_ were taken prisoners on _Loch-an-Scuir_, and put to

death; 1390, O’Rorke, who had been in confinement, escaped to the

castle of _Loch-an-Scuir_, but was overtaken and slain “when coming

out of his cott”; 1580, _Loch-an-Scuir_ was taken, and _Maelsechlainn

Mac Raghnaill_ slain. On this site was found the largest quern in

the Museum, R.I.A., the nether-stone being twenty and three-quarter

inches long by three and three-quarter inches thick; the aperture for

the pivot one and three-quarter inches deep, the same across; it is

surrounded by a raised lip to retain in position the upper stone, which

is nineteen and a-half inches in diameter by two and three-quarter

inches in thickness: the grain aperture is three and a-half inches

wide; upon the upper surface is the mark of the cross-bar of the pivot,

its upper surface left in a rude state; it has one handle-hole. The

stone mould, figured _ante_, p. 72, was found here, and a model of a

portion of the oak framework of the crannog--one-quarter real size--was

deposited in the Museum, R.I.A.

_Lough Rinn_ (_the lake of the promontory_) lies in the barony of

Mohill. It is mentioned in the _Annals of Loch Cé_, under date 1345,

when O’Conor, “king” of Connaught, was killed by an arrow at _Loch

Airinn_ whilst assisting _Mac Raghnaill_, to whom the crannog on the

lake belonged; for the sept of the Mac Rannals formerly possessed

the neighbouring district, then called _Conmaicue Moyrein_. In the

year 1847, the waters of Lough Rinn having being lowered, two canoes

were found imbedded in the mud near an old castle at the promontory

from whence the locality derives its name; there was also a chain, or

manacle, composed of iron rods, looped at their ends, like one found

in the Strokestown crannogs. One of these canoes was a “single-piece,”

hollowed out of oak, and flat-bottomed, the length thirteen feet and

the breadth nearly two feet throughout; the sides were only four

inches high; but the original depth must have been greater. In front

of the old castle stands an island covered with self-sown ash and

thorn, and constructed with wooden piles, of slight scantling, but

perfectly sound; “the paling was interlaced and pegged down in a very

rude manner: the island appeared to have been formed inside of it, and

raised upon a similar description of work.” A small bronze arrow and

a spear-head were found two feet deep in a gravel shoal close to Rinn

Castle, between Loughs Rinn and Sallagh.

_St. John’s Lough_ contained four crannogs, in which three silver coins

of Edward I., II., and III. were found.

_Loughtown_ crannog measured one hundred and twenty feet from east to

west by one hundred feet from north to south, and was surrounded by a

mass of stakes upwards of fifteen feet wide, inclining in towards the

centre of the island.

_Aghakilconnel Lough._--Three iron pots, one of them triangular in

form, were found on this site.

_Lough MacHugh_ contained two crannogs; one measured seventy-four feet

by one hundred and eighteen feet.

_Cloonbo_ and _Cloonturk Loughs_ had each two sites.

_Cloonfinnan_, _Cloonboniagh_, _Castlefore_, and _Funshinagh Loughs_,

each contained a crannog.

_Crannog Island._--No account is given of this site.

_Manorhamilton._--A crannog, a canoe paddle, and other articles were

discovered not far from this village.[261]

_Muinter Eolius._--A crannog in this district is mentioned in the Irish

Annals (_ante_, p. 152).

COUNTY SLIGO.

_Glencar_ lake, situated between the counties of Sligo and Leitrim, is

embosomed in mountains; to the north lies the Ben-Bulben range, and to

the south the Castlegal range with bold precipitous sides, its grey

limestone cliffs resembling ancient weather-beaten fortifications, and

its slopes in parts clothed with plantations of fir. The rain that

falls on the summits of the Ben-Bulben range descends to the vale

in numerous streamlets, which, after a continuance of wet weather,

appear when viewed from a distance like streaks of silver. Some form

waterfalls of more or less magnitude, of which one is called in Irish

_Sruth-an-ail-an-ard_, or the stream against the height; because in

this instance, when the wind blows from a certain point, the ordinary

laws of hydrology seem to be reversed, and the water, instead of

falling, is either driven upwards and back against the mountain, or

it is blown outwards in a sheet of spray, like a pennant. Ben-Bulben,

or Ben-Gulban, _Gulban’s Peak_, is said to be so named from Gulban,

son of Nial of the Nine Hostages, who was fostered near it. Gulban

was ancestor of the O’Donnells, who, through this mountain gorge,

frequently poured their forces into Sligo. In the year 1595 O’Donnell,

when pursued by Bingham, retired to this valley, in full confidence

that the wary Saxon would not attempt to follow him through the

narrow and difficult defile, and in 1597, the same chief encamped in

the immediate vicinity of the eastern crannog. So late as 1609, in a

curious old map of the county, the valley of Glencar and the slopes

of Ben-Bulben are delineated as covered with wood, and the following

quaintly-worded information is appended:--“Ye high hills of Ben-Bulben,

where yearly timbereth a falcon esteemed the hardiest in Ireland.” The

locality is still the _habitat_ of the peregrine falcon.

Although, in the present day, lovers of the picturesque resort to

Glencar, yet, probably, few are aware that the locality was anciently

the home of a considerable lacustrine population. In the early part of

this century, when the level of the lake had been lowered by drainage

operations, several crannogs became visible; and the one situated at

the eastern extremity, where the stream enters the lake, had seemingly

been the largest. Broken bones, antlers of deer, a quantity of old

timber, and some articles of bronze (amongst them a tweezers) were

said to have been obtained. In the _Annals of the Four Masters_, under

date 1541, this site is noticed as the scene of strife between two

branches of the O’Rourkes.--“The eastern crannog, on the lake of _Glen

Dallain_,[262] was taken by the sons of Donal, son of Donogh O’Rourke,

from Donogh, the son of Donogh O’Rourke. In some time after, the sons

of Donogh O’Rourke, namely, Donal and Ferganainm, made an attack on the

crannog, and privately set fire to the fortress; that act was perceived

and detected, and they were pursued on the lake and were overtaken

by the sons of Donal; Ferganainm, the son of Donogh, was slain, and

drowned by them; and Donal having been taken prisoner, was hanged

by the sons of Donal, the son of Donogh O’Rourke.” At the western

end of the lake--on the subsidence of the water after drainage--four

crannogs became visible; but, owing to the subsequent silting up of

the cutting in the bed of the Drumcliff river, they have all again

disappeared, with the exception of the largest, which, at the time of

the drainage, was accessible from the land dryshod, though now the

water reaches to a wader’s knees. To the east of this crannog there

is still a considerable depth of water: the beach descends rapidly,

and layers of large beams, from six to seven inches in diameter, can

be seen radiating from a common centre; in some instances, three or

even four layers can be traced. Cross-beams are noticeable, also

piles driven in at intervals; these are only three or four inches in

diameter, and sharply pointed at the ends; this side of the crannog

presents the appearance of having been denuded of stones. The height

of the water prevents exploration; but it has been roughly computed

that, including the wooden substructure now submerged, the diameter

had formerly averaged seventy feet, or possibly more. Careful search

amongst the stones merely led to the discovery of fractured bones of

_Bos longifrons_, _Cervus elaphus_, _Sus scrofa_, &c., and numerous

teeth of mammalia, together with a fossil, possibly a selected specimen

used as an ornament or charm, and pronounced to be a _Zaphrentis_--a

coral of the carboniferous formation.

“… in that rock are shapes of shells and forms

Of creatures in old worlds, of nameless worms

Whose generations lived and died ere man,

A worm of other class, to crawl began.”

Opposite the crannog, the beach on the mainland is strewn with

fractured bones similar to those on the island. The antlers of a

_Cervus elaphus_ were found close to the shore, and a wooden peg

(_ante_, p. 104, fig. 108) was seen lying on the bottom near a beam. In

one of the mythical legends of the “Pursuit of Diarmuid and Grainne,”

mention is made of the Glencar lake-dwellings as one of their places of

refuge.

_Lough Arrow._--Not far from the old Abbey of Ballindoon is an

artificial island formed almost entirely of stones; the earth--in

which a few young firs are now growing--was brought to it by the late

proprietor, J. Gethin. This crannog, the largest of a group, still

stands well above the surface of the lake. To the north--but separated

from it by a deep and narrow channel--is a shoal called “Sunken

Island,” which is in summer weather almost dry, and around both these

sites were numerous fractured bones of the _Bos longifrons_, _Cervus

elaphus_, and _Sus scrofa_. Still further to the north, and close to

the shore of Ballindoon demesne, is plainly discernible the summit of

a large pile of stones, evidently deposited by human agency, but the

depth of water effectually precluded any hope of obtaining handicraft

“finds.” The island at _Annaghcloy Point_ is said to be artificial,

and around _Oilean-na-prechaun_ (_Crow Island_)--seemingly formed of

small stones, and situated near the exit of the river Unshin from Lough

Arrow, at Bellarush bridge--were found lying on the beach numerous

fractured bones of the usual crannog type.

_Lochanacrannog_ is the name of a small townland in the barony of

Tireragh, near the residence of Sir Malby Crofton, Bart. The small pond

in which the crannog is situated becomes almost dry in summer, yet,

despite this favourable circumstance, no relics have been discovered.

A trench cut through the island showed that it was composed of clay

mingled with some few stones, and these, around the exterior edge, were

arranged in a systematic manner.

[Illustration: Fig. 236.--General view of Lochanacrannog.]

[Illustration: Fig. 237.--General view of Ballygawley Lake and Crannog.]

[Illustration: Fig. 238.--Beam, or Stretcher, binding tops of Piles, 10

ft. 6 in. long by 9 in. broad.]

_Ballygawley._--This lake, picturesquely situated at the foot of the

Slieve Dæane range of mountains, is embosomed in wood, which may be

viewed as now representing the primeval mantle that had formerly

covered the neighbouring slopes, when

“The wolf, the wild-cat, and the bear,

Prowled in these woods, or made their lair.”

The crannog lies about one hundred and eighty yards from the eastern

shore, and the diameter of the area covered with stones is eighty-five

feet, but the wooden substructure extends to a considerable distance

under water. The beams, protruding from under the superincumbent

stones, appeared--as is usual--to radiate from a common centre, but two

beams on the west shore, and one that was raised from a depth of one

foot under the present water surface on the south shore, seemed to lie

at a tangent to the circle of the crannog. In fig. 238 the mortises

_a_, _b_ secured the heads of piles, and _c_, _d_ (of larger size) may

have held some of the radial beams. The highest point of the crannog

now stands about five feet above the level of the lake, which has been

reduced three feet in height, as the result of drainage operations

carried out by the proprietor, Colonel Cooper. Some of the encircling

piles remain in position; three were noticed on the north, and one on

the south-east shore. To the west and south the water is shallow, and

this shoal would seem to have been the “kitchen midden,” or refuse

heap, for numerous teeth of the _Bos longifrons_ were here dredged up,

and close to the encircling piles lay a quantity of fractured hazel

nuts and some pieces of charcoal. On the east and west there were, in

the fine sand on the crannog beach, small portions of calcined bones,

resembling those found in the cromlech interments at Carrowmore. A. W.

Foot, M.D., to whom they were submitted, states that these fragments

were “undoubtedly bone, several of them unmistakably calcined (from

carbonaceous residue). Some of the fragments are entirely composed of

carbonate of lime, others are a mixture of carbonate and phosphate of

lime. It could not be determined whether they are animal or human; this

should be conjectured from surrounding or collateral circumstances.”

_Lough Gill_ is one of the numerous localities in Ireland to which is

attached the legend of a buried city. Amongst the peasantry there long

lingered a tradition that these waters had overspread a plain whereon

stood the ancient town of Sligo, the numerous islands being supposed to

represent former knolls on its green expanse. As the result of recent

extensive drainage operations in the county Leitrim, a large additional

amount of water has, through the river Bonnett, been directed into

Lough Gill at its eastern extremity. The consequent greatly increased

height of surface would, of itself, present an insuperable bar to

exploration, so that no means remain of ascertaining if an extensive

lacustrine settlement had ever really existed here of old. Within

the actual bounds of the lake, which is seven miles in length, the

islands, highly picturesque, and of some extent--one of them contains

twenty-five acres--are of undoubted natural formation; there is,

however, near the site of the ancient Castle of Annagh--noticed in the

_Annals of the Four Masters_, under date 1533--one small islet, bearing

a crannog-like appearance, but, as far as can now be ascertained, no

traces of occupation have been found around it. The short stretch of

the Garvogue, or Sligo river, which forms the outlet from the lake

to the sea, seems to present the peculiar features characteristic

of sites the most favoured by a lacustrine population, viz., good

fishing-ground, and wide borders of marsh on the adjoining mainland.

The ancient name of the demesne of Hazlewood was Annagh (_a swamp_),

and a portion of the grounds which skirt the river, and now remarkable

for its peculiarly ornamental planting, was so late as sixty years

since a mere spongy bog, on which no firm footing was obtainable. The

opposite shore, called Cleveragh, was of still softer and more watery

nature, and its name implies that either hurdles or rude wicker-work

bridges had been formerly used for crossing the river or the marshy

spots near it.[263] Along this side, and but a short distance from

the shore, there were, at varying intervals of space from each other,

three shoals, about the size of ordinary crannogs, and nearly circular

in form. They were occasionally so little perceptible as to prove

an obstruction for boats, and in the early part of this century the

proprietor, after surrounding each shoal with a low wall of masonry,

caused a sufficient quantity of soil to be conveyed to them for the

growth of a few trees. At that period nothing was known respecting

former lacustrine populations in any part of Europe, so that no special

examination was made of the nature of the shoals in question. In

the present day, however, with the aid of the light thrown upon the

construction of lake dwellings by modern discoveries, the position and

aspect of the three islets becomes striking, and cannot fail to call to

the mind of an observer the old tradition of a “buried city” in Lough

Gill.

* * * * *

The number of lacustrine sites in each county in Ireland is marked

within a small circle on the map (plate L.), and the lake dwelling

area, as at present known, is shown by a shading, light or dark,

according to the number of sites. The province of Ulster (including

historical notices of crannogs) contains one hundred and twenty-four;

Leinster, nineteen; Munster, nine; and Connaught, sixty-nine. This

makes for all Ireland a total of two hundred and twenty-one. The

ascertained sites are, however, in all probability, but a mere fraction

of the multitude that had formerly existed. Further explorations

amongst the remains of Irish and Scottish lake dwellings would,

doubtless, tend to strengthen the evidence of these structures having

been the work of a people who, at that remote period, formed most

probably a homogeneous community.

In the opinion of some theorists, these dwellings seem characteristic

of an early wave of immigration from the East--then throwing off its

superabundant population as does now the West--and in this manner it

is supposed that the lakes of Central Europe and Great Britain became

studded with water-laved homes. However, as before stated, they, with

a greater degree of probability, sprang up independently by reason

of the natural laws which govern man’s actions in a semi-civilized

state--in Erin, their first founders being rude flint-armed hunters of

the _Megaceros_, the bear, the wolf, and their descendants wielders

of the pike and matchlock. Recent investigation traces “island homes”

back to a period so remote, that the evidences of man’s formation and

occupation of these retreats prove in their way as interesting as the

remains of the buried cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, for lacustrine

dwellings, also, show traces of a species of civilization long passed

away (evidences of which were observable on the sites of Venice,

Mexico, and London), and the purposes of their primitive founders were

alike, whether situated on the lagoons of the Adriatic, the flats of

Central America, or the reaches of the Thames.

[Illustration: Plate L.

MAP OF IRELAND SHEWING APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION OF ALL KNOWN LACUSTRINE

SITES]

FOOTNOTES

[1] _Prehistoric Times_, Sir John Lubbock, 2nd ed., p. 214.

[2] Some Irish scholars give a different interpretation.

[3] Hull, in his _Physical Geology of Ireland_, cites the “Four

Masters” as alluding to man and the _Megaceros_ being contemporaneous,

p. 270.

[4] Sir John Lubbock, writing of extinct mammalia, states that remains

of the _Megaceros Hibernicus_ never occur in the ‘Kjökken-moddings,’

lake habitations, or sepulchral remains; nor are there any traditions

in Western Europe which can be regarded as indicating even obscurely a

memory of this gigantic mammal.--_Prehistoric Times_, 2nd ed., 1869, p.

291.

[5] _Proceedings, R. I. A._, vol. viii., p. 424.

[6] _Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland_, vol. v. p.

170. New Series.

[7] “As far as we can judge from the present evidence, the first

appearance of the reindeer in Europe coincided with that of the

mammoth, and took place at a later period than that of the cave bear or

Irish elk.”--Sir John Lubbock, _Prehistoric Times_, 2nd ed., 1869, p.

293.

[8] _Geology of Ireland_: G. H. Kinahan, p. 262.

[9] Hippocrates, vol. i., p. 209. _De Aeribus_, xxxvii.

[10] ὲν μέση ἒστηκε τῇλίμνῃ. These dwellings in the middle of the

lake were out of bow-shot, out of reach of fiery projectiles against

thatched roofs and wooden walls--a description of attack to which some

of the Helvetian settlements probably succumbed.

[11] _Herodotus_, Book v., chap. xvi.

[12] _Prehistoric Times_, Sir John Lubbock, 2nd ed., p. 169.

[13] _Lake Dwellings of Switzerland_, Keller, 2nd ed., p. 73.

[14] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. vii., p. 151.

[15] _Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings._

[16] (1) bronze dish with handle of Roman work; (2) two bronze dishes

hammered out of the solid; (3) a small bronze dish of separate pieces

rivetted together; (4) a bronze ring having attached to it a portion

of the vessel of which it had been the handle; (5) fragment of leather

with a stamped pattern on it; (6) a large blue glass bead; (7) two

glass beads with streaks and spots; (8) a bead of amber; (9) a bead

of vitreous paste; (10) a small brooch of bronze; (11) a small ring

of bronze; (12) _a copper coin_; (13) five querns; (14) a fragment

of bronze; (15) a piece of iron slag; (16) a small earthen crucible;

(17) whetstone; (18) three iron hammers; (19) portions of armlets of

enamelled glass; (20) five canoes.--_Notices of Scottish Crannogs_,

John Stewart, p. 8.

[17] “A description of certain piles, found near London-wall and

Southwark, possibly the remains of Pile-Buildings.” A Paper read before

the Anthropological Society, December 18, 1866.

[18] _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, vol. xii. p. 255.

[19] _Early Man in Britain_, p. 352.

[20] _Nature_, vol. xvii. p. 424.

[21] _Lake Dwellings of Switzerland_, Keller, 2nd ed., p. 660.

[22] _De Bello Gallico_, lib. v. xviii: “ripa autem erat acutis sudibus

præfixis munita; eiusdemque generis sub aqua defixæ sudes flumine,

tegebantur.” The _oppidum_ of Cassivellaunus is described as being,

“Sylvis paludibusque munitum,” and by Orosius, “inter duas paludes

situm, obtentu insuper sylvarum munitum.” Cæsar also states, lib. v.

xxi., “oppidum autem Britanni vocant, quum silvas impeditas vallo atque

fossa munierunt, quo incursionis hostium vitandæ caussa convenire

consuerunt.”

[23] Supplementa tabulæ Syriæ, cap. ii., as quoted in Keller’s _Lake

Dwellings of Switzerland_, 2nd ed., vol. i. p. 497.

[24] Prescott’s _Conquest of Mexico_.

[25] _New Guinea_, vol. i. pp. 47, 145, 216, 218, 401.

[26] “Jadis toute la ville de Tondano était construite sur le lac, et

l’on ne communiquait d’une maison à une autre qu’en bâteau. Forts de

cette disposition, en 1810, les habitants eurent de démèlés avec les

Hollandais, et voulurent secouer leur joug, ils s’ármèrent et furent

battus. Ce ne fut pas sans peine qu’on en vint à bout; il fallait y

porter de l’artillerie et constuire des bateaux canoniers. Depuis ce

temps, et pour éviter cet inconvénient on a défendu aux indigènes

de construire leurs habitations sur le lac.”--_Histoire_, Dumont

D’Urville, vol iv. p. 607; vol. v. p. 635.

[27] _Transactions of the Ethnol. Soc._ (new series), vol. ii. p. 28.

[28] _Illustrated Travels_, vol. ii. pp. 19-21. An account of a Visit

to the Guajiro Indians of Maracaibo, by A. Goering, Esq.

[29] _The Crew of the Falcon_, vol. i. p. 132.

[30] _Memoirs of the Anthropological Society_, vol. i. p. 311.

[31] _Across Africa._

[32] _The Lakes and Mountains of Eastern and Central Africa_: Elton,

pp. 156 and 243.

[33] In Lewis’s _Topographical Dictionary_, published 1837, mention is

made of a “wooden house” which formerly existed in Lough Annagh, vol.

ii. p. 175.

[34] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. v. (4th

Series), pp. 325-26.

[35] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i. (3rd

Series), pp. 220, 21, Rev. W. Kilbride.

[36] Joyce, _Irish Names of Places_, 4th ed. p. 299.

[37] _Geology of Ireland_, p. 278.

[38] The peasantry of the neighbourhood say that “crannog” signifies

the hopper of a mill, and that in all probability there was formerly a

mill there. This is the popular explanation given of every crannog in

the kingdom.--_MS. Letters, Ordnance Survey._

[39] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. vii. p. 157.

[40] _Old Statistical Account_, vol. viii. p. 304.

[41] John Stuart, _Notices of Scottish Crannogs_, p. 33.

[42] _Edinburgh Review_, No. 275, p. 207.

[43] In the year 1508, it is of record that a Scottish monastery

granted a lease of a crannog, one of the covenants being that the

occupant was to place a certain quantity of stones outside the piling

in each year, to protect the structure from the destructive influence

of the waters of the lake.

[44] _Wightown_: Barhapple, Barlockhart, Barneallzie, Castleloch,

Dowalton, (5,) Eldrig (3), Loch-Inch-Crindel, Machermore (2), Merton,

Sunonness.

[45] _Kircudbright_: Barean, Carlingwark (2), Loch-Kinder, Loch-Lotus,

Loch-Rutton.

[46] _Dumfries_: Black Loch, Corncockle, Friar’s-Carse, Lochmaben.

[47] _Ayr_: Buston, Loch of Kilbirnie, Lochlee, Lochspouts.

[48] _Bute_: Dhu Loch, Loch Quien. The remainder of the Scottish sites

are situated as follows:--

_Aberdeen_: Banchory, Loch Canmore. _Argyll_: Kielziebar, Ledaig,

Loch-na-Mial (Mull), Lochnell. _Forfar_: Loch of Forfar. _Inverness_:

Loch-in-Croy, Loch Lochy. _Lanark_: Greenknowe. _Linlithgow_: Loch Cot.

_Moray_, _Nairn and Elgin_: Loch Flemington, Lochindorb, Loch-in-Dunty,

Loch of the Clans, Loch Spinie. _Perth_: Loch Rannoch. _Ross_: Loch

Achilty, Loch of Kinellan. _Stirling_: Loch Lomond.

[49] Namely at Loughrea, county Galway; at Ballinlough, near Marble

Hill, same county; at Lough Nahinch, on the borders of Tipperary and

King’s County, and Lough Naneevin, West Galway.

[50] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. vii. p. 150. This crannog may be said

to form portion of the Strokestown group; excavations were made, and

several bronze pins found.

[51] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. ii. pp.

11-13 (4th Series)--G. H. Kinahan.

[52] Toome Bar, county Antrim; Rahans, county Monaghan; Drumkeery and

Cornagall, county Cavan; Lagore, near Dunshaughlin, county Meath;

Nahinch, county Tipperary; Cloonfinlough, county Roscommon; are

examples of crannogs which show visible traces of having been consumed

by fire, and some of them of having been rebuilt.

[53] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. v. (4th

Series), pp. 327-336.--W. F. Wakeman.

[54] “The framework was composed of oak logs, as shown in the sketch

(fig. 1. side elevation); the main sleepers, one on each side, were

principal pieces, and rested on the sand. These logs were made from

a large oak-tree, split in two, with the round part upwards; they

measured, when put together, twenty-three inches in diameter and

twenty-four feet in length; into these the upright pieces, or posts _B_

of the frame, were mortised, _p_; and the end of the post protruding

through the mortise in the sleeper _A_, was forelocked by a large

block of wood below, as shown, fig. 1. The mortises were roughly cut,

as if they had been made by a kind of blunt instrument.… The planks

which formed the sides _D_ were laid edgewise, one upon another, the

lower one resting in a groove cut in the sleeper _A_, as shown in fig.

2, and the but-ends on a log of wood mortised into the framework, as

in fig. 1. The planks butting home against the supports, … were more

firmly fixed by the two uprights, which passed through a hole in the

cross-beam _c_, fig. 1, and slipped into the mortise in the sleeper.”

[55] A somewhat similar “find” was dug up in one of the crannogs in

Loch Dowalton, Wigtownshire.--_Ancient Lake Dwellings of Scotland_, p.

49.

[56] “These jambs, of which there were six at each extremity, stood

on well-wrought foundation stones, but of course in a calcined

state.”--Schlieman, _Troja_, p. 80.

[57] _Archæologia_, vol. xxvi. p. 361. _Dublin Journal_, p. 381-83,

1836.

[58] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i. p. 269.

[59] _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish_, pp. 31-2.

[60] Mr. Mackinlay, describing a crannog in Loch Quien in Bute, states

that two rows of piles extended obliquely from it to the shore of the

lake, between which the ground was covered with flat stones, “_not

raised like a causeway_.”

[61] _Dublin Quarterly Journal of Science_, vol. vi. p. 69.

[62] _Mem. Geol. Sur. Ireland._

[63] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. ii. (4th

Series), p. 435.

[64] _Geology of Ireland_, G. H. Kinahan, p. 276.

[65] _Proceedings R. I. A._ vol. vii. p. 154.

[66] _Cat. Mus. R. I. A._ p. 251.

[67] A writer states that around the Crannog of Lough Ravel were found

“a whole fleet of boats,” each cut out of a single trunk of oak; one

was made fast to a stake of the crannog by a rude chain.

[68] _Journal of a Cruise on the Tanganyika Lake, Central Africa._

[69] _Arch. Journal_, vol. iii. p. 46.

[70] _Ulster Journal of Archæology_, vol. vii. p. 194.

[71] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. ii. p. 247; vol. viii. p. 293.

[72] It may be observed that a canoe found at Cudrelin, on the Lake

of Neufchatel, had a similar kind of handle.--_Lake Dwellings of

Switzerland_, Keller, 2nd ed., p. 282.

[73] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. ii. (4th

Series), pp. 16-18.--W. F. Wakeman.

[74] The following list of single-tree canoes, though necessarily

incomplete, yet enables an approximate estimate to be made of the

number already discovered:--Ardagh, 1; Ardakillen, 1; Ballinderry,

2; Boyne, 1; Cahore, 1; Cloonfinlough, 1; Cornagall, 1; Derryhollagh

(_several_), 1; Drumaleague, 1; Drumdarragh, 1; Drumgay, 1; Drumkeery,

1; Erne, 2; Lough Eyes, 3; Kilnock, 1; Lough Annagh, 5; Lough Faughan,

1; Lough Owel, 1; Loughrea, 4; Lough Rinn, 2; Loughtamand, 1; Miracles

(_several_), 1; Moinalty, 1; Moinenoe, 1; Mourne, 2; Randalstown

(_several_), 1; Sligo (_Ballydoogan_), 1; Toome, 3.

[75] The above illustration represents No. 3 in the Museum, R. I. A.

No. 4 in the same collection is two feet two inches long, by five

inches across the blade.

[76] _De. Bel. Civil._ 1-54.

[77] The coracles used still in Caermarthenshire are of oval form, five

feet and a-half long, by four feet and a-half broad; the hides forming

the skin of the skiff are pitched.

[78] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. ii. (4th

Series), pp. 74-5.

[79] _Ulster Journal of Archæology_, vol. i. p. 32.

[80] _Cat. Mus. R. I. A._ pp. 276-7.

[81] Æs erat in pretio, chalybeia massa latebat.

[82] Utuntur aut aere, aut taleis ferreis, ad certum pondus examinatis,

pro nummo. Nascitur ibi plumbum album in mediterraneis regionibus,

in maritimis ferrum; sed eius exigua est copia; aere utuntur

importato.--Cæsar, _De Bel. Gal._ Lib 5. cap. xii.

[83] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i. (4th

Series), pp. 461-465.--W. F. Wakeman.

[84] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. v. (4th

Series), p. 119, vol. vi. p. 392.

[85] Plate VI.--Nos. 1 and 9 are from Ballinderry; 2, 3, and 4 from

Drumdarragh; 6 from Drumsloe; 7 from Kilnamaddo; 8 and 10 from Lagore;

11 and 12 from Ardakillen.

[86] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i. (4th

Series), p. 558.

[87] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. ii. (4th

Series), p. 197.

[88] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), p. 374.--W. F. Wakeman.

[89] Quite recently a bronze axe-head, now in the writer’s possession,

was supposed by its peasant discoverer to be “_rale goold_”--and it was

not till after repeated failures to effect sale of his “find” as gold

that he could be convinced of the real nature of the metal.

[90] See Ardakillen Crannog.

[91] Plate IX., Nos. 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14 are from Lagore; Nos.

3, 8, 10 from Ballinderry; No. 15 from Lough Gur.

[92] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), pp 381-3.--W.F. Wakeman.

[93] _Cat. Mus. R.I.A._, pp. 261, 463, 466.

[94] pp. 222-3, figs. 224-30.

[95] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), pp. 373-379.--W. F. Wakeman.

[96] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i. (4th

Series), pp. 463-5.--W. F. Wakeman.

[97] “There is a tradition that this lough contains a brazen cauldron

full of treasure and guarded by a _piast_ in the form of a serpent. Old

people say that some years since a farmer actually saw the vessel, and

with the aid of plough harness endeavoured to get it out of the water.

The demon guardian, however, was too strong, the tackle broke, and with

a horrible hiss the serpent regained his lair, taking the cauldron

along with him.”--_Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_,

vol. ii. (4th Series), p. 319.

[98] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. i., s. s. 1870-8, p. 155; _Journal

Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. ii. (4th Series), pp.

118, 122.

[99] _Journal, Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), p. 384.--W. F. Wakeman.

[100] _Cat. Mus. R. I. A._, p. 91, No. 83.

[101] _Ibid._, p. 93.

[102] In Swiss lacustrine sites, stones of the cherry and of the sloe

are found together in heaps, mixed with plentiful remains of the seeds

of the blackberry and raspberry.

[103] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. v. (New

Series), p. 119.

[104] _Proceedings, R.I.A._, vol. vii., pp. 192, 211.--W. Wilde.

[105] _Journal Royal. Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. v. (4th

Series), pp. 507-8.

[106] A fine example of a utensil of this kind was discovered at Navan

Rath (the ancient _Eamhain_), the seat of the sovereigns of Ulster

down to the year A.D. 332; and a curious account of the value in which

bronze cauldrons of this description were held in Ireland in the middle

of the fifth century is given by Dr. Reeves in his translation of a

portion of the “Book of Armagh,” written in the eighth century.

[107] See _Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings_, p. 213, fig. 195.

[108] _Cat. Mus. R. I. A._, p. 533.

[109] _Archæological Journal_, vol. vi., p. 103.

[110] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. ii. (4th

Series), p. 322.

[111] It is No. 19 in the collection of querns in the Museum R.I.A.

Roughan Crannog is said to be the last retreat of Sir Phelin O’Neill in

1641: it held out until boats were brought to the lake from Charlemont

to aid in the attack.

[112] _Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings_, p. 55.

[113] Plate LVII., fig. 13, vol. ii., 2nd ed.

[114] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. iii. (4th

Series), p. 318.

[115] _Ibid._, vol. ii. (4th Series), pp. 308-9.

[116] _Cat. Mus. R.I.A._, p. 158.

[117] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i. (4th

Series), p. 556.

[118] Vol. i. (4th Series), plate II., p. 583.

[119] _Cat. Mus. R.I.A._, p. 265.

[120] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), p. 391.--W. F. Wakeman.

[121] _Proceedings, R.I.A._, vol. viii., p. 329.

[122] Several soft lumps of what appeared to be a blue and a red

pigment were discovered in the crannog of Lochlee, in Ayrshire, though

the latter specimen shortly after turned blue; whilst at Lochspouts

were found two pieces of colouring matter, the one red and the other

black; and at Holderness, in Yorkshire, “red ochre” was picked up on

the site of a lake dwelling.--_Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings_, pp.

139, 160, 300.

[123] _Cat. Mus., R.I.A._, p. 303.

[124] _Cat. Mus., R.I.A._, p. 333.

[125] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), pp. 198-202.--Rev. James Graves.

[126] _Ibid._, pp. 198-202.--Rev. James Graves.

[127] W. F. Wakeman states that fig. 127 came from Ballinderry Crannog;

and, fig. 128 from Lagore; in the _Cat. Mus., R.I.A._, they appear as

Nos. 302 and 326.

[128] Now in the British Museum.

[129] _Cat. Mus. R.I.A._, p. 560.

[130] _Ibid._, p. 559.

[131] _Ibid._, p. 556.

[132] Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 are from Lagore; the remainder were

discovered in crannogs, but the exact sites not now known. Wilde

alludes to Nos. 10 and 11 “as conical bits of carved wood, like

chessmen. The former, however, is hollowed at the base, as if for the

insertion of a stamp, and the latter is carved upon the face of the

base, with a device not unlike a seal: each is 2½ inches high.”

[133] _The Origin of Civilization_, p. 38.

[134] _Cat. Mus., R.I.A._, pp. 271-2.

[135] _Cat. Mus., R.I.A._, p. 549.

[136] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), pp. 197-8.--Rev. James Graves.

[137] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), pp. 389-391.--W. F. Wakeman.

[138] _Cat. Mus., R.I.A._, p. 568.

[139] Petrie Collection, _Mus., R.I.A._, No. 157.

[140] Petrie Collection, _Mus., R.I.A._, No. 156.

[141] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), p. 386.--W. F. Wakeman.

[142] _Proceedings, R.I.A._, vol. vii., pp. 155-6.--Reeves.

[143] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. ii. (4th

Series), p. 74.--W. H. Patterson.

[144] Nos. 1, 3, 20, 21, are from Ardakillen. Nos. 2, 11, 12, 13, 15,

18, from Lagore. Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 16, from Ballinderry. No.

17, from Drumdarragh. No. 22, from Cloonfinlough. Nos. 23, 24, from

Lough Eyes.

[145] _Journal Royal. Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi (New

Series), p. 391.--W. F. Wakeman.

[146] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. v. (4th

Series), p. 534.--W. J. Knowles.

[147] _Cat. Mus., R.I.A._, pp. 531-2.

[148] Sir Denham Jephson Norreys, in a Paper contributed to the R.

Hist, and Arch. Asso. Ireland (_Journal_, vol. iv., pp. 278-79), thus

explains the original process of riveting:--

“1st. Prepare a wooden core, or mandril, of the size and form of the

inside of the trumpet.

“2ndly. Place the strap of bronze to hold the rivets in the centre of

its inner surface.

“3rdly. Cut the plate of bronze which is to form the trumpet to such a

size that, when folded on the core, the edges may meet accurately on

the centre of the bronze strap: hold all together by solder, or by any

other means--perhaps coils of wire may have been used.

“4thly. Drill the holes for the rivets, countersinking them on the

outside. See Plate XXIX., fig. 1.

“5thly. Remove the wooden core.

“6thly. By means of a cleft stick (or other contrivance) insert the

rivets from the inside, outwards.

“7thly. As each rivet passes through to the surface it is to be drawn

up as tightly as possible; the shank is to be bent back, or held up by

any other means, so that the head of the rivet shall not be allowed to

fall.

“8thly. Having inserted all the rivets, insert a metal core, or

mandril, fitting the interior with great exactness.

“9thly. Complete the riveting from the outside, the metal core

preventing the rivet-heads from being disturbed, and allowing the

countersunk portion of the hole to be securely filled by a portion of

the shank.

“10thly. Remove the metal core. The trumpet is now ready to be

burnished off.

“After writing the above, it occurred to me that I had neglected

to inquire how the inner strap was to be held in its place for the

insertion of the rivets. Ordinary solder could not have been used,

as none appears between the strap and the plates. It might, perhaps,

have been effected by a slow removal of the wooden core, and by the

insertion, from the smaller end of temporary rivets or fastenings, as

the core was being pushed forward; by such means at least half of the

length of the strap could be firmly held in its place.”

[149] The MSS. from which it was extracted by O’Curry is the

“Leabhar-na-h-Uidhre,” written about A.D. 1106, but the tale, as

therein recounted, was extracted from the “Book of Dromsneachta,” a

work undoubtedly written before, or about the year 430.

[150] W. F. Wakeman states that at one time this slab was in the

possession of Petrie, the well-known antiquary. An engraving of a

chess-board of the fourteenth century shows but 42 squares, 7 × 6.

[151] British Museum.

[152] _Ulster Journal of Archæology_, vol. iii., p. 11.

[153] _Book of Leinster_, p. 206, as quoted by O’Curry, Lectures, p.

469.

[154] _Ulster Journal of Archæology_, vol. vii., p. 73.

[155] W. F. Wakeman offers a suggestion in connection with the name

Balhu; he states that Joyce in his _Irish Names of Places_ translates

the name of the Fermanagh town of Lisbellaw, _Lis-bel-atha, the lis

of the ford mouth_. Now, there was no river ever there, consequently

there could be no “ford mouth.” There is certainly a _lis_ or ford in

the neighbourhood, but the little stream which now drives the woollen

mill of Lisbellaw flows through a deep cutting communicating with Loch

Eyes, and which was made only in recent times. The _natural_ outlet

from the loch ran, and still runs, in a northerly direction, and cannot

have influenced the naming of Lisbellaw, as its course commences at

a distance of some miles from the village. “The name Lisbellaw seems

to invite investigation. Could it be translated ‘the fort or lis of

Balhu,’ even as Dunleary is ‘the fort or dun of Laighaire’”?

[156] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. v. (New

Series), p. 229.

[157] _Cat. Mus. R.I.A._, p. 267.

[158] _Ibid._, p. 343.

[159] Plates XXXIII. and XXXIV. are reproduced from a paper by the late

Edward Benn, which appeared in the _Journal of the Royal Hist. and

Arch. Asso. of Ireland_. Some of the articles represented may now be

seen in the “Benn Collection,” Belfast Museum.

[160] When not otherwise notified, the extracts are from the _Annals of

the Four Masters_, or from O’Donovan’s annotations to same.

[161] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (New

Series), p. 139.

[162] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. vii., pp. 157-8.

[163] “_Mac Cnaimhain_,” now anglicised Mac Nevin, and among the

peasantry shortened to Neavin and Nevin. This family was originally

settled at Crannog-Meg-Cnaimhain, now Crannagh-Mac-Nevin, in the

south-east extremity of the parish of Tynagh, barony of Leitrim, county

Galway, and the name is still general in that and the adjoining barony

of Loughrea. The first notice of this family to be found in Irish

history occurs in the _Annals of the Four Masters_, at the year 1159,

where it is recorded that “Athius Mac Nevin was slain at Ardee.” The

crannog is mentioned in an inquisition taken at Galway on the 10th

of October, 1605:--“Quod Hugo Mac Knavin, alius dictus Mac Kellie

intravit in actionem Rebellionis et captus et suspensus fuit 4 Junii,

1602; et fuit seisitus in Ballilie Cranach Mac Knavin,” &c. “In a

grant to the Earl of Clanrickarde, dated 19th July, 1610, mention is

made--among various other lands granted to him--of part of the lands of

Crannach-Mac Knavin, parcel of the estate of Hugh Mac Knavin, otherwise

O’Kelly of Cranagh-Mac Knavin, executed in rebellion”(_a_).

(_a_) _The Tribes and Customs of Hy-Many._ Note by O’Donovan, pp. 68-9.

[164] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. ix., p. 176.

[165] _Ibid._, vol. i. (2nd Series), p. 223.

[166] _Researches in the South of Ireland._ Crofton-Croker.

[167] _Stories of Lough Gur._

[168] Maps of the escheated counties in Ireland, 1609. Ordnance Survey

Office, 1861.

[169] Shirley’s _Dominion of Farney_, pp. 93-4.

[170] [Gaelic: Crannoig Muighi gaiblín], Magh-gaibhlin. _Annals of Lough

Cé._ Note by the editor, W. M. Hennessy.

[171] _Annals of Loch Cé._

[172] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. vii.

[173] _Ulster Journal of Archæology_, vol. vii., pp. 192-3.

[174] The townland of Cargin is situated in the parish of Ogulla. The

lake is mentioned in the _Annals of Loch Cé_, A.D. 1092.

[175] _Annals of Loch Cé._

[176] _Annals of Loch Cé._ Note by W. M. Hennessy. This is doubtless

the place (then in possession of Cathal O’Raighilligh) against which

O’Donnell led a great hosting in 1281; “and they brought vessels with

them upon Loch Uachtair and plundered Eo-innis.” Again, in 1369, a

naval expedition was made by Philip Mac Udhir to Loch Uachtair, and

Cloch Ui Raighilligh was taken by him, and Philip O’Raighilligh, “King”

of Brefne, who was imprisoned therein, was taken out of it.

[177] _Ibid._, vol. i., p. 143.

[178] Could it be Inis-Sgeillend?

[179] [Gaelic: da ronad dna … ocus inis locha Cend, ocus inis locha

Gair … ocus inis locha Saiglend, ocus inis in gaill duib.]

[180] _Irish Names of Places_, p. 475. P. W. Joyce.

[181] _Chronicon Scotorum._

[182] [Gaelic: Aois Criost, sé chéd triocha asch … Maolduin, mac Aodha

do lorcadh i ninis caoin.] In the _Annals of Ulster_ this chieftain’s

death is under date 640. “Combustes Maelduin in insula Caini.”

[183] _Irish Names of Places_ (1st Series), p. 258. P. W. Joyce.

[184] _Miscellany of the Irish Arch. Society._ Translation and notes by

O’Donovan.

[185] _Museum, R.I.A._, No. 259.

[186] Also the following articles: a circular stone not unlike the

upper stone of a pot-quern; it was perforated in the centre, and

decorated at the top. A small whorl of red grit, and a water-worn

pebble that may have been used as a net weight or sinkstone (_a_). A

whetstone, four inches long (_a_). A curved stone, five inches long,

bearing on it some rudely carved devices (_a_). A celt-shaped, smooth,

flat stone, about six inches in length, evidently a natural formation

(_a_), and much resembling the modern polished stone used by linen

weavers as a “rubbing-stone.” Two fragments of pottery, exceedingly

rude, one of them unglazed (_a_): the first is portion of a small

pipkin, between three and four inches wide, and two and three-quarter

inches high, with an indented band round the top; it bears marks of

the long-continued action of fire, and is in composition very like a

cinerary urn.

The articles marked (_a_), appear in Museum, R. I. A., as Nos. 36, 67,

128, 84, 30, 31, 10 and 11.

[187] Et est in eodem le tuogh quidam lacus alias stagnum vocatus

Loughinchefeaghny in quo est insula similiter fortificata.

[188] _Proceedings R.I.A._, vol. vii., pp. 156-7.

[189] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. vii., p. 155.

[190] _Proceedings R.I.A._, vol. vii., p. 154.

[191] There were also shears of various sizes; two well-formed needles

of bronze; a shoemaker’s awl with blade of bronze and handle of stone;

several axes or hatchets; a light spade of wood tipped with iron;

an iron sword; a horse-shoe of ordinary size, thicker at the outer

edge and without raised heels, but drawn out at the extremities to a

great length; many whetstones; knives, very narrow and sharp at the

point, but thick on the back; a bronze dish much scored, its diameter

fifteen inches, including the rim; a wooden scoop; a large bead and

small crescent-shaped piece of glass, which bore marks of having been

set as a jewel; several pins of bronze, iron, bone, and wood, varying

greatly in shape; the fragments of pottery were evidently the remains

of strong, well-shaped vessels; the bones and horns of mammalia were

principally those of oxen (of short-horn species), sheep, goat, deer,

and dog; there were tusks of the boar, and in one instance the skull

of a _Cervus Elephas_ showed that the horns had been sawn off. In the

museum of the College of Surgeons, London, is preserved the skull of

an Irish deer from which the horns had been similarly cut, and it is

said to have been found in that state in the west of Ireland.--_Journal

Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. iii., pp. 86, 90; vol.

iv., pp. 36, 38.--E. Benn.

[192] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i., pp.

20-2.--E. Benn.

[193] _Celtic Scotland_, vol. i., p. 83.

The remaining bronze weapons from Toome Bar, now in the Museum, R.

I. A., are therein numbered as follows:--No. 1, a long and perfect

leaf-shaped sword-blade, narrow above the handle, and with a central

mid-rib; no side bevel, broad edges to handle-plate, which had been

probably covered with gold; there is a longitudinal perforation instead

of rivet-holes; length 26½ inches, by 1⅝ broad in the widest part of

the blade. No. 2 is also in a perfect state. No. 3 has a plain, smooth

blade, with a slight rib within margin, hilt cleft, nine holes in

handle-plate; 24⅝ inches long, by 1⅝ broad. No. 4 is composed of bright

Dowris-coloured metal, smooth and narrow above handle-plate, which has

four perforations; the length is 23¾ inches, by 1¾ broad. No. 10 has

an imperfect handle, notched for hilt, bevel edge, six rivet-holes;

length 20 inches, by 1¾. No. 122 is a small sword, rapier blade, narrow

handle-plate; 16 inches by 1⅞. No. 147 is a rapier-shaped dagger-blade;

wants point, has two rivet-holes, one rivet still in position; 8⅝

inches in length.

[194] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), pp. 177, 194-5.--W. T. Lockwood.

[195] _Journal Royal. Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi. (4th

Series), pp. 406-8.--Rev. James Graves.

“Solinus relates that the Irish formed the handles of their swords from

the teeth of large sea-monsters which they polished to a most beautiful

whiteness.” “That the handles were very much smaller than those of

modern swords with guards, and used for cutting as well as thrusting,

there can be no doubt, yet some of them are large enough to receive a

moderate-sized hand. Without discussing the generally received opinion

that the men who used such swords had very small hands--like some of

the Asiatics of the present day--the mode of using these weapons must

not be forgotten. They were employed for stabbing and fencing, in

which the middle, ring, and little fingers alone grasped the handle

completely, while the thumb and fore-finger passed upwards on each side

of the blade, fitting into the curved hollows of the hilt--and not like

the method of the cavalry soldier of the present day, who, when about

to deal a heavy blow, grasps his weapon with the closed hand, which

must occupy a space of about four and a-half inches.”--_Cat. Mus.,

R.I.A._, p. 456.

[196] In the kitchen-midden was the ordinary complement of bones,

principally those of the ox, boar, sheep, goat, dog, and deer. Seven

short scythes of bronze, a plough-sock of iron, a plough-share of

flint, several iron spear-heads, and some pins, were also brought to

light.

[197] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. iii. (New

Series), pp. 86-7.

[198] _Ibid._, vol. vi. (4th Series), p. 432.--H. W. Lett.

[199] _Proceedings R.I.A._, vol. v., p. 215.

[200] _Lake Dwellings of Switzerland._--Keller. 2nd ed.

[201] _Proceedings R.I.A._, vol. v., p. 417.

[202] _Ireland: its Scenery_, &c., &c., by Mr. and Mrs. J. C. Hall,

vol. iii., p. 259.

[203] A considerable portion of the timbers of this dwelling was

presented by the Earl of Enniskillen to the Museum of the Royal Hist.

and Arch. Association of Ireland.

[204] The following is a list of antiquities of minor interest:--A

crucible of the usual crannog kind, in a perfect state. A brooch, or

fibula, composed of iron, bronze, and a white metal--perhaps silver;

it had evidently been prepared for enamel--the pin was eaten away by

corrosion. An iron knife, with bronze mounting to the handle, which

was pierced for rivets. An ordinary crannog knife-blade, like those

found in Anglo-Saxon interments. Portion of a small iron shoe for

horse or ass. Piece of an iron band. A thin bronze fillet that might

have been used for securing the staves of a small wooden vessel, or

intended for a hair-band: a lady who tried it on, pronounced it to

be decidedly an article of feminine adornment--let that decide the

point! A small article of late bronze, apparently belonging to horse

trappings. A whetstone. A worked stone or disc. A lump of iron dross

or “slag.” The under stone of a quern. From time to time no fewer than

three single-piece canoes have been discovered beneath the waters

of the lough; one was for years used as a trough for cattle, and

afterwards cut up for firewood; the others were utilized in the roofs

of out-offices.--_Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol.

i. (4th Series), pp. 360, 371.

[205] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. iii. (4th

Series), pp. 314-15.

[206] The following is a list of the articles found on “Bone

Island”:--Nine pieces of deer’s horn, four of them curiously fashioned

(_ante_, p. 80). Several fragments of quern-stones; it was stated by

the older inhabitants of the surrounding district that many years

previously the entire surface of the island was covered with querns in

a more or less perfect condition; two of those obtained (_ante_, p.

89) were inscribed with a cross-like ornamentation. Four whetstones of

the usual four-sided crannog type; they vary in size from six inches

to four inches in length. Portions of rims of vessels of fictile ware

(_ante_, p. 98); a large fragment had been discovered on the island

some time previously. There were also articles both of bronze and iron,

but so greatly fractured and corroded that their character could not

well be defined. When excavating near the centre of the island, at a

distance of about two and a-half feet from the surface, a large stone

was found with a punched cross-like pattern upon one of its sides

(plate XLII., No. 6). Bones of animals, principally of the cow, goat,

sheep, and pig, were found in such immense numbers, that the crannog

became known as “Bone Island.”

[207] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i. (4th

Series), pp. 232-235, 305-314.

[208] _Ibid._, vol. v. (4th Series), p. 336.

[209] _Ibid._, vol. i. (4th Series), p. 583.

[210] _Holly Island_, in Lough Erne, had evidently been fortified; it

is situated within a mile of Enniskillen, and in summer-time distinct

traces become visible of the stockade by which it had been defended

on the side facing the mainland; the island itself is, however, of

entirely natural formation.

[211] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. ii. (4th

Series), pp. 323-4.

[212] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i. (4th

Series), pp. 553-564.--W. F. Wakeman.

[213] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. v. (4th

Series), p. 332.--W. F. Wakeman.

[214] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. vi., pp.

8-10.

[215] _Archæological Journal_, vol. iii., p. 48.

[216] There were also found here a pair of quern-stones; burnt corn;

numerous fragments of coarse earthenware vessels; fragments of thick

dark glass; an earthen pot; a “grey-beard,” with the representation of

a man’s head beneath the spout; worked oval stones; “spindle-whorls”;

hones of different shapes and sizes; a brass token, almost defaced.

[217] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. iv., p.

379.

[218] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. v., Appendix.

The following antiquities were found on crannog sites in the county

Monaghan, but the exact localities not mentioned:--Three bronze celts,

with loops on their side--in one instance traces of the handle still

remained; a bronze dagger, twelve inches in length; two double-pointed

bronze arrow-heads; a bronze gouge or chisel; the head of a bronze

hunting-spear; part of a bronze sword; a bronze cap, seemingly the

termination of the butt of some weapon; the bronze handle of a javelin

or spear, with loop attached; the boss of a shield of bronze; a bronze

knife, with traces of gilding; two bronze daggers, the one ten and

a-half inches, the other seven inches in length; several bronze rings

of different sizes, two of them with transverse spring openings, others

hollow, being probably parts of armour or horse-trappings; two bronze

needles; a bronze pin, the head hollowed like a cup; several bronze

pins, of which some were ornamented, and two were of large size and

common type; parts of bronze fibulae; fragments of several bronze

instruments and numerous rivets; a small circular bell and three bronze

hair-pins of various sizes.--_Archæological Journal_, vol. iii., pp.

47-8.

[219] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. viii., pp. 275-6, 290-2, 301.

The following articles, discovered in the large crannog, were presented

to the Museum, R. I. A.:--The upper stone of a grain-rubber; a

perfect quern, seventeen inches in diameter, its upper surface highly

decorated; a flat circular stone disc or quoit, like some found

in connexion with cinerary urns; three do., one-half inch thick,

and three and a-quarter inches in diameter; a portion of the stone

coulter of a plough, thirteen inches long, with an artificial hole

near the broad end for attaching it to the beam; a mortar, eight

inches high, by seventeen and a-half inches wide, decorated at the

corners with grotesque figures; a stone mould, with the casting groove

in the long axis; two weapon-sharpeners of a remarkably hard stone

resembling quartz; eleven fragments of sharpening-stones, averaging

from two and a-half inches to six inches in length, two of them

perforated; a four-sided whetstone, twenty inches by three inches; a

large oval stone, artificially smoothed on all its surfaces--like a

web-polisher--it measures ten and a-half inches, by three and a-half

inches; several smaller-sized do.; a curved, water-worn, dark-coloured

stone, highly polished, probably a burnisher; a flat red touchstone,

three and a-half inches long, formed of jasper, and used for testing

gold; a portion of slate with three circular cavities; a stone half

perforated; a small perforated stone like a “whorl”; five globular

stones like sink-stones for nets; a stone bullet, three inches in

diameter; three oval-shaped, artificially worked stones; a bone

spoon (p. 140, fig. 194); four portions of combs; two large beads; a

ferrule, solid at one end, and two and a-half inches long; a small,

highly-polished pin, and a very perfect piercer of bone; two horns

of red deer, both imperfect; ten large boar-tusks, and some teeth

of ruminants; a ring of bronze, that had been probably part of a

fibula--it was in an imperfect state; a ring, three and a-quarter

inches in diameter; a large decorated bronze pin, seven and a-half

inches long, and a smaller one that measured three inches; the head

of a battle-axe of iron; a knife-blade, with perforated haft, eight

and a-half inches, and a smaller blade, two and three-quarter inches

in length; a globular piece of iron, two and three-quarter inches

in diameter; the head of a small hammer; three fragments of rings,

and eleven other fragments of iron, the former uses of which could

not be determined; several pieces of slag; fourteen pieces of broken

pottery--amongst them was part of a bowl or urn, unglazed, decorated

on the outside with deeply-grooved lines, and with slight indentations

on the inverted lip--it was formed of very dark-coloured clay, mixed

with particles of white quartz or felspar; four small earthen crucibles

of the usual shape, three of them very small; a pipe-clay vessel,

manifestly intended for refining purposes; the bowls of two small

pipes, commonly, but erroneously, denominated “Danish tobacco-pipes”;

a flat, highly-coloured bead of amber, and a larger one of irregular

shape; a small bead of enamel paste, showing a mixture of the colours

red, yellow, and blue; also fragments of Kimmage coal-rings; parts of

a bracelet, which seems to have been pointed at one end. Great numbers

of hazel nuts were found throughout the crannog, and there was a

barrel-shaped piece of wood, three and a-quarter inches long, hollow,

and perforated with six holes; it had been used either in weaving, or

as a net float.

[220] In addition to the usual collection of bones, the articles

obtained from the crannog were as follows:--A large stone, hollowed in

its upper surface, used evidently for crushing corn, the rock forming

this crusher, being coarse basalt, is foreign to the district; it

appears to be portion of a block of columnar basalt, brought to the

spot probably from the N. E. of Ireland. There was another large stone

of a carboniferous grit foreign to the locality, evidently the upper

stone of a grain-rubber; it was slightly convex on one side, and had

an artificially-polished surface. Two round stones--the one of quartz,

the other of carboniferous grit. Three pieces of spoon-shaped flint.

A stone ring, made from the ordinary greywacke shale of the district;

it was too small for the finger. Part of another ring, somewhat larger

in size. A bead of glass, and one of amber. Portion of a jet bracelet.

Some articles of brass, comparatively modern. Fragments of pottery

(undescribed). A crucible. An article formed of baked clay, two inches

in length by one in breadth, having one of its surfaces convex, and the

other concave; it bore the mark of a cross near one of its extremities.

Several pieces of iron ore; and a bronze axe that was discovered in

1843 on the shores of the lake in the immediate vicinity of the crannog.

[221] Fireplaces on shore of lake--see _ante_, pp. 90 and 191.

[222] _Archæologia_, vol. xxxix., pp. 433-440.

[223] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. v., Appendix.

[224] _Journal Royal. Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i. (New

Series), p. 230.

[225] _Collectianea Antigua_, vol. iii., pp. 35-44.

[226] _Cat. Mus., R. I. A._, p. 223.

The following are a few of the articles found on this site, and nearly

all are now in Museum, R. I. A.:--Two double-edged swords of iron. A

curved blade. A peculiar single-edged weapon. An iron ring and chain,

supposed to have formed portion of a manacle (plate VIII., p. 61). Two

spear-heads in fine preservation (p. 63). An axe-head (p. 68). A bowl

and a ladle (p. 85). A small single-edged knife. An iron pipe, with

hook attached. A bronze object of unknown use (p. 143). Three armillæ

of rude fashion; one of them formed of a thin plate measuring rather

more than half an inch in diameter; the extremities slightly recurved.

An ornament of mixed metal, and an enamelled plate of iron (p. 138).

Portions of a small ring fibula, with cavities in the metal in which

enamel appears to have been encrusted. Numerous bronze pins of various

sizes and fashion. A skean or dagger (p. 65). A thin triangular blade,

corroded at edges; the lower portion prolonged into a tang; the bevel

on the edge, continued round the flat handle-plate, shows that the

article was cast and not subsequently hammered out. A very rude piece

of bronze somewhat resembling a broad arrow. A sling stone of quartz

rock. An oblong or natural kidney-shaped stone, five inches long, and

rounded at the extremities. Several whetstones. Two bone needles or

bodkins, perforated at the extremity. A double-toothed comb, rudely

ornamented with lines and concentric circles; and other combs, or

fragments of same, one of them being a small perfect specimen, four

inches long. A horn tine, polished at top. A very small four-sided

drinking vessel of horn, two and a-half inches high. A polished

leg-bone of a deer, curiously carved. A wooden spike, broad in the

middle, and sharpened at each end; it is supposed to belong to the

weapon class. There were also amber, jet, glass, and enamelled beads,

now in the Museum, R. I. A.

[227] _Proceedings R.I.A._, vol. v., p. 55.

[228] And also the following antiquities:--A small stone, on which

was carved a headless naked human figure. A sandstone ring. Several

whetstones. A dark-coloured piece of shale and sandstone, three inches

across, marked on the surface like the “game stones” in the Museum, R.

I. A. A mould, formed of agalmatolite or potstone; on one side it had a

circular cast for a harness stud. A decorated bone comb, and portions

of eight others. Many curious bone pins (described _ante_ “Articles of

the Toilet,” &c.). A spatula-shaped bone (_ante_, p. 140). Flat pieces

of ornamental bone (p. 139). A bone knife or skean, highly decorated

on the handle and along a portion of the blade. A knife and fork of

bone, colour dark brown; the handles are square, and decorated with

the domino pattern. Several miscellaneous bone articles, consisting

of pins, handles, knives, &c. Bronze tweezers, and several ornamented

bronze pins. An admirably-designed brooch, or brooch-pin, of _findruin_

or white bronze; its ring, two inches in diameter, was a mass of spiral

ornamentation, pointing to an extremely early age. A very perfect

short-bladed bolt-head, with narrow loops. A narrow dagger-blade,

with high mid-rib and ridge on handle-plate. Amongst the iron remains

there occurred, swords, varying in length from six to eighteen inches,

axe-heads, spear-heads, shears, bodkins, and many small articles of

domestic use.

[229] _Proceedings R.I.A._, vol. v., p. 417.

[230] Not far from Tullamore, on the direct route from the crannog of

Lough Annagh to Killeigh, and under a considerable depth of bog, was

found a very fine bronze pin, eleven inches long; it tapered to a sharp

point at the end, and was headed with a disc, one and a-half inches in

diameter, having an obtusely pointed boss in the centre.

[231] _Proceedings R.I.A._, vol. v., p. xxxvii.

[232] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. v. (New

Series), pp. 228-9.

[233] “A Letter from Major Wood,” &c.; also, Story’s _History_, part,

ii., p. 73.

[234] The “finds” were as follows:--An iron cuirass, ornamented

with sunk lines and projecting pigeon-breast medial line; it was

furnished with hook and staple to fasten the “back-piece” to the

“breast.” This piece of armour was undoubtedly of the seventeenth

century; a matchlock, barrel thirty-six inches long; a gun-barrel

of small calibre; three pistol-barrels; an iron halbert--a fine

sixteenth century specimen; an iron spade, trowel, chisel, axe, and

door-bolt; an iron skean or dagger, thirteen inches long, and another,

four and a-half inches long; a small iron knife; two sword-blades,

twenty-six inches in length; a nondescript article of iron; three

curiously-wrought iron keys; a fragment of a bronze ornament; two iron

spurs of antique shape; a “spindle-whorl” of stone; a bronze ladle; a

bronze spear-head, and a very curiously-shaped brick.

[235] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. i. (3rd

Series), p. 157. _Ibid_, vol. ii. (New Series), pp. 71-5.

[236] Wakefield’s _Account of Ireland_, vol. i., p. 94.

[237] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. ix., pp. 176-9.--H. B. Trench and G.

H. Kinahan.

[238] Omitting the ideal restoration, fig. 213 is reproduced from a

Paper by R. J. Ussher and G. H. Kinahan, as is also fig. 212.

[239] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, October, 1879.

_Proceedings R. I. A._ (2nd Series), vol. ii., December, 1880.--R. J.

Ussher and G. H. Kinahan.

[240] Lyell’s _Principles of Geology_, vol. ii., p. 164.

[241] _Ancient Bronze Implements of Great Britain and Ireland_, p. 436.

[242] In the Museum, R. I. A., Nos. 297 to 302, are stone celts from

this crannog, and amongst the miscellaneous bone articles Nos. 1 to

4, and 18, are bone hafts or handles, one of them stained black, and

ornamented by spiral and interrupted grooves. There are two horn tines,

artificially shaped, and No. 40 is a shank-bone of a sheep or goat,

stained black, highly polished, and perforated at one end. Besides

the celebrated bronze shield described (_ante_, p. 71), the following

antiquities are recorded as having been discovered in this site:--“A

long, narrow, spear-head of bronze, in excellent preservation, the

socket--circular in form--measuring nearly twenty-three inches in

length, and two one-eighth inches in breadth at base of blade,

along which there is a ridge with a feather edge running into flat

compressed loops at the junction of blade and socket. A bronze

spear-head, slightly defective in socket, but blade perfect; it was

found with a portion of the charred handle remaining in it. A very

small dagger-blade of bronze, with wide notches in the handle-plate.

A bronze tube, probably the ferrule-end of a spear, and having a

rivet-hole.”--_Cat. Mus., R. I. A._, pp. 487, 507-517.

[243] _Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Asso. of Ireland_, vol. v. (4th

series), pp. 336-9.--W. F. Wakeman.

[244] _Proceedings, R. I. A._, vol. ix., pp. 172-176.--G. H. Kinahan.

[245] The “finds” here were unimportant, they consisted of a

polishing-stone; a dart or arrow-head formed of the carboniferous

sandstone of the district; a few sea-shells; some charred bones,

principally those of the cow, sheep, pig, and goose--the latter

very numerous; hazel nutshells; pieces of chert, off some of which

chips seemed to have been struck; small round pebbles of white

quartz.--_Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. x., pp. 31, 33.--G. H. Kinahan.

[246] The “finds” on Reed Island were, a whetstone, and fragments of

another; a slab of sandstone (probably the hearth); a piece of iron,

seemingly portion of some cutting instrument; a quantity of wood-ashes;

a circular wooden _noggin_, with a small round handle; the handle of

another vessel; some bright-red colouring matter, rolled up in a piece

of birch bark. Near the outside piles were bones of the ox, sheep, and

pig, all very much broken and gnawed.

[247] Other “finds” on Shore Island were, numerous flat stones, bearing

marks of fire--evidently ancient hearths; fragments of upper and

lower stones of a two-handled quern; a small arrow-head (chert); a

small celt; eighteen hones of various sizes; a rubbing-stone; several

sling-stones; two pieces of Silurian grit (artificially worked); a

large Silurian nodule; part of a clay crucible; a bronze pin with a

swivel head; a crozier of bronze inlaid with silver; iron shears, like

sheep-shears of the present day, but some of them small and fine; a

battle-axe, hatchet-edged on the one side, and spiked on the other; a

vessel of hammered iron, that had been used for smelting purposes; a

knife set in a rude bone handle; a semicircular knife; a piercer of

bone; a cut piece of deer’s horn; a bone handle of an iron instrument;

part of a deer’s horn; many heaps of ashes, and hazel nuts.

[248] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. viii., pp. 412-427.--G. H. Kinahan.

[249] _Cat. Mus. R. I. A._, p. 29. _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. v.,

Appendix lxi.

[250] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. v., Appendix lxii.

[251] _Ibid._

[252] No special description of the Cloonfree crannogs (2) has been

furnished; but the following antiquities, found in or around them,

were presented to the Museum R. I. A.:--A small bone spear-head, four

inches long; a rude pin, formed apparently of the long bone of a fowl;

a boar’s tusk; bronze tweezers; a pin, with ornamental head, carved

on two sides; a long pin, with ornamental spike-head; a ring; a (?)

buckle; an iron horse-shoe; a fragment, like part of the hilt of a

sword; a spike, for butt-end of spear; a pair of tweezers; a small pin,

the head bound with bronze wire; two amber beads, one of them flat in

shape.--_Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. v., p. 219.

[253] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. v., p. 208, &c.--Appendix, D. H.

Kelly.

[254] _Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society_, vol. i.,

series ii., p. 222.

[255] In the crannogs of Cloonfinlough (2) there were found several

bronze spear-heads; pins of great variety of form; a bowl hammered out

of the solid (_ante_, p. 84); a fragment of another (_ante_, plate

XVII., No. 3); two vessels composed of small pieces curiously rivetted

together; a brooch of handsome workmanship (_ante_, p. 117); numerous

bone pins and implements; combs of great artistic merit (_ante_, p.

113); discs and deer’s horns; knives, sickles, hatchets, swords,

and spear-heads of iron; an implement made of sheet iron rivetted

together, having in the centre a circular ornament with a cross,

that evidently once had borne an arabesque pattern; many diminutive

frying-pans; small whetstones; single and double bronze rings; a

coin of the Emperor Hadrian; a Bulla of Pope Paul V.; several silver

coins of the Edwards--one so late as James II.; also a silver coin,

unfigured, it is stated, in any collection. From the same locality the

following articles, purchased from Mrs. E. Devenish, Clonfinla House,

Strokestown, are now in the British Museum:--A bronze dagger and brooch

(_ante_, plate XXXV., Nos. 1 and 2); a plain brooch pin, 5¾ inches in

length; fourteen bronze pins of varying size and shape; a cruciform

object for attachment, diameter, 1⅞ inches; a harp pin, quatre-foil

at one end, round at the other, which is pierced with a hole for the

string, length, 2¾ inches; an iron bill-hook, penannular socket, one

rivet-hole; a double axe (plate XXXV., No. 6); a spear-head much

corroded, no rivet-hole, length, 7⅝ inches; an arrow-head (plate XXXV.,

No. 4); a knife with long handle, all of iron, length, 7¼ inches; a

gouge and chisel combined, length, 9 inches; a gouge, 7⅛ inches; a

pair of shears, length, 7¼ inches; a piece of iron with remains of

loop handle, length, 4½ inches; a circular pan with straight handles,

remains of a loop at the end, length, 7 inches; diameter, 3½ inches;

a key, openwork handle, length, 2⅛ inches; a stone chessman (_ante_,

p. 132); a sharpener, grey in colour, square in section, decreasing

to each end, length, 4¾ inches; a flat bead of dark-grey shale,

diameter, ½ inch; a bone scoop resembling No. 8, on plate VI., and

having two rivet-holes at butt, ornamented with group of four dots,

length, 5⅞ inches; a curved pin of bone, with flattened head, length,

4⅜ inches; a second pin about half that size; two needles of bone,

varying in length from 3⅝ to 2⅞ inches; a ring of stag’s horn (plate

XXXV., No. 5); draughtsmen of stag’s horn (p. 131, figs. 176, 177); a

wooden peg, roughly cut, length, 2½ inches; a bucket stave, with marks

of two bands on outside surface, and furrow for bottom on inside,

length, 7⅝ inches; a single-piece leather shoe (plate XXXV., No. 7);

a silver Scottish 20 shilling piece, _obv., crowned head of king_, to

left in field XX--legend, CAR·D·G·MAG·BR·FR·ET·HIB·REX.--_R. crowned

thistle_--legend, IVST·THRONVM·FIRMAT.

[256] The following “finds” from Ardakillen are deposited in the

Museum, R. I. A.:--Numerous bone pins of various sizes and designs;

twenty-two combs or fragments of same; a bone dart, six and a-half

inches long; do., five and a-half inches long; do., four and

three-quarter inches long; do., five inches long; a curved piece

of deer’s horn, hollowed at the base, and another piece slightly

longer; a tine of deer’s horn, hollowed at base; numerous harp-pins

of bone (one is figured, _ante_, p. 125); a curious ovoid piece of

bone, polished (_ante_, p. 105); the leg-bone of a deer, covered with

carvings (plate XXXII.); a bronze brooch (_ante_, p. 117); a small

slender torque-pattern ring (_ante_, p. 118); a bridle-bit (_ante_, p.

137); several whetstones; a very perfect, thin, narrow rapier-blade,

double notches in handle-plate; beads of stone, bone, wood, porcelain,

glass, and amber; numerous bronze pins; an oaken water-scoop, with

a hollowed-out handle; a wooden mallet; some ogham-inscribed wooden

objects.--_Journal Royal Hist. and Arch. Assoc. of Ireland_, vol. iii.

(4th Series), p. 206.

[257] _Proceedings R. I. A._, vol. v., p. 214. _Cat. Mus., R. I. A._,

p. 219.

[258] Unfortunately these remains in the Museum, R.I.A., cannot now be

identified.

[259] The report on the skull has been most kindly furnished by A. W.

Foot, M.D., Member, Royal Hist. and Arch. Association of Ireland.

[260] _Cat. Mus., R.I.A._, p. 110.

[261] _Proceedings, R.I.A._, vol. v., Appendix, lix. _Cat. Mus.,

R.I.A._, p. 552.

[262] Another name for Glencar lake. This crannog lies within the

bounds of the Co. Leitrim. The more ancient name of Glencar, as

used by the _Four Masters_, was _Cairthe Mulchean_, i.e. Mulchan’s

Pillar-stone. _Gleann-a-Chairthe_, pronounced Glencarna, and _Glen

Dallain_, signify the Glen of the Pillar-stone.

[263] _Irish Names of Places_ (2nd Series), p. 7. P. W. Joyce.

INDEX.

Aberdeenshire, crannogs in, 15, 32.

Achill Island, crannog in, 230-32.

Adze, iron, 67, 69, 176.

African tribes, pile dwellings of, 22-23.

Aghakilconnel Lough, crannog in, 243.

Aghaloughan Bog, crannog in, 163.

Aghnamullen, crannog of, 135, 193.

Ahoghill, crannog near, 165.

Amazon, pile dwellings on the, 22.

Amber beads, 118, 122, 195, 200 n., 201 n., 205 n., 233 n., 237 n.

Amulets, 116, 117, 177, 206, 207.

Amusements, 36: _see_ chess, counters, discs, games.

Anchors, canoe, 51.

Ancient forests cut down, 4, 189.

Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings: _see_ Munro.

Anderson, Professor, 174.

Ankle fetters, 238: _see_ fetters.

Annagh, crannog of, 212.

Annagh (Sligo), 248.

Annaghclone, 126.

Annaghcloy Point, crannog at, 246.

Antlers: _see_ deer.

Antrim, barony of, 173.

Antrim, county, 33, 35, 37, 44, 45, 48, 58, 110, 120, 121, 124,

141, 170.

Antrim, county, crannogs in, 152-3, 163-177.

Anvil, 166, 168.

Apamæan lake, pile dwellings on the, 18-19.

Arabesque pattern, 235 n.

_Archæologia_, VIII., 41 n.

Ardakillen, crannog of, 59, 60, 62, 90, 105, 118, 135, 137, 142,

154, 233, 236-39.

Ardbrin, crannog of, 126, 177.

Ardbrin, crannog of, trumpet from, 126.

Ardmach: _see_ Armagh.

Ardmore, crannog at, 29, 216-17.

Ardnahue, kitchen midden at, 74.

Argyleshire, crannogs in, 32, 89.

Armagh, county, crannogs in, 178.

Armagh, crannog near, 147.

Armagh, crannog near, attack on, 147-8.

Armillæ, 204 n.

Armour, 69, 72, 177, 196 n., 209 n.

Arran, Isles of, 36.

Arrow-heads, bone, 80, 237 n.

Arrow-heads, bronze, 196 n., 205 n., 242.

Arrow-heads, iron, 144, 179, 186, 235 n.

Arrow-heads, stone, 40, 45, 225 n., 227 n.

Arrow-heads, wooden, 200.

Arterial Drainage Commission, crannogs discovered by the, 77, 179,

193, 205, 207, 218, 233, 240.

Articles, miscellaneous, 163, 185 n., 204 n., 206 n.

Ash island, 227.

Ash spear-shafts, 174.

Ashes, 42, 43, 194, 196, 198, 214, 222, 223, 225, 226, 227 n.,

228, 236.

Attacks on crannogs, 36, 88 n., 147, 148-9, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154,

155, 156, 157, 229, 244.

Aughamore, crannog of, 206.

Auglish, crannog of, 187.

Austria, lake dwellings in, resemble Irish, 11, 12-13.

Auvernier, 89.

Axe-heads, bone, 45, 59, 60, 191.

Axe-heads, bronze, 202 n.

Axe-heads, iron, 141, 144, 164, 168 n., 199 n., 204 n., 206 n.,

209, 210 n., 227 n., 233, 235 n.

Axe-heads, stone, 59, 167, 192.

Axis, stone, 142.

Ayrshire, crannogs in, 32, 104.

Aztecs, pile dwellings of the, 19.

Baccinums, 204.

Baiæ, bay of, 217.

Baile-an-locha, crannog of, 152.

Baked clay pot-cover, 94.

Balhu, ogham name of, 134-5.

Ballaghmore, crannog of, 186.

Ballinacarriga, crannog of, 136, 206.

Ballinafad, crannog of, 34, 229.

Ballinahinch, crannog of, 28, 34, 229.

Ballinakill, parish of, 221.

Ballinamallard, crannog near, 81, 87.

Ballinderry, crannog of, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 75, 108, 109, 114, 133,

139, 142, 146, 207.

Ballinderry crannog, unique pins from, 106-8, 109, 110, 111.

Ballindoon, crannogs near, 245-6.

Ballinlough, crannogs in, 32, 73, 150, 221-4, 234.

Ballintlea, glass beads from, 124.

Ballintoy, crannog in, 153.

Ballintoy, sand-hills of, 177.

Ballyalbanagh, wooden roadway in, 44.

Ballybetagh, 6.

Ballybollen, crannog near, 167.

Ballydoolough, crannog of, 37, 92, 95, 96, 132, 133, 181, 183,

188, 190.

Ballydoolough crannog, pottery at, 89, 95, 96, 97.

Ballydoolough crannog, pottery resembling a sepulchral urn, 102.

Ballydoolough crannog, wooden vessels from, 102.

Ballygawley, crannog of, 246-8.

Ballyhoe Lake, crannogs in, 193, 195, 207.

Ballykeine Bog, 102.

Ballykillen Bog, 45, 60.

Ballykinler, crannog of, 177-178.

Ballylough, crannog of, 152.

Ballymena, crannog near, 142, 169.

Ballymote, the Book of, 104.

Ballynamintra, cave of, 234.

Ballywillen Lough, crannog in, 154.

Ballywoolen, crannog of, 178.

Balls of stone, 183.

Banagh, barony of, 180.

Band, iron, 183 n.

Bann, river, 135, 155, 165, 170.

Barnes, pile-dwellings at, 18.

Barton, 169.

Barton Mere, pile-dwellings at, 18.

Basket-work: _see_ wicker-work.

Bavaria, lake dwellings in, 11.

Bead, lead, 123.

Beads, amber, 118, 122-3, 195, 200 n., 201 n., 205 n., 233 n., 237 n.

Beads, bone, 122, 199 n., 207, 237 n.

Beads, earthenware, 122-3.

Beads, glass, 124, 164, 168 n., 195, 201 n., 205 n., 237 n.

Beads, jet, 122, 205 n.

Beads of various materials, 122-4, 168 n.

Beads, porcelain, 205 n., 237 n.

Beads, stone, 122, 235 n., 237 n.

Beads, wood, 122, 237 n.

Beams, mortised, radial, stretcher, etc., 163, 166, 178, 181, 183,

184, 187, 192, 198, 207, 208, 214, 223, 224, 226, 231, 233, 241,

245, 247.

Bede, 36.

Bedell, bishop, 203.

Belfast Field-club, 173.

Belfast Museum, 142, 164, 173, 219.

Bell, circular, 196 n.

Ben-Bulben, 243-4.

Bench, stone, 225.

Benn Collection, 142.

Benn, E., 142, 168.

Begerin, 44.

Belcoo, crannog near, 188.

Bellarush, 246.

Bighorn: _see Megaceros_.

Bilberry, 231.

Billy, parish of, 152.

Bird-headed ornamentation, 67, 118.

Bits, bridle, 136-7, 181, 237 n.

Bittern, 8.

Blackberries, 73 n.

Black Sea, 10.

Blake Island, 225.

Boar, 4, 73, 74, 168 n., 178 n., 182, 185 n., 190, 199 n., 204,

225 n., 226, 233 n., 241, 245, 246.

Boat lough: _see_ Pad-lough.

Bodkins, 164, 205 n., 206 n.

Bogs of Ireland, 4.

Bohermeen, crannog of, 81, 171, 204.

Boho, 187.

Bolts, bronze, 81, 206 n.

Bone implements, 59, 60, 80, 188, 219, 337 n.

Bone Island, 89, 184, 185 n.

Bone, spatula-shaped, 206 n.

Bone spoon, 140.

Bones, 88, 172, 182, 184, 187, 188, 190, 199, 205, 208, 214, 222,

223, 224, 225 n., 228, 232, 234, 236, 241, 244, 245, 248.

Bones, broken for the marrow, 46, 187.

Bones, calcined, 201, 225, 248.

Bones, immense quantities of sold as manure, 46, 205, 236.

Borris-in-Ossory, 70, 77.

_Bos frontosus_, 204.

_Bos longifrons_, 70, 66, 182, 190, 204, 234, 245, 246, 248:

_see_ Oxen.

Bosphorus, pile-dwellings on the, 19.

Boss-like objects, 177, 196 n.

Bowl, bronze, 85, 204 n., 234 n., 235 n.

Bowl, wooden, 168.

Box, rude, 208.

Bracelets, 121, 123, 191, 200 n., 201 n.

_Brachi cephalic_ crania, 238.

Brandenburg, lake dwellings in, 11.

Breagho, crannog of, 4, 82, 187, 234.

Brian Borumha, 27, 156-7.

Brick, 218 n.

Britain, lake dwellings in, 15.

British Museum, crannog objects in, 143-4, 218, 235 n.

British Museum, register of, 177.

Brittas, crannog near, 210.

_Bro_: _see_ Querns.

_Brochs_ of Scotland, 174.

Bronze age, 30, 55-6, 160.

Bronze age, animal ornamentation rare in, 113.

Bronze age, chronology undetermined, 30.

Bronze age, overlapping of the, 160.

Bronze and iron age, 174.

Bronze objects, 116, 119, 142, 177, 183, 196 n., 201 n.

Brooch, bronze, shape unchanged for ages, 143.

Brooch, of mixed metal, 183.

Brooch, silver, 121, 164.

Brooches, bronze, 117, 118, 143, 206 n., 235 n., 237 n.

Broughderg, 87.

Broughshane, Canon Grainger’s Museum at, 82, 173.

Brute force, sway of, 3.

Buckets, 231, 232, 235 n.

Buckle, bronze, 233 n.

Bulla, 235 n.

Buried cities, legends of, 28-9, 193, 225, 248, 249.

Burnisher: _see_ Polishing-stone.

Burt, crannog near, 181.

Buteshire, crannogs in, 32, 44.

Butter, bog, 79.

Button, bronze, 141.

Butts of spear-shafts, 63-4, 173, 196 n., 233 n.

Cable pattern, 121, 195.

Cæsar, 18, 57.

_Caislen-na-caillighe_, 33, 34, 229.

Caledonian forests, 9.

Caledonians and Romans, wars of the, 3, 171.

Camlough, crannog in, 178.

Cangort Park, crannog near, 213.

Canoes, 46, 67, 126, 163, 166, 167, 168, 172, 173, 178, 183, 183 n.,

186, 193, 203, 204, 206, 228, 234, 237, 240, 242.

Canoes at Ardagh, 49.

Canoes at Ardakillen, 43, 50 n., 237.

Canoes at Ballinderry, 50 n., 206.

Canoes at Ballydoolough, 183 n.

Canoes at Cahore, 48-49.

Canoes at Cornagall, 48, 50 n., 76.

Canoes at Derryhollagh, 48, 50 n., 163.

Canoes at Drumdarragh, 50 n., 183.

Canoes at Drumgay, 50 n., 183.

Canoes at Drumkeery, 50 n., 201.

Canoes at Drumaleague, 50 n., 240.

Canoes at Kilnock, 50 n., 167.

Canoes at Lough Annagh, 50, 210.

Canoes at Lough Erne, 49, 50.

Canoes at Lough Eyes, 50 n.

Canoes at Lough Faughan, 50 n., 178.

Canoes at Lough Mourne, 50, 172-3.

Canoes at Lough Owel, 47, 48, 50 n.

Canoes at Loughrea, 50 n., 228.