MISCELLANEOUS TERMS (_Continued_)
_Lyric_--a short, song-like poem of simple character. Also applied to
instrumental pieces of like character.
_Maggiore_--major.
_Marcato il canto_--the melody well marked; _i.e._, subdue the
accompaniment so that the melody may stand out strongly.
_Melos_--melody. This word _melos_ is also applied to the peculiar style
of vocal solo found in Wagner's music dramas. See _recitative_ (p. 75,
Sec. 170).
_Mellifluous_--pleasing; pleasant sounding.
_Menuetto, menuet_--same as _minuet_. (See p. 68, Sec. 151.)
_Mezzo soprano_--a woman's voice of soprano quality, but of somewhat
lower compass than the soprano voice. Range approximately b to g''.
_Minore_--minor.
_Nocturne_ (sometimes spelled _nocturn_, _notturna_, _nokturne_,
etc.)--a night piece; a quiet, melodious, somewhat sentimental
composition, usually for piano solo.
_Nuance_--delicate shading; subtle variations in tempo and dynamics
which make the rendition of music more expressive.
_Obbligato_ (sometimes incorrectly spelled _obligato_)--an accessory
melody accompanying harmonized music, (usually vocal music).
The word _obbligato_ (It. _bound_, or _obliged_) refers to the
fact that this is usually a melody of independent value, so
important that it cannot be omitted in a complete performance.
_Offertory_ (sometimes spelled _offertoire_, or _offertorium_)--a piece
of music played or sung during the taking up of the offering in the
church service. The word is often applied by composers to any short,
simple piece of music (usually for organ) that is suitable for the above
purpose.
_Opus_--work; used by composers to designate the order in which their
compositions were written, as _e.g._, Beethoven, Op. 2, No. 1.
_Orchestration_--the art of writing for the orchestra, this implying an
intimate knowledge of the range, quality, and possibilities of all the
orchestral instruments.
_Ossia_--or else; used most often to call the attention of the performer
to a simpler passage that may be substituted for the original one by a
player whose skill is not equal to the task he is attempting to perform.
_Overture_--(from _overt_--open)--an instrumental prelude to an opera or
oratorio. The older _overtures_ were independent compositions and bore
no particular relation to the work which was to follow, but in modern
music (cf. Wagner, Strauss, etc.), the _overture_ introduces the
principal themes that are to occur in the work itself, and the
introduction thus becomes an integral part of the work as a whole. The
word _overture_ is sometimes applied to independent orchestral
compositions that have no connection with vocal works, as the _Hebrides
Overture_ by Mendelssohn.
_Pizzicato_--plucked. A term found in music for stringed instruments,
and indicating that for the moment the bow is not to be used, the tone
being secured by _plucking_ the string.
_Polacca_--a Polish dance in three-quarter measure.
_Polonaise_--same as _polacca_.
_Postlude_--(lit. after-play)--an organ composition to be played at the
close of a church service.
_Prelude_--(lit. before-play)--an instrumental composition to be played
at the beginning of a church service, or before some larger work (opera,
etc.). The term is also applied to independent piano compositions of
somewhat indefinite form. (Cf. _preludes_ by Chopin, Rachmaninoff, etc.)
_Prière_--a prayer; a term often applied (especially by French
composers) to a quiet, devotional composition for organ.
_Quintole, quintuplet_--a group of five notes to be performed in the
time ordinarily given to four notes of the same value. There is only one
accent in the group, this occurring of course on the first of the five
tones.
_Religioso, religiosamente_--in a devotional style.
_Requiem_--the mass for the dead in the Roman Catholic service. It is so
called from its first word _requiem_ which means _rest_. (See p. 77,
Sec. 165.)
_Rhapsody_--an irregular instrumental composition of the nature of an
improvisation. A term first applied by Liszt to a series of piano pieces
based on gypsy themes.
_Ribattuta_--a device in instrumental music whereby a two-note phrase is
gradually accelerated, even to the extent of becoming a trill. (See
Appendix E, p. 150, for an example.) [Transcriber's Note: Corrected
misspelling "Ribbatua" in original.]
_Ritornello, ritornelle_--a short instrumental prelude, interlude, or
postlude, in a vocal composition, as _e.g._, in an operatic aria or
chorus.
_Schottische_--a dance in two-quarter measure, something like the
_polka_.
_Sec, secco_--dry, unornamented: applied to a style of opera recitative
(see p. 75, Sec. 170), and also to some particular chord in an
instrumental composition which is to be sounded and almost instantly
dropped.
_Score_--a term used in two senses:
1. To designate some particular point to which teacher or
conductor wishes to call attention; as _e.g._, "Begin with the
_lower score_, third measure." The word _brace_ is also
frequently used in this sense.
2. To refer to all the parts of a composition that are to be
performed simultaneously, when they have been assembled on a
single page for use by a chorus or orchestral conductor. The
term _vocal score_ usually means all chorus parts together
with an accompaniment arranged for piano or organ, while the
terms _full score_ and _orchestral score_ refer to a complete
assemblage of _all parts_, each being printed on a separate
staff, but all staffs being braced and barred together.
_Senza replica, senza repetizione_--without repetition; a term used in
connection with such indications as _D.C._, _D.S._, etc., which often
call for the repetition of some large division of a composition, the
term _senza replica_ indicating that the smaller repeats included within
the larger division are not to be observed the second time.
[Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "senza repetitione" in
original.]
_Serenade, serenata_--an evening song.
_Sextet_--a composition for six voices or instruments.
_Sextuplet_--a group of six notes to be performed in the time ordinarily
given to four of the same value. The sextuplet differs from a pair of
_triplets_ in having but one accent.
_Simile, similiter_--the same; indicating that the same general effect
is to be continued.
_Solfeggio, solfège_--a vocal exercise sung either on simple vowels or
on arbitrary syllables containing these simple vowel sounds. Its purpose
is to develop tone quality and flexibility. These terms are also often
applied to classes in sight-singing which use the sol-fa syllables.
_Sopra_--above.
_Soprano_--the highest female voice. Range approximately b--c'''.
_Sostenuto_--sustained or connected; the opposite of _staccato_.
_Sotto_--under. _E.g._, _sotto voce_--under the voice, _i.e._, with
subdued tone.
_Solmization_--sight-singing by syllable.
_Staccato_--detached; the opposite of _legato_.
_Subito_--suddenly.
_Tenor_--the highest male voice. Range approximately d--c''.
_Tenuto_--(from _teneo_, to hold)--a direction signifying that the tones
are to be prolonged to the full value indicated by the notes.
_Toccata_--a brilliant composition for piano or organ, usually
characterized by much rapid staccato playing.
_Triplet_--a group of three tones, to be performed in the time
ordinarily given to two of the same value. The first tone of the triplet
is always slightly accented.
_Tutti_--(derived from _totus_, _toti_, Latin--all)--a direction
signifying that all performers are to take part. Also used occasionally
to refer to a passage where all performers do take part.
APPENDIX A
THE HISTORY OF MUSIC NOTATION
Many conflicting statements have been made regarding the history and
development of music writing, and the student who is seeking light on
this subject is often at a loss to determine what actually did happen in
the rise of our modern system of writing music. We have one writer for
example asserting that staff notation was begun by drawing a single red
line across the page, this line representing the pitch _f_ (fourth line,
bass staff), the _neumae_ (the predecessors of our modern _notes_)
standing either for this pitch _f_, or for a higher or lower pitch,
according to their position _on_ the line, or _above_ or _below_ it.
"Another line," continues this writer, "this time of yellow color, was
soon added above the red one, and this line was to represent c' (middle
C). Soon the colors of these lines were omitted and the _letters_ F and
C were placed at the beginning of each of them. From this arose our F
and C clefs, which preceded the G clef by some centuries."[37]
[Footnote 37: Elson--Music Dictionary, article, "Notation."]
Another writer[38] gives a somewhat different explanation, stating that
the staff system with the use of clefs came about through writing a
letter (C or F) in the margin of the manuscript and drawing a line from
this letter to the neume which was to represent the tone for which this
particular letter stood.
[Footnote 38: Goddard--The Rise of Music, p. 177.]
A third writer[39] asserts that because the alphabetical notation was
not suitable for recording melodies because of its inconvenience in
sight-singing "points were placed at definite distances above the words
and above and below one another." "In this system ... everything
depended on the accuracy with which the points were interspersed, and
the scribes, as a guide to the eye, began to scratch a straight line
across the page to indicate the position of one particular scale degree
from which all the others could be shown by the relative distances of
their points. But this was not found sufficiently definite and the
scratched line was therefore colored red and a second line was added,
colored yellow, indicating the interval of a fifth above the first."
[Footnote 39: Williams in Grove's Dictionary, article, "Notation."]
It will be noted that all three writers agree that a certain thing
happened, but as in the case of the four Gospels in the New Testament,
not all the writers agree on details and it is difficult to determine
which account is most nearly accurate in detail as well as in general
statement. Communication was much slower a thousand years ago than now
and ideas about new methods of doing things did not spread rapidly,
consequently it is entirely possible that various men or groups of men
in various places worked out a system of notation differing somewhat in
details of origin and development but alike in final result. The point
is that the development of musical knowledge (rise of part-writing,
increased interest in instrumental music, etc.), demanded a more exact
system of notation than had previously existed, just as the development
of science in the nineteenth century necessitated a more accurate
scientific nomenclature, and in both cases the need gave rise to the
result as we have it to-day.
Out of the chaos of conflicting statements regarding the development of
music notation, the student may glean an outline-knowledge of three
fairly distinct periods or stages, each of these stages being intimately
bound up with the development of _music_ itself in that period. These
three stages are:
(1) The Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet
for representing fixed pitches.
(2) The period of the neumae.
(3) The period of staff notation.
Of the Greek system little is known beyond the fact that the letters of
the alphabet were used to represent pitches. This method was probably
accurate enough, but it was cumbersome, and did not afford any means of
writing "measured music" nor did it give the eye any opportunity of
grasping the general outline of the melody in its progression upward and
downward, as staff notation does. The Greek system seems to have been
abandoned at some time preceding the fifth century. At any rate it was
about this time that certain _accent marks_ began to be written above
the text of the Latin hymns of the church, these marks serving to
indicate in a general way the progress of the melody. E.g., an upward
stroke of the pen indicated a rise of the melody, a downward stroke a
fall, etc. In the course of two or three centuries these marks were
added to and modified quite considerably, and the system of notation
which thus grew up was called "neume notation," the word _neume_
(sometimes spelled _neuma_, or _pneuma_) being of Greek origin and
meaning a _nod_ or _sign_.
This system of neumes was in some ways a retrogression from the Greek
letter system, for the neumes indicated neither definite pitches nor
definite tone-lengths. But it had this advantage over the Greek system,
that the position of the signs on the page indicated graphically to the
eye the general direction of the melody, as well as giving at least a
hint concerning the relative highness or lowness of each individual tone
(the so-called _diastematic system_), and this was a great aid to the
eye in singing, just as the relative highness and lowness of notes on
the modern staff is of great value in reading music at the present time.
Thus although the neumae did not enable one to sing a new melody at
sight as our modern staff notation does, yet they served very well to
recall to the eye the general outline of a melody previously learned by
ear and therefore enabled the singer (the system was used for vocal
music only) to differentiate between that particular melody and the
dozens of others which he probably knew. Neume notation was used mostly
in connection with the "plain-song melodies" of the Church, and since
the words of these chants were sung as they would be pronounced in
reading, the deficiency of the neume system in not expressing definite
duration values was not felt. But later on with the rise of so-called
"measured music" (cf. invention of opera, development of independent
instrumental music, etc.), this lack was seen to be one of the chief
disadvantages of the system.
The elements of neume-writing as given by Riemann in his Dictionary of
Music are:
"(1) The signs for a single note: Virga (Virgula) and Punctus (Punctum).
(2) The sign for a rising interval: Pes (Podatus). (3) The sign for a
falling interval: Clinis (Flexa). (4) Some signs for special manners of
performance: Tremula (Bebung), Quilisma (shake), Plica (turn), etc. The
others were either synonyms of the above-named or combinations of
them...."
Since music in the middle ages was always copied by hand, it will
readily be understood that these neumae were not uniform either in shape
or size, and that each writer made use of certain peculiarities of
writing, which, although perfectly intelligible to himself, could not
readily be interpreted by others (cf. writing shorthand). Here then we
observe the greatest weakness of the neume system--its lack of
uniformity and its consequent inability accurately to express musical
ideas for universal interpretation.
Examples of several neumes are given merely in order to give
the beginner a general idea of their appearance.
Virga [virga symbol] or [virga symbol]. Punctus [punctus
symbol] or [punctus symbol]. Pes [pes symbol] or [pes symbol].
Clinis [clinis symbol] or [clinis symbol].
As music grew more and more complex, and especially as writing in
several parts came into use (cf. rise of organum, descant, and
counterpoint), it became increasingly difficult to express musical ideas
on the basis of the old notation, and numerous attempts were made to
invent a more accurate and usable system. Among these one of the most
interesting was that in which the words of the text were written in the
spaces between long, parallel lines, placing the initial letters of the
words _tone_ and _semi-tone_ at the beginning of the line to indicate
the scale interval. An example will make this clear.
[Illustration]
This indicated the precise melodic interval but did not give any idea of
the rhythm, and the natural accents of the text were the only guide the
singer had in this direction, as was the case in neume-notation and in
early staff-notation also. Various other attempts to invent a more
definite notation were made, but all were sporadic, and it was not until
the idea of using the lines (later lines and spaces) to represent
definite pitches, and writing notes of various shapes (derived from the
neumae) to indicate relative duration-values--it was only when this
combination of two elements was devised that any one system began to be
universally used.
Just how the transition from _neume_ to _staff_ notation was made no one
knows: it was not done in a day nor in a year but was the result of a
gradual process of evolution and improvement. Nor is it probable that
any one man deserves the entire credit for the invention of staff
notation, although this feat is commonly attributed to an Italian monk
named Guido d'Arezzo (approximate dates 995-1050). To this same monk we
are indebted, however, for the invention of the syllables (UT, RE, MI,
etc.) which (in a somewhat modified form) are so widely used for
sight-singing purposes. (For a more detailed account of the transition
to staff notation, see Grove, op. cit. article _notation_.) It will now
be readily seen that our modern notation is the result of a combination
of two preceding methods (the Greek letters, and the neumes) together
with a new element--the staff, emphasizing the idea that _higher tones_
are written _higher_ on the staff than lower ones. The development of
the neumes into notes of various shapes indicating relative time values
and the division of the staff into measures with a definite measure
signature at the beginning are natural developments of the earlier
primitive idea. In the system of "musica mensurabilis" or _measured
music_ which was inaugurated a little later, the _virga_ (which had
meanwhile developed into a square-headed neume) was adopted as the
_longa_ or long note, and the punctus in two of its forms as _breve_ and
_semi-breve_ (short and half-short). The longa is now extinct, but the
modern form of the breve is still used as the double-whole-note, and the
semi-breve is our modern whole-note.
Red-colored notes were sometimes used to indicate changes in value and
before long outline notes (called _empty notes_) came into use, these
being easier to make than the solid ones. The transition from square-
and diamond-shaped notes to round and oval ones also came about because
of the greater facility with which the latter could be written, and for
the same reason notes of small denomination were later "tied together"
or _stroked_. This latter usage began about 1700 A.D.
It is interesting to find that when "measured music" was finally
inaugurated there were at first but two measure-signatures, viz.--the
circle, standing for three-beat measure (the so-called _perfect
measure_) and the semi-circle (or broken circle) which indicated
two-beat measure. Occasionally three-beat measure was indicated by three
vertical strokes at the beginning of the melody, while two-beat measure
was shown by two such strokes. Upon the basis of these two varieties of
measure, primitive in conception though they may have been, has been
built nevertheless the whole system now employed, and in the last
analysis all forms of measure now in use will be found to be of either
the two-beat or the three-beat variety. The circle has disappeared
entirely as a measure-sign, but the broken circle still survives, and
from it are derived the familiar signs [common-time symbol] and
[cut-time symbol], which are sometimes erroneously referred to as being
the initial letter of our word _common_ (as used in the expression
"common time"). The transition from the older style of measure-signature
to the present one seems to have occurred during the century following
the invention of opera, _i.e._, from about 1600 to about 1700 A.D.
The rest came into use very soon after "measured music" began to be
composed and we soon find rests corresponding with the various
denominations of notes in use, viz.:
[Illustration]
The terms applied to these rests vary in different authorities, but it
will be noted that the _pausa_, _semi-pausa_, and _suspirum_ correspond
respectively to the double-whole-rest, whole-rest, and half-rest in use
at present.
The bar and double bar may be developments of the _maxima rest_ (as some
writers suggest) but are probably also derived from the practice of
drawing a line vertically through the various parts of a score to show
which notes belonged together, thus facilitating score reading. The bar
may occasionally be found as early as 1500, but was not employed
universally until 1650 or later.
The number of lines used in the staff has varied greatly since the time
of Guido, there having been all the way from four to fifteen at various
times and in various places, (_four_ being the standard number for a
long time). These lines (when there were quite a number in the staff)
were often divided into _groups of four_ by _red_ lines, which were not
themselves used for notes. These red lines were gradually omitted and
the staff divided into sections by a space, as in modern usage. The
number of lines in each section was changed to five (in some cases six)
for the sake of having a larger available range in each section.
The clefs at the beginning of the staffs are of course simply altered
forms of the letters F, C, and G, which were written at first by Guido
and others to make the old neume notation more definite.
The staccato sign seems not to have appeared until about the time of
Bach, the legato sign being also invented at about the same time. The
fermata was first used in imitative part-writing to show where each part
was to stop, but with the development of harmonic writing the present
practice was inaugurated. Leger lines came into use in the seventeenth
century.
Sharps and flats were invented because composers found it necessary to
use other tones than those that could be represented by the staff
degrees in their natural condition. The history of their origin and
development is somewhat complicated and cannot be given here, but it
should be noted once more that it was the need of expressing more than
could be expressed by the older symbols that called forth the newer and
more comprehensive method. The use of sharps and flats in key signatures
grew up early in the seventeenth century. In the earlier signatures it
was customary to duplicate sharps or flats on staff degrees having the
same pitch-name, thus: [Illustration] [Illustration]. (The use of the G
clef as here shown did not of course exist at that time.)
The double-sharp and double-flat became necessary when "equal
temperament" (making possible the use of the complete cycle of keys) was
adopted. This was in the time of Bach (1685-1750).
Signs of expression (relating to tempo and dynamics) date back at least
as far as the year 1000 A.D., but the modern terms used for this purpose
did not appear until some years after the invention of opera, the date
given by C.F.A. Williams in Grove's Dictionary being 1638. These words
and signs of expression were at first used only in connection with
instrumental music, but were gradually applied to vocal music also.
Other systems of notation have been invented from time to time in the
course of the last two or three centuries, but in most cases they have
died with their inventors, and in no case has any such system been
accepted with anything even approaching unanimity. The tonic-sol-fa
system[40] is used quite extensively in England for vocal music, but
has gained little ground anywhere else and the chances are that the
present system of notation, with possibly slight additions and
modifications, will remain the standard notation for some time to come
in spite of the attacks that are periodically made upon it on the ground
of cumbersomeness, difficulty in teaching children, etc. The main
characteristics of staff notation may be summed up as follows:
[Footnote 40: The _tonic-sol-fa system_ represents an attempt to invent
a simpler notation to be used by beginners, (especially in the lower
grades of the public schools) and by singers in choral societies who
have never learned to interpret staff notation and who therefore find
some simpler scheme of notation necessary if they are to read music at
all.
In this system the syllables _do_, _re_, _mi_, etc., (in phonetic
spelling) are used, the tone being arrived at in each case, first by
means of a firmly established sense of tonality, and second by
associating each diatonic tone with some universally felt emotional
feeling: thus _do_ is referred to as the _strong_ tone, _mi_ as the
_calm_ one, and _la_ as the _sad_ tone, great emphasis being placed upon
_do_ as the center of the major tonality, and upon _la_ as the center of
the minor. The system is thus seen to have one advantage over staff
notation, viz.: that in presenting it _the teacher is compelled to begin
with a presentation of actual tones_, while in many cases the teacher of
staff notation begins by presenting facts regarding the staff and other
symbols before the pupil knows anything about tone and rhythm as such.
The symbol for each diatonic tone is the initial letter of the syllable
(_i.e._, d for _do_, r for _re_, etc.), the key being indicated by a
letter at the beginning of the composition. The duration-value of tones
is indicated by a system of bars, dots, and spaces, the bar being used
to indicate the strongest pulse of each measure (as in staff notation)
the beats being shown by the mark: a dash indicating the continuation of
the same tone through another beat. If a beat has two tones this is
indicated by writing the two initial letters representing them with a .
between them. A modulation is indicated by giving the new key letter and
by printing the syllable-initials from the standpoint of both the old
and the new _do_-position. The figure ' above and to the right of the
letter indicates the tone in the octave above, while the same figure
below and to the right indicates the octave below. A blank space
indicates a rest. The tune of My Country, 'Tis of Thee, as printed in
tonic sol-fa notation below will make these points clear.
Key F
|d :d :r |t_1 :-.d :r |m :m :f |m :-.r :d |r :d :t_1 |d :-- :-- |
|s :s :s |s :-.f :m |f :f :f |f :-.m :r |m :f.m :r.d |m :-.f :s |
|l.f:m :r |d :-- :-- |
The advantages of the system are (1) the strong sense of key-feeling
aroused and the ease with which modulations are felt; and (2) the fact
that it is necessary to learn to sing in but one key, thus making
sight-singing a much simpler matter, and transposition the easiest
process imaginable. But these are advantages from the standpoint of the
vocalist (producing but one tone at a time) only, and do not apply to
instrumental music. The scheme will therefore probably be always
restricted to vocal music and will hardly come into very extensive use
even in this field, for the teacher of music is finding it perfectly
possible to improve methods of presentation to such an extent that
learning to sing from the staff becomes a very simple matter even to the
young child. And even though this were not true, the tonic-sol-fa will
always be hampered by the fact that since all letters are printed in a
straight horizontal line the ear does not have the assistance of the eye
in appreciating the rise and fall of melody, as is the case in staff
notation.]
1. Pitches represented by lines and spaces of a staff, the
higher the line, the higher the pitch represented, signs
called clefs at the beginning of each staff making clear the
pitch names of the lines and spaces.
2. Duration values shown by _shapes_ of notes.
3. Accents shown by position of notes on the staff with regard
to bars, _i.e._, the strongest accent always falls just after
the bar, and the beat relatively least accented is found just
before the bar.
4. Extent and description of beat-groups shown by
measure-signs.
5. Key shown by key signature placed at the beginning of each
staff.
6. Rate of speed, dynamic changes, etc., shown by certain
Italian words (_allegro_, _andante_, etc.), whose meaning is
as universally understood as staff notation itself.
APPENDIX B
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
1. Broadly speaking, musical instruments may be divided into two
classes, viz.: (1) those that have a keyboard and are therefore capable
of sounding several tones simultaneously; (2) those that (as a rule)
sound only one tone at a time, as the violin and trumpet. The piano is
of course the most familiar example of the first class, and a brief
description is therefore given.
The _piano_ was invented about two hundred years ago by
Cristofori (1651-1731), an Italian. It was an enormous
improvement over the types of keyboard instrument that were in
use at that time (clavichord, harpsichord, spinet, virginal)
and has resulted in an entirely different style of
composition. See note on embellishments, p. 26.
2. The most characteristic things about the _piano_ as contrasted with
its immediate predecessors are: (1) that on it the loudness and softness
of the tone can be regulated by the force with which the keys are struck
(hence the name _pianoforte_ meaning literally the _soft-loud_); (2) the
fact that the piano is capable of sustaining tone to a much greater
extent than its predecessors. In other words the tone continues sounding
for some little time after the key is struck, while on the earlier
instruments it stopped almost instantly after being sounded.
The essentials of the piano mechanism are:
1. Felt hammers controlled by keys, each hammer striking two
or three strings (which are tuned in unison) and immediately
rebounding from these strings, allowing them to vibrate as
long as the key is held down. The mechanism that allows the
hammers to rebound from the strings and fall into position for
another blow is called the _escapement_.
2. A damper (made of softer felt) pressing against each string
and preventing it from vibrating until it is wanted.
3. A keyboard action that controls both hammers and dampers,
causing the damper to leave the string at the same instant
that the hammer strikes it.
4. A pedal (damper pedal) controlling all of the dampers, so
that at any moment all the strings may be released so as to be
free to vibrate.
Other interesting details are:
1. The strings are stretched over a thin sheet of wood called
the sound-board. This aids greatly in intensifying the tone.
2. The soft pedal (the one at the left) in an _upright piano_
causes the hammers to move up nearer the strings, and the
shorter swing thus afforded causes a less violent blow and
consequently a softer tone. In the _grand piano_ this same
pedal shifts the mechanism to one side so that the hammers
strike only one or two of the strings, this resulting in a
softer tone of somewhat modified quality.
These details regarding the mechanism of the piano can easily be
verified by removing the front of any ordinary upright piano and
observing what takes place when the keys are struck or the pedals
depressed.
3. There are two familiar types of _organ_ in use at the present time,
(1) the reed organ, (2) the pipe-organ.
The _reed organ_ is very simple in construction, the tone being produced
by the vibration of metal reeds (fixed in little cells), through which
air is forced (or sucked) from the bellows, the latter being usually
worked by the feet of the player. More power may be secured either by
drawing additional stops, thus throwing on more sets of reeds, or by
opening the knee swells which either throw on more reeds (sometimes
octave couplers) or else open a _swell box_ in which some of the reeds
are enclosed, the tone being louder when the box is open than when
closed. More tone may also be secured by pumping harder.
4. The essential characteristic of the _pipe-organ_ is a number of sets
or registers of pipes called _stops_, each set being capable (usually)
of sounding the entire chromatic scale through a range of five or six
octaves. Thus for example when the stop _melodia_ is drawn (by pulling
out a stop-knob or tilting a tablet), one set of pipes only, sounds when
the keyboard is played on: but if the stop _flute_ is drawn with
_melodia_, two pipes speak every time a key is depressed. Thus if an
organ has forty _speaking stops_, all running through the entire
keyboard, then each time one key is depressed forty pipes will speak,
and if a chord of five tones is played, two hundred pipes will speak.
The object of having so many pipes is not merely to make possible a very
powerful tone, but, rather, to give greater variety of tone-color.
The pipe-organ usually has a pedal keyboard on which the feet of the
performer play a bass part, this part often sounding an octave (or more)
lower than the notes indicate.
An _eight-foot stop_ on the organ produces tones of the same pitches as
the piano when corresponding keys are struck: A _four-foot stop_ sounds
tones an octave higher and a _two-foot stop_ tones two octaves higher. A
_sixteen-foot stop_ sounds tones an octave lower than the piano, and a
_thirty-two foot_ stop, tones two octaves lower, while some organs have
also a _sixty-four foot_ stop which sounds three octaves lower. This
gives the organ an exceedingly wide range, its compass being greater
than that of any other single instrument, and comparable in both range
of pitches and variety of color only with the modern orchestra.
Modern pipe-organs always have a number of _combination pedals_ or
_pistons_ (usually both), by means of which the organist is enabled to
throw on a number of stops with one movement. The selection and use of
suitable stops, couplers, combinations, etc., is called _registration_.
5. The instruments mentioned at the beginning of this appendix as
belonging to the second class are more familiar in connection with
ensemble playing, being commonly associated with either band or
orchestra.
6. A _band_ is a company of musicians all of whom play upon either wind
or percussion instruments, the main body of tone being produced by the
brass and wood-wind divisions.
Sousa's band is usually made up in somewhat the following
manner: 4 flutes and piccolos, 12 B[flat] clarinets, 1 E[flat]
clarinet, 1 alto clarinet, 1 bass clarinet, 2 oboes, 2
bassoons, 2 sarrusophones, 4 saxophones, 4 cornets, 2
trumpets, 1 soprano saxhorn (fluegelhorn), 4 French horns, 4
trombones, 2 contra-bass tubas, 4 tubas, 1 snare drum, 1 bass
drum, 2 kettle drums, cymbals, triangle, bells, castanets,
xylophone, etc.
7. An _orchestra_ is a company of musicians performing upon stringed
instruments as well as upon wind and percussion. It is differentiated
from the band by the fact that the main body of tone is produced by the
strings.
There are _four classes of instruments_ in the orchestra, viz.,
_strings_, _wood-wind_, _brass_ (_wind_) and _percussion_. In addition
to these four classes, there is the _harp_, which although a stringed
instrument, does not belong in the same group as the other strings
because the manner of producing the tone is altogether different.
8. In the first group (the _strings_) are found the first and second
violins, viola, violoncello (usually spelled _cello_), and double-bass.
The first and second violins are identical in every way (but play
different parts), while the other members of the family merely represent
larger examples of the same type of instrument.
9. In the second group (the _wood-wind_) are found the flute, piccolo,
oboe, bassoon, English horn, double-bassoon, clarinet, and bass
clarinet. The English horn, double-bassoon, bass clarinet, and piccolo
are not called for in the older compositions, hence are not always
present in the orchestra.
10. In the third group (the _brass choir_) are found the French horn,
(usually referred to as _the horn_), trumpet (sometimes replaced by the
cornet) trombone, and tuba.
11. The fourth group (_percussion_) consists of kettle drums, bass drum,
cymbals, snare drum, triangle, bells, etc.
12. In an orchestra of about 100 players the proportion of instruments
is as about as follows, although it varies somewhat according to the
taste of the conductor, the style of composition to be performed, etc.:
18 first violins, 16 second violins, 14 violas, 12 cellos, 10 basses, 1
harp, 3 flutes, 1 piccolo, 3 oboes, 1 English horn, 3 clarinets, 1 bass
clarinet, 3 bassoons, 1 contra (or double) bassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets,
3 trombones, 1 tuba, 3 kettle drums, 1 bass drum, 1 snare drum, 1 each
of triangle, cymbals, bells, and other instruments of percussion,
several of which are often manipulated by one performer.
13. The cuts and brief descriptions here added will give at least a
rudimentary idea of the appearance and possibilities of the instruments
most commonly used in bands and orchestras. For fuller descriptions and
particulars regarding range, quality, etc., the student is referred to
Mason's "The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do," Lavignac's "Music
and Musicians," and to the various articles which describe each
instrument under its own name in Grove's Dictionary or in any good
encyclopaedia. For still fuller details some work on orchestration will
have to be consulted.
14. The _violin_ has four strings, tuned thus [Illustration: g d' a'
e''], these making available a range of about three and one-half octaves
(g--c''''). This range[41] may be extended upward somewhat further by
means of _harmonics_, these being produced by lightly touching the
string at certain points (while the bow is moving across it) instead of
holding it down against the finger-board. The highest string of the
_violin_ (viola and cello also) is often called the _chanterelle_
because it is most often used for playing the melody. The _violin_
ordinarily produces but one tone at a time, but by _stopping_ two
strings simultaneously and so drawing the bow as to set both in
vibration, two tones may be produced at the same time, while three and
four tones can be sounded _almost_ simultaneously.
[Footnote 41: The ranges noted in connection with these descriptions of
instruments are ordinarily the _practical orchestral or band_ ranges
rather than those which are possible in solo performance.]
[Illustration: VIOLIN. Length, 23-1/2 inches. Length of bow, 29-1/2
inches.]
The _mute_ (or _sordino_) is a small clamp made of metal, wood, or
ivory, which when clipped to the top of the bridge causes the vibrations
to be transmitted less freely to the body of the violin, giving rise to
a tone modified in quality, and decreased in power.
For certain special effects the player is directed to pluck the string
(_pizzicato_), this method of playing giving rise to a dry, detached
tone instead of the smooth, flowing one that is so characteristic of the
_violin_ as commonly played.
_Violins_ in the orchestra are divided into firsts and seconds, the
_first violins_ being always seated at the left of the audience and the
_seconds_ at the right.
[Illustration: VIOLA. Length, 26 in. Length of bow, 28.]
15. The _viola_ has four strings, also tuned in fifths, thus
[Illustration: c g d' a']. The _viola_ looks exactly like the violin at
a little distance, and is really only a larger sized violin, having a
range a fifth lower. Its tone is not so incisive as that of the violin,
being rather heavier--"more gloomy," as it is often described. The
_viola_ is not so useful as the violin as a solo instrument because it
is not capable of producing so many varieties of color, nevertheless it
is invaluable for certain effects. In orchestral music it is of course
one of the most valuable instruments for filling in the harmony. The
_viola_ players are usually seated behind the second violin players in
the orchestra.
[Illustration: VIOLONCELLO. Length, 3 ft. 10 in. Length of bow, 28 in.]
16. The _violoncello_ or _cello_ (sometimes called _bass viol_) has four
strings, tuned thus: [Illustration: C G d a]. Its range is about three
and one-half octaves (from C to e'' or f''), but in solo work this range
is sometimes extended much higher. The _cello_ is much more universally
used as a solo instrument than the viola and its tone is capable of a
much greater degree of variation. In the orchestra it plays the bass of
the string quartet (reinforced by the double-bass), but is also often
used for solo passages. _Con sordino_ and _pizzicato_ passages occur as
often for the _cello_ as for the violin.
17. The _double bass_ differs from the other members of the string
family in that it is tuned in _fourths_ instead of in _fifths_. Its four
strings are tuned as follows [Illustration: EE AA D G] the entire range
of the instrument being from EE to a. In music written for double-bass
the notes are always printed an octave higher than the tones are to
sound: that is, when the bass-player sees the note [Illustration: c] he
plays [Illustration: C] this being done to avoid leger lines. The tone
of the _bass_ is much heavier and the instrument itself is much more
clumsy to handle than the other members of the group, hence it is almost
never used as a solo instrument but it is invaluable for reinforcing the
bass part in orchestral music. The mute is rarely used on the
_double-bass_, but the _pizzicato_ effect is very common and the bass
pizzicato tone is much fuller and richer than that of any other stringed
instrument.
[Illustration: DOUBLE-BASS. Length, 6 ft. 6 in. Length of bow, 23-1/2
in.]
18. The _flute_ has a range of three octaves. [Illustration: c' c'''']
It is used in both solo and orchestral playing as well as in bands. The
flute was formerly always made of wood, but is at present often made of
metal.
19. The _piccolo_ is a flute playing an octave higher than the one
described above. The notes are printed as for the flute, but the player
understands that the tone is to sound an octave higher. The _piccolo_ is
used widely in band music and quite often in orchestral music also, but
since the tone is so brilliant and penetrating and is incapable of any
great variation, it is not suitable for solo performance.
[Illustration: OBOE. (hautboy.) Length, 24-1/2 in. Range b e'''.
CONTRA BASSOON. (Double bassoon.) Length 6 ft. Range about an octave
lower than bassoon, but not all tones in this range are practicable.
ENGLISH HORN. (Cor. Anglais.) Length, 2 ft. 11-1/2 in. Range e a''.
PICCOLO. Length, 13 in. (Note that this is approximately half the length
of the flute.)
FLUTE. Length, 26-1/2 in.
BASSOON. (fagotto.) Length, 4 ft. 3-1/2 in. Range BB-flat b-flat'.]
20. The next four instruments to be described (_oboe_, _bassoon_,
_English horn_, and _contra bassoon_) are often referred to as the _oboe
family_ since the principle of tone production and general manipulation
is the same in all four. The tone in these instruments is produced by
the vibration of two very thin pieces of cane, which are called together
a _double-reed_.
The _oboe_ is especially valuable in the orchestra as a solo instrument,
and its thin, nasal tones are suggestive of rustic, pastoral simplicity,
both _oboe_ and _English horn_ being often used by orchestral composers
in passages intended to express the idea of rural out-of-door life. The
_English horn_ is also often used in passages where the idea of
melancholy and suffering is to be conveyed to the audience. In a
military band the oboe corresponds to the first violin of the orchestra.
The _bassoon_ and _contra-bassoon_ are used mostly to provide a bass
part for the harmony of the wood-wind group, but they are also sometimes
employed (especially the _bassoon_) to depict comic or grotesque
effects.
[Illustration: BASS CLARINET. Length, 3 ft. 3 in. Range D to b-flat']
[Illustration: CLARINET. Length 28 in.]
21. The next two types of instruments to be described (_clarinet_ and
_saxophone_) are alike in that the tone is produced by the vibration of
a _single_ strip of cane (called _single reed_) which is held against
the lower lip of the player. The _clarinet_ and _bass clarinet_ are made
of wood and are used in both bands and orchestras, but the _saxophone_
is usually made of metal, and, the tone being more strident and
penetrating, the instrument is ordinarily used only in combination with
other wind instruments, _i.e._, in bands.
Since the fingering of the _clarinet_ is excessively difficult the
performer can play in only certain keys on the same instrument, hence to
play in different keys _clarinets_ in several keys must be provided,
there being usually three in all. The music is written as though it were
to be played in the key of C, but the tones produced are actually in
other keys. For this reason the _clarinet_ is called a _transposing
instrument_. The range of the _clarinet_ is the greatest possessed by
any of the wind instruments, that of the clarinet in C being from
[Illustration: e] to [Illustration: g'''].
[Illustration: SAXOPHONES.
SOPRANO. ALTO. Length, 15-3/4 in.
TENOR. Length, 2 ft. 7-1/2 in.
BASS. Length, 3 ft. 9 in.
Combined range AA to g-flat''']
[Illustration: SARRUSOPHONE.]
The _sarrusophone_ is an instrument with a double-reed. It is made of
brass and exists in several sizes, the only one ever used in the
orchestra being the double-bass _sarrusophone_, which has approximately
the same range as the double-bassoon and is sometimes (but rarely) made
use of in the orchestra instead of the latter instrument. The tone of
the _sarrusophone_ is something like that of the bassoon.
[Illustration: FRENCH HORN. Length, 22-3/4 in.]
22. The _French horn_ (often called _valve horn_ or simply _horn_)
really consists of a long tube (about 16 feet) which is bent into
circular form for convenience in handling. Its range is from
[Illustration: BB] to [Illustration: f'']. In the orchestra _French
horns_ are used in pairs, two of the players taking the higher tones,
and two the lower. The tone is intensely mellow but incapable of any
extensive variation, but in spite of this lack of variety the tone
itself is so wonderfully beautiful that the instrument is one of the
most useful in the orchestra both in solo passages and to fill in the
harmony. The _horn_ (as well as the trumpet and trombone) differs from
most of the wood-wind instruments in that its mouthpiece contains no
reed, the lips of the player constituting the vibrating body as they are
stretched across the mouthpiece and air is forced against them. The
_horn_ is used in bands as well as in orchestras.
[Illustration: TRUMPET. Length, 22-1/2 in.]
23. The range of the _trumpet_ is [Illustration: g b''], the typical
tone being brilliant and ringing. It is used in both band and orchestra,
playing the highest parts assigned to the brass choir. The _trumpet_ is
often replaced in both band and orchestra by its less refined cousin the
_cornet_ because of the ease with which the latter can be played as
compared with the trumpet, and the larger number of players that are
available in consequence of this ease of execution.
24. The _cornet_ looks something like the trumpet, but is not so slim
and graceful in appearance. Its tube is only four and one-half feet
long, as compared with a length of about eight feet in the trumpet, and
sixteen feet in the French horn.
The range of the _cornet_ in B[flat] is from [Illustration: e] to
[Illustration: b-flat'']. The tone is somewhat commonplace as compared
with the trumpet, but because of its great agility in the rendition of
trills, repeated tones, etc., it is universally used in all sorts of
combinations, even (as noted above) taking the place of the trumpet in
many small orchestras.
[Illustration: CORNET. Length, 13-3/4 in.]
[Illustration: SLIDE TROMBONE. Length, 3 ft. 9 in. Range of tenor
trombone (the size ordinarily used) E to b-flat']
25. The pitch sounded by the _trombone_ is altered by lengthening or
shortening the tube of which the instrument is constructed, this being
possible because the lower part slides into the upper and can be pulled
out to increase the total length of the tube through which the air
passes. There are usually three _trombones_ in the orchestra, each
playing a separate part, and the combination of this trio (with the
_tuba_ reinforcing the bass part) is majestic and thrilling, being
powerful enough to dominate the entire orchestra in _Fortissimo_
passages. But the _trombones_ are useful in soft passages also, and
their tone when playing pianissimo is rich, serene, and sonorous.
26. The _bass tuba_ is a member of the saxhorn family[42] and supplies
the lowest part of the brass choir, as the double-bass does in the
string choir. It is used in both orchestra and band, being often
supported in the larger bands by a still lower-toned member of the same
family--the _contra-bass tuba_. The range of the _tuba_ is from
[Illustration: GG] to [Illustration: g'].
[Footnote 42: The _saxhorn_ was invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, a
Frenchman. The _saxophone_ is the invention of the same man.]
[Illustration: BASS TUBA. Length, 3 ft. 3 in.]
[Illustration: BASS DRUM. Diameter about 2-1/2 ft.]
[Illustration: CYMBALS. Diameter, 13-1/4 in.]
27. The _kettle-drum_ is the most important member of the percussion
family and is always used either in pairs or in threes. The size of
these instruments varies somewhat with the make, but when two drums are
used the diameter is approximately that given under the illustration.
The range of a pair of _drums_ is _one octave_ [Illustration: F f] and
when but two drums are used the larger one takes the tones from F to
about C of this range, and the smaller takes those from about B[flat]
to F. The most common usage is to tune one drum to the _tonic_, and the
other to _the dominant_ of the key in which the composition is written.
The pitch of the _kettle-drum_ can be varied by increasing or lessening
the tension of the head by means of thumb-screws which act on a metal
ring.
[Illustration: KETTLE-DRUMS. Diameter of Head, 24-1/2 in. and 27-1/2
in.]
The other important members of the percussion family are shown on this
and the following page, their use being so obvious as to require no
detailed explanation.
[Illustration: TAMBOURINE. Diameter, 10 to 12 in.]
[Illustration: BELLS. (Fr. carillon; Ger. Glockenspiel.)]
[Illustration: SIDE DRUM. Diameter, about 15-1/2 in.]
[Illustration: TRIANGLE. Height, about 8 in.]
28. The _harp_ is one of the oldest of instruments (dating back over
6000 years), but it is only in comparatively recent years that it has
been used in the symphony orchestra. Its range is from [Illustration:
CC-flat] to [Illustration: f-flat'''].
[Illustration: HARP. Height, 5 ft. 8 in.]
The modern _double-action harp_ has forty-six strings, which are tuned
in half-steps and whole-steps so as to sound the scale of C[flat] major.
It has a series of seven pedals around its base, each pedal having two
_notches_ below it, into either of which the pedal may be lowered and
held fast. The first pedal shortens the F[flat] string so that it now
sounds F, (giving the key of G[flat]); the second one shortens the
C[flat] string so that it sounds C (giving the key of D[flat]); the
third pedal shortens the G[flat] string so that it sounds G (giving the
key of A[flat]); the fourth changes D[flat] to D (giving the key of
E[flat]), and so on until, when all the pedals are fixed in their first
notches, the scale of C is sounded instead of C[flat] as was the case
before any of the pedals were depressed. But if the first pedal is now
pushed down into the second notch the original F[flat] string is still
further shortened and now sounds the pitch F[sharp] (giving us the key
of G), and if all the other pedals are likewise successively lowered to
the second notch we get in turn all the _sharp keys_--D, A, E, B,
F[sharp] and C[sharp], the last-named key being obtained as the result
of having all the pedals fixed in their second notches, thus making all
the tones of the original C[flat] scale a whole-step higher so that they
now sound the C[sharp] scale.
Chords of not more than four tones for each hand may be played
simultaneously on the harp, but arpeggio and scale passages are the
rule, and are more successful than simultaneous chords. The notation of
harp music is essentially like that of piano music.
APPENDIX C
ACOUSTICS
NOTE:--It is usually taken for granted that the student of
music is familiar with the significance of such terms as
_over-tone_, _equal temperament_, etc., and with principles
such as that relating to the relation between vibration rates
and pitches: the writer has in his own experience found,
however, that most students are not at all familiar with such
data, and this appendix is therefore added in the hope that a
few facts at least regarding the laws of sound may be brought
to the attention of some who would otherwise remain in entire
ignorance of the subject.
1. _Acoustics_ is the science which deals with sound and the laws of its
production and transmission. Since all sound is caused by vibration,
_acoustics_ may be defined as the science which treats of the phenomena
of sound-producing vibration.
2. All sound (as stated above) is produced by vibration of some sort:
strike a tuning-fork against the top of a table and _see_ the vibrations
which cause the tone, or, if the fork is a small one and the vibrations
cannot be seen, hold it against the edge of a sheet of paper and hear
the blows it strikes; or, watch one of the lowest strings of the piano
after striking the key a sharp blow; or, look closely at the heavier
strings of the violin (or better still, the cello) and watch them
oscillate rapidly to and fro as the bow moves across them.
The vibrating body may be a string, a thin piece of wood, a piece of
metal, a membrane (cf. drum), the lips (cf. playing the cornet), the
vocal cords, etc. Often it is a column of air whose vibrations give rise
to the tone, the reed or other medium merely serving to set the air in
vibration.
3. Sound is _transmitted_ through the air in somewhat this fashion: the
vibrating body (a string for example) strikes the air-particles in its
immediate vicinity, and they, being in contact with other such
air-particles, strike these others, the latter in turn striking yet
others, and so on, both a forward and backward movement being set up
(oscillation). These particles lie so close together that no movement at
all can be detected, and it is only when the disturbance finally reaches
the air-particles that are in contact with the ear-drum that any effect
is evident.
This phenomenon of sound-transmission may perhaps be made more clear by
the old illustration of a series of eight billiard balls in a row on a
table: if the first ball is tapped lightly, striking gently against ball
number 2, the latter (as well as numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) will not
apparently move at all, but ball number 8 at the other end will roll
away. The air-particles act upon each other in much this same fashion,
the difference being that when they are set in motion by a vibrating
body a complete vibration backward and forward causes a similar
_backward and forward_ movement of the particles (oscillation) instead
of simply a _forward jerk_ as in the case of the billiard balls.
Another way of describing the same process is this: the vibration of
some body produces waves in the air (cf. waves in the ocean, which carry
water forward but do not themselves move on continuously), these waves
spread out spherically (i.e. in all directions) and finally reach the
ear, where they set the ear-drum in vibration, thus sending certain
sound-stimuli to the nerves of hearing in the inner ear, and thus to the
brain.
An important thing to be noted in connection with sound-transmission is
that sound will not travel in a vacuum: some kind of a medium is
essential for its transmission. This medium may be air, water, a bar of
iron or steel, the earth, etc.
4. The _rate_ at which sound travels through the air is about 1100 feet
per second, the rapidity varying somewhat with fluctuations in
temperature and humidity. In water the rate is much higher than in air
(about four times as great) while the velocity of sound through other
mediums (as _e.g._, steel) is sometimes as much as sixteen times as
great as through air.
5. Sound, like light, may be _intensified_ by a suitable reflecting
surface directly back of the vibrating body (cf. sounding board); it may
also be reflected by some surface at a distance from its source in such
a way that at a certain point (the focus) the sound may be very clearly
heard, but at other places, even those _nearer_ the source of sound, it
can scarcely be heard at all. If there is such a surface in an
auditorium (as often occurs) there will be a certain point where
everything can be heard very easily, but in the rest of the room it may
be very difficult to understand what is being said or sung.
_Echoes_ are caused by sound-reflection, the distance of the reflecting
surface from the vibrating body determining the number of syllables that
will be echoed.
The _acoustics_ of an auditorium (_i.e._, its hearing properties) depend
upon the position and nature of the reflecting surfaces and also upon
the length of time a sound persists after the vibrating body has
stopped. If it persists longer than 2-1/4 or 2-1/3 seconds the room will
not be suitable for musical performances because of the mixture of
persisting tones with following ones, this causing a blurred effect
somewhat like that obtained by playing a series of unrelated chords on
the piano while the damper-pedal is held down. The duration of the
reverberation depends upon the size and height of the room, material of
floor and walls, furniture, size of audience, etc.
6. Sound may be classified roughly into _tones_ and _noises_ although
the line of cleavage is not always sharply drawn. If I throw stones at
the side of a barn, sounds are produced, but they are caused by
irregular vibrations of an irregularly constructed surface and are
referred to as _noise_. But if I tap the head of a kettle-drum, a
regular series of vibrations is set up and the resulting sound is
referred to as _tone_. In general the material of music consists of
tones, but for special effects certain noises are also utilized (cf.
castanets, etc.).
7. Musical tones have three properties, viz.:
1. Pitch.
2. Intensity.
3. Quality (timbre).
By _pitch_ is meant the highness or lowness of tone. It depends upon
rate of vibration. If a body vibrates only 8 or 10 times per second no
tone is heard at all: but if it vibrates regularly at the rate of 16 or
18 per second a tone of very low pitch is heard. If it vibrates at the
rate of 24 the pitch is higher, at 30 higher still, at 200 yet higher,
and when a rate of about 38,000 per second has been reached the pitch is
so high that most ears cannot perceive it at all. The highest tone that
can ordinarily be heard is the E[flat] four octaves higher than the
highest E[flat] of the piano. The entire range of sound humanly audible
is therefore about eleven octaves (rates 16-38,000), but only about
_eight_ of these octaves are utilized for musical purposes. The tones of
the piano (with a range of 7-1/3 octaves) are produced by vibration
rates approximately between 27 and 4224. In the orchestra the range is
slightly more extended, the rates being from 33 to 4752.
Certain interesting facts regarding the relation between vibration-rates
and pitches have been worked out: it has been discovered for instance
that if the number of vibrations is doubled, the pitch of the resulting
tone is an octave higher; _i.e._, if a string vibrating at the rate of
261 per second gives rise to the pitch c', then a string one-half as
long and vibrating twice as rapidly (522) will give rise to the pitch
c'', _i.e._, an octave higher than c'. In the same way it has been found
that if the rate is multiplied by 5/4 the pitch of the tone will be a
_major third_ higher; if multiplied by 3/2, a _perfect fifth_ higher,
etc. These laws are often stated thus: the ratio of the octave to the
fundamental is as two is to one; that of the major third as five is to
four; that of the perfect fifth as three is to two, and so on through
the entire series of pitches embraced within the octave, the _ratio_
being of course the same for all octaves.
9. The _intensity_ (loudness or softness) of tones depends upon the
amplitude (width) of the vibrations, a louder tone being the result of
vibrations of greater amplitude, and vice versa. This may be verified by
plucking a long string (on cello or double-bass) and noting that when
plucked gently vibrations of small amplitude are set up, while a
vigorous pluck results in much wider vibrations, and, consequently, in a
louder tone. It should be noted that the _pitch_ of the tone is not
affected by the change in amplitude of vibration.
The intensity of tones varies with the medium conveying them, being
usually louder at night because the air is then more elastic. Tone
intensity is also affected by _sympathetic vibrations_ set up in other
bodies. If two strings of the same length are stretched side by side and
one set in vibration so as to produce tone the other will soon begin to
vibrate also and the combined tone will be louder than if only one
string produced it. This phenomenon is the basis of what is known as
resonance (cf. body of violin, resonance cavities of nose and mouth,
sounding board of piano, etc.).
10. _Quality_ depends upon the shape (or form) of the vibrations which
give rise to the tone. A series of simple vibrations will cause a simple
(or colorless) tone, while complex vibrations (giving rise to overtones
of various kinds and in a variety of proportions) cause more
individualistic peculiarities of quality. Quality is affected also by
the shape and size of the resonance body. (Cf. last part of sec. 9
above.)
11. Practically every musical tone really consists of a combination of
several tones sounding simultaneously, the combined effect upon the ear
giving the impression of a single tone. The most important tone of the
series is the _fundamental_, which dominates the combination and gives
the pitch, but this fundamental is practically always combined with a
greater or less number of faint and elusive attending tones called
_overtones_ or _harmonics_. The first of these overtones is the octave
above the fundamental; the second is the fifth above this octave; the
third, two octaves above the fundamental, and so on through the series
as shown in the figure below. The presence of these _overtones_ is
accounted for by the fact that the string (or other vibrating body) does
not merely vibrate in its entirety but has in addition to the principal
oscillation a number of sectional movements also. Thus it is easily
proved that a string vibrates in halves, thirds, etc., in addition to
the principal vibration of the entire string, and it is the vibration of
these halves, thirds, etc., which gives rise to the _harmonics_, or
_upper partials_ as they are often called. The figure shows _Great C_
and its first eight overtones. A similar series might be worked out from
any other fundamental.
[Illustration: (NOTE:--The B[flat] in this series is approximate only.)]
It will be recalled that in the section (10) dealing with _quality_ the
statement was made that _quality_ depends upon the shape of the
vibrations; it should now be noted that it is the form of these
vibrations that determines the nature and proportion of the overtones
and hence the quality. Thus _e.g._, a tone that has too large a
proportion of the fourth upper partial (_i.e._, the _third_ of the
chord) will be _reedy_ and somewhat unpleasant. This is the case with
many voices that are referred to as _nasal_. Too great a proportion of
overtones is what causes certain pianos to sound "tin-panny." The tone
produced by a good tuning-fork is almost entirely free from overtones:
it has therefore no distinctive quality and is said to be a _simple_
tone. The characteristic tone of the oboe on the other hand has many
overtones and is therefore highly individualistic: this enables us to
recognize the tone of the instrument even though we cannot see the
player. Such a tone is said to be _complex_.
12. The mathematical ratio referred to on page 134, if strictly carried
out in tuning a keyboard instrument would cause the half-steps to vary
slightly in size, and playing in certain keys (especially those having a
number of sharps or flats in the signature) would therefore sound out of
tune. There would be many other disadvantages in such a system, notably
the inability to modulate freely to other keys, and since modulation is
one of the predominant and most striking characteristics of modern
music, this would constitute a serious barrier to advances in
composition. To obviate these disadvantages a system of _equal
temperament_ was invented and has been in universal use since the time
of Bach (1685-1750) who was the first prominent composer to use it
extensively. _Equal temperament_ means simply dividing the octave into
twelve equal parts, thus causing all scales (as played on keyboard
instruments at least) to sound exactly alike.
To show the practicability of equal temperament Bach wrote a
series of 48 _preludes and fugues_, two in each major and two
in each minor key. He called the collection "The Well-tempered
Clavichord."
13. Various _standards of pitch_ have existed at different times in the
last two centuries, and even now there is no absolute uniformity
although conditions are much better than they were even twenty-five
years ago. Scientists use what is known as the "scientific standard"
(sometimes called the "philosophic standard"), viz., 256 double
vibrations for "middle C." This pitch is not in actual use for musical
purposes, but is retained for theoretical purposes because of its
convenience of computation (being a power of 2). In 1885 a conference of
musicians at Vienna ratified the pitch giving Middle C 261 vibrations,
this having been adopted by the French as their official pitch some 26
years before. In 1891 a convention of piano manufacturers at
Philadelphia adopted this same pitch for the United States, and it has
been in practically universal use ever since. This pitch (giving Middle
C 261 vibrations) is known as "International Pitch."
_Concert pitch_ is slightly higher than _International_, the difference
between the two varying somewhat, but being almost always less than
one-half step. This higher pitch is still often used by bands and
sometimes by orchestras to give greater brilliancy to the wind
instruments.
REFERENCES
Lavignac--Music and Musicians, pp. 1-66.
Broadhouse--The Student's Helmholz.
Helmholtz--Sensations of Tone.
Hamilton--Sound and its Relation to Music.
NOTE:--For a simple and illuminating treatment of the subject
from the standpoint of the music student, the books by
Lavignac and Hamilton are especially recommended.
APPENDIX D
TERMINOLOGY REFORM
A recent writer[43] on _vocal terminology_ makes the following statement
as an introduction to certain remarks advocating a more definite use of
terms relating to tone production by the human voice:--"The correct use
of words is the most potent factor in the development of the thinker."
If this statement has any basis of fact whatsoever to support it then it
must be evident to the merest novice in musical work that the popular
use of many common terms by musicians is keeping a good many people from
clear and logical thought in a field that needs accurate thinkers very
badly! However this may be, it must be patent to all that our present
terminology is in many respects neither correct nor logical, and the
movement inaugurated by the Music Section of the National Education
Association some years ago to secure greater uniformity in the use and
definition of certain expressions should therefore not only command the
respect and commendation, but the active support of all progressive
teachers of music.
[Footnote 43: Floyd S. Muckey--"Vocal Terminology," _The Musician_, May,
1912, p. 337.]
Let it be noted at the outset that such reforms as are advocated by the
committee will never come into general use while the rank and file of
teachers throughout the country merely _approve_ the reports so
carefully compiled and submitted each year: these reforms will become
effective only as individual teachers make up their minds that the end
to be attained is worth the trouble of being careful to use only
correct terminology every day for a month, or three months, or a
year--whatever length of time may be necessary in order to get the new
habits fixed in mind and muscle.
The Terminology Committee was appointed by the Department of Music of
the N.E.A. in 1906 and made its first report at Los Angeles in 1907.
Since then the indefatigable chairman of the committee (Mr. Chas. I.
Rice, of Worcester, Mass.) has contributed generously of both time and
strength, and has by his annual reports to the Department set many of us
to thinking along certain new lines, and has caused some of us at any
rate to adopt in our own teaching certain changes of terminology which
have enabled us to make our work more effective.
In his first report Mr. Rice says:
"Any one who has observed the teaching of school music in any
considerable number of places in this country cannot fail to have
remarked the great diversity of statement employed by different teachers
regarding the facts which we are engaged in teaching, and the equal
diversity of terminology used in teaching the symbols by which musicians
seek to record these facts. To the teacher of exact sciences our
picturesque use of the same term to describe two or more entirely
different things never ceases to be a marvel.... Thoughtful men and
women will become impressed with the untruthfulness of certain
statements and little by little change their practice. Others will
follow, influenced by example. The revolutionists will deride us for not
moving faster while the conservatives will be suspicious of any change."
At this meeting in Los Angeles a list of thirteen points was recommended
by the committee and adopted by the Music Department. These points are
given in the N.E.A. Volume of Proceedings for 1907, p. 875.
Since 1907 the committee (consisting of Chas. I. Rice, P.C. Hayden, W.B.
Kinnear, Leo R. Lewis, and Constance Barlow-Smith) have each year
selected a number of topics for discussion, and have submitted valuable
reports recommending the adoption of certain reforms. Some of the points
recommended have usually been rejected by the Department, but many of
them have been adopted and the reports of the committee have set many
teachers thinking and have made us all more careful in the use and
definition of common terms. A complete list of all points adopted by the
Department since 1907 has been made by Mr. Rice for _School Music_, and
this list is here reprinted from the January, 1913, number of that
magazine.
TERMINOLOGY ADOPTIONS, 1907-1910
1. _Tone:_ Specific name for a musical sound of definite
pitch. Use neither _sound_, a general term, nor _note_, a term
of notation.
2. _Interval:_ The pitch relation between _two_ tones. Not
properly applicable to a single tone or scale degree. Example:
"Sing the fifth tone of the scale." Not "sing the fifth
interval of the scale."
3. _Key:_ Tones in relation to a tonic. Example: In the key of
G. _Not_ in the scale of G. Scales, major and minor are
composed of a definite selection from the many tones of the
key, and all scales extend through at least one octave of
pitch. The chromatic scale utilizes all the tones of a key
within the octave.
4. _Natural:_ Not a suitable compound to use in naming
pitches. Pitch names are either _simple_: B, or _compound_: B
sharp, B double-sharp, B flat or B double-flat, and there is
no pitch named "B natural." Example: Pitch B, _not_ "B
natural."
NOTE:--L.R.L. thinks that B natural should be the name when
the notation suggests it.
5. _Step, Half-step:_ Terms of interval _measurement_. Avoid
_tone_, _semi-tone_ or _half-tone_. Major second and minor
second are interval _names_. Example: How large are the
following intervals? (1) Major second, (2) minor second, (3)
augmented prime. Answer: (1) a step, (2) a half-step, (3) a
half-step.
6. _Chromatic:_ A tone of the key which is not a member of its
diatonic scale. (N.B.) An accidental (a notation sign) is not
a chromatic sign _unless_ it makes a staff-degree represent a
chromatic tone.
7. _Major; Minor:_ Major and Minor keys having the same
signature should be called relative major and minor. Major and
minor keys having the same tonic, but different signatures,
should be called tonic major and minor. Not "parallel" major
or minor in either case.
8. _Staff:_ Five horizontal lines and their spaces. Staff
_lines_ are named (numbered) upward in order, first to fifth.
_Spaces:_ Space below, first-second-third-fourth-space, and
space above[44]. (Six in all.) Additional short lines and
their short spaces numbered outward both ways from the main
staff, viz: line below, second space below. The boundary of
the staff is always a space.
[Footnote 44: NOTE:--Not "space below the staff" or "space
above the staff."]
9. _G Clef, F Clef, C Clef:_ These clefs when placed upon the
staff, give its degrees their first, or primary pitch meaning.
Each makes the degree it occupies represent a pitch of its
respective name. Example: The G clef makes the second line
represent the pitch G. Avoid "_fixes G on_." The staff with
clef in position represents only pitches having _simple_ or
_one-word_ names, A, B, C, etc.
10. _Sharps, Flats:_ Given a staff with clef in position as in
example above, sharps and flats make staff degrees upon which
they are placed represent pitches a half-step higher or lower.
These pitches have compound or two-word names. Example: The
second line stands for the pitch G (simple name). Sharp the
second line and it will stand for the pitch G sharp. (Compound
name.) The third line stands for the pitch B. (Simple name.)
Flat it, and the line will stand for the pitch B flat.
(Compound name.) N.B. These signs do not "_raise_" or
"_lower_" notes, tones, pitches, letters or staff degrees.
11. _Double-sharp, Double-flat:_ Given a staff with three or
more degrees sharped in the signature, double-sharps are used
(subject to the rules governing composition) to make certain
of these degrees, already sharped, represent pitches one
half-step higher yet. Similarly, when three or more degrees
are flatted in the signature, double-flats are used to make
certain degrees already flatted, represent pitches one
half-step lower yet. Examples: To represent sharp 2 in the key
of B major, double-sharp the C degree, or (equally good)
double-sharp the third space (G clef). To represent flat 6 in
the key of D flat major, double-flat the B degree, or (equally
good) double flat the third line (G clef). _Do not say_: "Put
a double-sharp on 6" or "put a double-sharp on C," or
"_indicate"_ a higher or lower pitch "_on_" a sharped or
flatted degree.
12. _Signature:_ Sharps or flats used as signatures affect the
staff degrees they occupy and all octaves of the same.
Example: With signature of four sharps, the first one affects
the fifth line and the first space; the second, the third
space; the third, the space above and the second line; the
fourth, the fourth line and the space below. _Do not say_: "F
and C are sharped," "ti is sharped," "B is flatted," "fa is
flatted." "Sharpened" or "flattened" are undesirable.
13. _Brace:_ The two or more staffs containing parts to be
sounded together; also the vertical line or bracket connecting
such staffs. _Not_ "line" or "score." "Staff" is better than
"line" for a single staff, and "score" is used meaning the
book containing an entire work, as "vocal score," "orchestral
score," "full score."
14. _Notes:_ Notes are characters designed to represent
relative duration. When placed on staff-degrees they
_indicate_ pitch. (Note the difference between "represent" and
"indicate.") "Sing what the note calls for" means, sing a tone
of the pitch represented by the staff degree occupied by the
note-head. The answer to the question: "What is that note?"
would be "half-note," "eighth-note" according to the
denomination of the note in question, whether it was on or off
the staff.
15. _Measure-sign:_ 4-4, 2-4, 6-8, are _measure-signs_. Avoid
"time signatures," "meter-signatures," "the fraction,"
"time-marks." Example: What is the measure-sign? (C) Ans. A
broken circle. What is its meaning? Ans. Four-quarter measure.
(Not four-four time, four-four rhythm, four-four meter.)
16. _Note Placing:_ Place a quarter note on the fourth line.
Not "put a quarter note on D."
17. _Beat-Pulse:_ A tone or rest occurs on a certain beat or
pulse of a measure. Not on a certain _count_.
18. _Signature Terminology:_ The right hand sharp in the
signature is on the staff degree that represents seven of the
major scale. Not "always on 7 or ti."
19. _Signature Terminology:_ The right hand flat in the
signature is on the staff degree that represents four of the
major scale. Not "always on fa."
20. _Rote, Note, Syllable:_ Singing by rote means that the
singer sings something learned by ear without regard to notes.
Singing by note means that the singer is guided to the correct
pitch by visible notes. Singing by syllable means that the
singer sings the tones of a song or part to the sol-fa
syllables instead of to words, neutral vowels or the hum.
"Sing by note" is not correct if the direction means simply to
sing the sol-fa syllables, whether in sight reading, rote
singing, or memory work. "Sing by syllable" would be correct
in each case.
ADOPTIONS OF THE 1911 MEETING AT SAN FRANCISCO
Arabic numerals, either 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, or 12, placed on the
staff directly after the signature and above the third line,
show the number of beats in a measure.
A note, either a quarter or a dotted quarter, placed in
parenthesis under the numeral, represents the length of one
beat and is called the beat-note.
The numeral and the beat-note thus grouped constitute the
measure-sign.
Illustrative statements covering proper terminology: the tune
"America" is written in three-quarter measure. The chorus:
"How lovely are the Messengers" is written in two-dotted
quarter measure.
The above forms of statement were adopted at Denver in 1909,
and are recommended for general use when speaking of music
written with the conventional measure-signs, etc.
In place of: "two-two time, three-eight time, four-four time,"
say as above: "This piece is written in two-half measure,
three-eighth measure, four-quarter measure."
MINOR SCALES
_Primitive Minor (ascending)_
The minor scale form having minor sixth and minor seventh
above tonic to be called Primitive Minor.
Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, a; C
minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b flat, c. [Transcriber's
Note: Supplied b flat missing from original.]
_Primitive Minor (descending)_
Same pitches in reverse order.
_Harmonic Minor (ascending)_
The minor scale form having minor sixth and major seventh
above tonic to be called Harmonic Minor.
Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g sharp, a;
C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b, c.
_Harmonic Minor (descending_)
Same pitches in reverse order.
_Melodic Minor (ascending)_
The minor scale form having major sixth and major seventh
above tonic to be called Melodic Minor.
Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f sharp, g
sharp, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a, b, c.
_Melodic Minor (descending)_
Same as the Primitive.
ADOPTIONS OF THE 1912 MEETING AT CHICAGO
_Pulse and Beat_
The Committee finds that the words: Pulse and Beat are in
general use as synonymous terms, meaning one of the succession
of throbs or impulses of which we are conscious when listening
to music. Each of these pulses or beats has an exact point of
beginning, a duration, and an exact point of ending, the
latter coincident with the beginning of the next pulse or
beat. When thus used, both words are terms of ear.
_Beat_
One of these words, Beat, is also in universal use, meaning
one of a series of physical motions by means of which a
conductor holds his group of performers to a uniform movement.
When thus used it becomes a term of eye.
The conductor's baton, if it is to be authoritative, cannot
wander about through the whole duration of the pulse but must
move quickly to a point of comparative repose, remaining until
just before the arrival of the next pulse when it again makes
a rapid swing, finishing coincidently with the initial tone
(or silence) of the new pulse.
Thus it is practically the end of the conductor's beat that
marks the beginning of the pulse.
The Committee is of opinion that Beat might preferably be used
as indicating the outward sign.
_Beat-Note_
This term "beat-note" is already in use in another important
connection (see Terminology Report, 1911) and the Committee
recommends that those using the above terms shall say: "This
note is an on-the-beat note; this one is an after-the-beat
note; this one a before-the-beat note."
DEFINITIONS
_Matters of Ear_
Pulse: The unit of movement in music, one of a series of
regularly recurring throbs or impulses.
Measure: A group of pulses.
Pulse-Group: Two or more tones grouped within the pulse.
_Matters of Eye_
Beat: One of a series of conventional movements made by the
conductor. This might include any unconventional motion which
served to mark the movement of the music, whether made by
conductor, performer or auditor.
Beat-Note: A note of the denomination indicated by the
measure-sign as the unit of note-value in a given measure.
_Example_
Given the following measure-signs: 2-4, 2-2, 2-8, quarter,
half, or eighth notes, respectively, are beat-notes.
Beat-Group: A group of notes or notes and rests, of smaller
denomination than the beat-note which represents a full beat
from beginning to end and is equal in value to the beat-note.
(A beat-group may begin with a rest.)
On-the-Beat Note (or rest): Any note (or rest) ranging in
value from a full beat down, which calls for musical action
(or inaction) synchronously with the conductor's beat.
After-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates
that a tone is to be sounded after the beginning, and before
or at the middle of the pulse.
Before-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates
that a tone is to be sounded after the middle of the pulse.
To illustrate terminology and to differentiate between Pulse
and Beat as terms, respectively of ear and eye, the following
is submitted:
Whenever a brief tone involves the musical idea of
syncopation, it may be regarded as an after-the-pulse tone and
the note that calls for it as an after-the-beat note; when it
involves the idea of anticipation or preparation it may be
regarded as a before-the-pulse tone, and the note that calls
for it, as a before-the-beat note.
_Measure and Meter_
"What is the measure-sign?"
"What is the meter-signature?"
These two words are used synonymously, and one of them is
unnecessary. The Committee recommends that Measure be retained
and used. Meter has its use in connection with hymns.
* * * * *
The author does not find it possible at present to agree with all the
recommendations made in the above report, but the summary is printed in
full for the sake of completeness.
The Music Teacher's National Association has also interested itself
mildly in the subject of terminology reform, and at its meeting in
Washington, D.C., in 1908, Professor Waldo S. Pratt gave his address as
president of the Association on the subject "System and Precision in
Musical Speech." This address interested the members of the Association
to such an extent that Professor Pratt was asked to act as a committee
whose purpose it should be to look into the matter of reforms necessary
in music terminology and report at a later session. In 1910 Professor
Pratt read a report in which he advocated the idea of making some
changes in music nomenclature, but took the ground that the subject is
too comprehensive to be mastered in the short time that can be given to
it by a committee, and that it is therefore impossible to recommend
specific changes. He also took occasion to remark that one difficulty in
the whole matter of terminology is that many terms and expressions are
used _colloquially_ and that such use although usually not scientific,
is often not distinctly harmful and is not of sufficient importance to
cause undue excitement on the part of reformers. Quoting from the report
at this point:--"A great deal of confusion is more apparent than real
between _note_ and _tone_, between _step_ and _degree_, between _key_
and _tonality_. No practical harm is done by speaking of the _first
note_ of a piece when really _first tone_ would be more accurate. To
say that a piece is written _in the key of B[flat]_ is more convenient
than to say that it is written in the _tonality of which B[flat] is the
tonic_. The truth is that some of the niceties of expression upon which
insistence is occasionally laid are merely fussy, not because they have
not some sort of reason, but because they fail to take into account the
practical difference between colloquial or off-hand speech and the
diction of a scientific treatise. This is said without forgetting that
colloquialism always needs watching and that some people form the habit
of being careless or positively uncouth as if it were a mark of high
artistic genius."
Professor Pratt's report is thus seen to be philosophic rather than
constructive, and terminology reform will undoubtedly make more
immediate progress through the efforts of the N.E.A. Committee with its
specific recommendations (even though these are sometimes admittedly
_fussy_) than through the policy of the M.T.N.A. of waiting for some one
to get time to take up the subject in a scholarly way. Nevertheless the
philosophic view is sometimes badly needed, especially when the spirit
of reform becomes too rabid and attaches too great importance to
trifles. A judicious intermingling of the two committees in a series of
joint meetings would undoubtedly result in mutual helpfulness, and
possibly also in a more tangible and convincing statement of principles
than has yet been formulated by either.
APPENDIX E
Sonata Op. 31, No. 3 by Beethoven
Analysis by ARTHUR E. HEACOX,
Oberlin Conservatory of Music
First Subject 17 measures, E[flat] major, as follows: 8 meas.
presentation, one meas. link, 8 meas. repetition oct. higher.
Rhythmic elements are A, B, C, all presented in first 8 meas.
[Transcriber's Note: The analysis is presented as notations on the
musical score of the sonata. Please see the HTML version of this e-text
to view the score with the notations and to listen to a MIDI version.]
[Illustration: Sonata Op. 31, No. 3]
INDEX
eh = a as in face; ah = a as in far; ch = ch as in chair; final eh = e
as in met.
A (_ah_), 95
A battuta (_ah-baht-too'-tah_), 95
A capella (_cah-pel'-lah_), 76
A capriccio (_cah-pritch'-eo_), 54
Accelerando (_aht-cheh-leh-rahn'-do_), 54
Accented tones, 20
Accent marks, 20
Accent in measures, 44
Acciaccatura (_aht-cheea-cah-too'-ra_), 25, 26
Accidentals, 9
Accompagnamento (_ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-to_), 95
Acoustics (_ah-kow'-stics_), def., 131
of auditoriums, 133
Adagietto (_ah-dah-jee-et'-to_), 50
Adagio (_ah-dah'-jee-o_), 50
À deux mains (_doo-mahng_), 42
Ad libitum, 54
Affrettando (_ahf-fret-tahn'-do_), 54
Agitato (_ah-jee-tah'-to_), 55
Agréments (_ah-greh-mahng_), 22
À la or alla (_ahl'-lah_), 42
Alla breve (_breh'-veh_), 95
Alla marcia (_mar'-chee-ah_), 95
Allargando (_ahl-lahr-gahn'-do_), 53
Alla zingara (_tseen-gah'-rah_), 95
Allegretto (_ahl-leh-gret'-to_), 51
Allegrissimo, 52
Allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 50
Allegro agitato (_ah-jee-tah'-to_), 52
Allegro appassionata (_-ah'-tah_), 52
Allegro assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52
Allegro commodo (_kom-mo'-do_), 52
Allegro con brio (_bree'-o_), 52
Allegro con fuoco (_foo-o'-ko_), 53
Allegro con moto (_mo'-to_), 53
Allegro con spirito (_spee'-ree-to_), 53
Allegro di bravura (_dee brah-voo'-rah_), 53
Allegro di molto (_mohl'-to_), 53
Allegro furioso (_foo-ree-o'-so_), 53
Allegro giusto (_jew-sto_), 53
Allegro ma grazioso (_mah grah-tsi-o'-so_), 53
Allegro (ma) non tanto (_tahn'-to_), 53
Allegro (ma) non troppo (_trop'-po_), 53
Allegro moderato (_mod-e-rah'-to_), 53
Allegro quasi andante (_quah-see ahn-dahn'-teh_), 53
Allegro vivace (_vee-vah'-cheh_), 53
Allemande (_al-mahnd_), 71
All'unisono (_oo-nee-so'-no_), 95
All'ottava (_ot-tah'-vah_), 15
Alt (_ahlt_), 95
Alto (_ahl-to_), 95
A mezza voce (_met'-zah-vo'-cheh_), 42
Amore (_ah-mo'-reh_), 42, 59
Andante (_ahn-dahn'-teh_), 50
Andante affettuoso (_ahf-fet-too-o'-so_), 52
Andante amabile (_ah-mah'-bee-leh_), 52
Andante cantabile (_cahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 52
Andante con moto (_mo'-to_), 52
Andante grazioso (_grah-tsi-o'-so_), 52
Andante maestoso (_mah-es-to'-so_), 52
Andante (ma) non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 52
Andante pastorale (_pahs-to-rah'-leh_), 52
Andante quasi allegro (_quah-see ahl-leh'-gro_), 52
Andante sostenuto (_sos-teh-noo'-to_), 52
Animando (_ah-nee-mahn'-do_), 55
Animato (_ah-nee-mah'-to_), 55
Animato come sopra (_co-meh so'-prah_), 55
Andantino (_ahn-dahn-tee'-no_), 50
Antecedent, 67
Anthem, 76
Anticipation, 93
Antiphony (_an-tif'-o-ny_), 95
Antithesis (_an-tith'-_), 67
A piacere (_pee-ah-cheh'-reh_), 54
Appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too'-rah_), def., 25
À quatre mains (_kahtr-mahng_), 95
Arabesque, 95
Aria (_ah'-ree-ah_), 79
Arioso (_ah-ree-o'-so_), 95
Arpeggiando (_ar-ped-jee-ahn'-do_), 21
Arpeggiato (_-ah'-to_), 21
Arpeggiento (_-en'-to_), 21
Arpeggio (_ar-ped'-jee-o_), 21
Art-ballad, 80
Assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 42
A tempo, 54
A tempo primo (_pree'-mo_), 54
A tempo rubato (_roo-bah'-to_), 54
Attacca (_aht-tah'-kah_), 95
Attacca subito (_soo'-bee-to_), 95
Attacca subito il seguente (_eel seg-wen'-teh_), 95
Attack, 95
Bagpipe, 95
Ballad, 80
Band, 115
Bar, def. and use, 12
double, 12
Barcarole (_bar'-cah-rohl_), 95
Baritone, 95
Bass, 95
Bass clarinet, 121
Basso (_bahs'-so_), 95
Bassoon, 121
Bass staff, 6
Bass tuba, 125
Bass viol, 118
Ben (_behn_), 42
Ben marcato (_mahr-kah'-to_), 42
Berceuse (_behr-soos'_), 95
Binary form, 95
Binary measure, 95
Bis (_bees_), 96
Bolero (_bo-leh'-ro_), 71
Bourrée (_boo-reh'_), 71
Brace, 96
Brass instruments, 116
Brillante (_breel-ahn'-teh_), 55
Broken chord, 96
Broken octave, 96
Cacophony (_kak-of'-o-ny_), 96
Cadence, 89
Cadenza, 96
Calando (_kah-lahn'-do_), 59
Cancel, 3, 8
Cantabile (_kahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 96
Cantando (_kakn-tahn'-do_), 96
Canto (_kahn'-to_), 96
Cantus firmus, 64
Canon, 64
Cantata (_kahn-tah'-tah_), 77
Carol, 96
Catch, 96
C clef 3, 6
Cello (_chel'-lo_), 118
Chaconne (_shah-con'_), 71
Chamber music, 72
Chanterelle (_shong-tah-rel'_), 117
Chinese scale, 27
Choral, 76
Chords def. and lands, 87
inversions of, 88
common, 87
seventh, 89
dominant seventh, 92
Chromatic, 96
Chromatic scale, 38
Clarinet, 121
Classes of instruments in orchestra, 115
Clavichord, 96
Clefs, 3, 5
Close position, 94
Coda, 70
Coi (_co'-ee_), 42
Col, 42
Colla, 42
Colla parte (_par'-teh_), 96
Colla voce (_vo'-cheh_), 96
Colle, 42
Collo, 42
Coloratura singing, 79, 96
Coll'ottava (_ot-tah'-vah_), 15
Combination pedals, 115
Come (_koh'-meh_), 42
Come primo (_pree'-mo_), 42
Common chords, 87
Compound measure, 45
Compound duple measure, 45
Con, 42
Con alcuna licenza (_ahl-koo'-nah lee-chen'-tsah_), 59
Con amore (_ah-mo'-reh_), 42, 59
Con anima (_ah'-nee-mah_), 55
Con bravura (_brah-voo'-rah_), 59
Con celerita (_che-leh'-ree-tah_), 59
Concerto (_con-cher'-to_), 72
Concert pitch, 138
Con delicato (_deh-lee-cah'-to_), 59
Con energico (_en-er-jee'-ko_), 59
Con espressione (_es-pres-see-o'-neh_), 59
Con forza (_fort'-za_), 60
Con fuoco (_foo-o'-ko_), 60
Con grand' espressione (_grahnd' es-pres-see-o'-neh_), 60
Con grazia (_grahts-yah_), 60
Con melinconia (or malinconia) (_-leen-ko'-ne-eh_), 60
Con moto, 55
Con passione (_pas-se-o'-neh_), 60
Consequent, 67
Consonance, 96
Con spirito (_spe'-ree-to_), 60
Con tenerezza (_teh-neh-ret'-za_), 60
Continuous form, 80
Contra, 42
Contra bass tuba, 126
Contra octave, 16
Contralto, 96
Con variazione (_vah-ri-ah-tsi-o'-neh_), 96
Cornet, 124
Counterpoint, def., 64, 62, 82
Courante (_koo-rahnt'_), 71
Crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 57
Crescendo al fortissimo, 58
Crescendo ed affrettando (_ahf-fret-tahn'-do_), 58
Crescendo ed animando poco a poco (_ah-ni-mahn'-do_), 58
Crescendo e diminuendo (_eh de-me-noo-en'-do_), 58
Crescendo molto (_mohl'-to_), 58
Crescendo poco a poco, 58
Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine (_seen ahl fee'-neh_), 58
Crescendo poi diminuendo (_po'-ee dee-mee-noo-en'-do_), 58
Crescendo subito (_soo'-bee-to_), 58
Cross-stroke, 1, 2
Csardas (_tsar'-dahs_), 71
Da (_dah_), 42
Da capo (_kah'-po_), 13
Dal segno (_sehn'-yo_), 13
Dances, 71
Dash over note, 17, 20
Decrescendo (_deh-kreh-shen'-do_), 58
Decrescendo al pianissimo (_ahl pee-ahn-is'-si-mo_), 58
Degrees of staff, 5
Delicato (_deh-lee-kah'-to_), 60
Descriptive music, 74
Di (_dee_), 42
Diatonic condition, 7
Diatonic scale, 28
Di bravura (_brah-voo'-rah_), 42
Diminuendo (_dee-mee-noo-en'-do_), 58
Di molto (_mohl'-to_), 42
Direct, 96
Dirge, 97
Discord, 97
Dissonance (_dis'_), 97
Divisi (_di-ve'-ze_), 97
Dolce (_dohl'-cheh_), 60
Dolce e cantabile (_eh kahn-tah'-bee-leh_), 60
Dolcissimo (_dohl-chis'-see-mo_), 60
Dolente (_do-len'-teh_), 60
Dominant, 36
Dominant Seventh, 92
Doloroso (_do-lo-ro'-so_), 60
Doppio (_dop'-pee-o_), 42
Doppio movimento (_mo-vi-men'-to_), 55
Dot--where placed, 3
uses of, 17
with slur or tie, 20
with dash, 20
Double bar, 12
Double bass, 118
Double bassoon, 121
Double flat, 3, 7
Double mordent, 23
Double sharp, 3, 7
Doublet, 20
Duet, 97
Duple measure, 46
Dynamics, 56
E (_eh_), 42
École (_eh'-kole_), 97
Ed, 42
Eight-foot stop, 114
Elements of music, 82
Embellishments, 22
English names for notes, 11
English horn, 121
Enharmonic, def., 10
Enharmonic scale, 32
Enharmonic tie, 18
Ensemble (_ong-sombl_), 42
Equal temperament, 137
E poi la coda (_eh-po'-ee_), 14
Espressivo (_ehs-pres-see'-vo_), 60
Et, 42
Etto, 42
Etude, 97
Euphony (_yu'-fo-ny_), 97
Even measure, 46
Facile (_fah-chee'-leh_), 97
Fanfare (_fahn'-fehr_), 97
Fantasia (_fahn-tah-ze'-ah_), 97
F Clef, 3, 5, 6
Fermata (_fehr-mah'-ta_), 14, 15
Fiasco (_fe-ahs'-ko_), 97
Figured bass, 89
Fine (_fee'-neh_), 13
Five-lined octave, 16
Flat, 3, 7
Flute, 119
Folk-song, 81
Form, def., 62
binary, 95
Forte (_for'-teh_), 56
Forte piano (_pee-ah'-no_), 56
Forte possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 43
Fortissimo, 56
Fortissimo possibile (_pos-see-bee-leh_), 56
Fortisissimo, 56
Forzando (_for-tsahn'-do_), 57
Forzato (_for-tsah'-to_), 57
Four-foot stop, 114
Four-lined octave, 16
Free imitation, 64
French horn, 123
French pitch designations, 6
Fugue, 66
Fundamental, 135
Gamut (_gam'-ut_), 97
Gavotte (_gah-vot'_), 71
G Clef, 3, 5, 6
General pause, 15
German pitch designation, 6
Gigue (_zheeg_), 71
Giocoso (_jee-o-ko'-so_), 60
Giojoso (_jee-o-yo'-so_), 60
Glee, 81
Glissando (_glis-sahn'-do_), 97
Graces, 22
Grandioso (_grahn-dee-o'-so_), 60
Grand sonata, 74
Grave (_grah'-veh_), 50
Grazioso (_grah-tsi-o'-so_), 60
Great octave, 16
Great staff, 5
Grosse pause (_gros-seh pah-oo'-za_) or (_gros-seh pow-zeh_), 15
Gruppetto (_groo-pet'-to_), 22
Habanera (_hah-bah-neh'-rah_), 71
Half-step, 83
Harmonic minor scale, 33
Harmonics, 136
Harmonics on violin, 117
Harmony, 82
Harp, 129
Harpsichord, 97
Head of note, 1
Hold, 15
Homophonic style, 63
Hook, 1
Humoresque (_hoo-mo-resk'_), 97
Hymn to St. John, 37
Idyl, 97
Il (_eel_), 42
Il basso (_bahs'-so_), 42
Il più (_pee'-oo_), 42
Il più forte possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 42
Imitation, 64
Imperfect trill, 23
In alt (_in ahlt_), 97
In altissimo (_ahl-tis'-si-mo_), 97
Ino (_ee'-no_), 42
Instrumentation, 97
Instruments, classification of, 112
Intensity of tones, 135
Interlude, 97
Intermediate tones, 38
see "Chromatic," p. 96
International pitch, 138
Interval, def., 83
enharmonic, 10
harmonic, 83
melodic, 83
names of, 83
Inversion, in thematic development, 69
Inversions of chords, 88
Inverted mordent, 23
Inverted turn, 25
Issimo, 42
Kettle-drum, 126
Key, def., 28
signature, 8
enharmonic keys, 10
key-tone, 27, 28
how different from scale, 28
L, 42
La (_lah_), 42
Lacrimando (_lah-kri-mahn'-do_), 60
Lacrimoso (_lah-kri-mo'-so_), 60
Largamente (_lar-gah-men'-teh_), 42
Largando (_lar-gahn'-do_), 53
Larghetto (_lar-get'-to_), 50
Largo, 50
Largo assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52
Largo di molto (_de mohl'-to_), 52
Largo ma non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 52
Largo un poco (_oon po'-co_), 52
Le (_leh_), 42
Leading tone, 33, 36
Legato (_leh-gah'-to_), 18, 60
Leger lines, 5
Leggierissimo (_led-jah-ris'-si-mo_), 60
Leggiero (_led-jee'-ro_), 60
Lentando (_len-tahn'-do_), 52
Lentemente (_len-tah-men'-teh_), 52
Lentissimamente (_-men'-teh_), 52
Lentissamente (_-men'-teh_), 52
Lento, 50
Lento a capriccio (_ah-cah-preet'-chee-o_), 52
Lento assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 52
Lento di molto (_de mohl'-to_), 52
Libretto (_lee-bret'-to_), 78
Lied (_leed_), 80
L'istesso tempo (_lis-tes'-so_), 42, 55
Loco, 15, 97
Long appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too'-rah_), 25
Lower tetrachord, 29
Lunga pausa (_loong-ah pow'-zeh_) or (_loon-gah pah-oo'-za_), 15
Lunga trillo, 97
Lusingando (_loos-in-gahn'-do_), 60
Lyric, 98
Madrigal (_mad'-ri-gal_), 81
Maesta (_mah'-es-tah_), 60
Maestoso (_mah-es-to'-so_), 60
Maggiore (_mahd-jo'-reh_), 98
Main droite (_mahng droa_), 20
Main gauche (_mahng gowsh_), 20
Major key, 8
Major scale, def., 29
positions, 30
origin of name, 33
Mancando (_mahn-kahn'-do_), 59
Mano destra (_mah'-no dehs'-trah_), 20
Mano sinistra (_si-nees'-trah_), 20
Marcato il canto (_mar-kah'-to eel kahn'-to_), 98
Martellando (_mar-tel-lahn'-do_), 59
Martellato (_mar-tel-lah'-to_), 59
Marziale (_mart-se-ah'-leh_), 59
Mass, 77
Mazurka (_mah-zoor'-ka_), 71
Measure, def., 44
how differs from "bar," 12
how differs from "rhythm," 44
syncopation in, 44
simple and compound, 45
duple or even, 46
triple or perfect, 46
quadruple, 46
sextuple, 46
compound duple, 46
signature, 48
binary, 95
Mediant, 36
Mellifluous (_mel-lif'-loo-us_), 98
Melodic minor scales, 34
Melody, 82
Melos (_meh'-los_), 98
Meno (_meh'-no_), 42
Meno mosso (_mos'-so_), 53
Mente (_men'-teh_), 42
Menuet (_meh-noo-eh'_), 98
Menuetto (_meh-noo-et'-to_), 98
Messa di voce (_mes'-sa dee vo'-cheh_), 21
Mesto (_mehs'-to_), 60
Metronome, 49
Mezza (_med'-zah_), 42
Mezzo (_med'-zo_), 42
Mezzo forte (_for'-teh_), 42, 56
Mezzo piano (_pe-ah'-no_), 56
Mezzo soprano (_so-prah'-no_), 98
Mezzo voce (_vo'-cheh_), 60
Minor key, 8
Minore (_me-no'-reh_), 98
Minor scale, def., 33
positions, 34
Minuet, 71
Misterioso (_mis-teh-ri-o'-so_), 60
Moderato (_mod-e-rah'-to_), 51
Modulation, def., 92
enharmonic, 10
Molto (_mohl'-to_), 42
Molto crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 42
Monophonic style, 63, 67
Mordent, 22, 23
Morendo (_mo-ren'-do_), 59
Moriente (_mo-ri-en'-teh_), 59
Motet (_mo-tet'_), 76
Movable C Clef, 6
Mute, 117
Natural, 3, 8
Natural condition of staff-degrees, 8
Nel, 42
Nel battere (_baht-teh'-reh_), 42
Nella, 42
Neumae (_neoo'-mee_), 104
Nocturne, 98
Non (_non_), 42
Non tanto (_tahn'-to_), 42
Non tanto allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 53
Non troppo allegro (_trop'-po_), 53
Notation, history of music, 101
Notes, def., 10
kinds of, 11
English names for, 11
dotted, 17
staccato, 17
irregular note-groups, 19
parts of, 1
how made, 1
Nuance (_noo-angs_), 98
Obbligato (_ob-blee-gah'-to_), 98
Oboe (_o'-bo_), 121
Octave, def., 36
Octaves, names of, 16
Offertory, 98
One-lined octave, 16
Open position, 94
Opera, 78
Opus, 98
Oratorio, 77
Orchestra, 115
Orchestration, 98
Organ, reed, 113
pipe, 114
point, 98
Original minor scale, 33
Origin of scale, 28
Ossia (_os'-see-ah_), 42, 98
Ossia più facile (_pe-oo' fah-chee'-leh_), 42
Overtones, 136
Overture, 98
Parlando (_par-lahn'-do_), 60
Part song, 81
Pastorale (_pas-to-rah'-leh_), 60
Pedal point, 93
Pentatonic scale, 27
Per (_pehr_), 42
Percussion instruments, 116
Perdendo (_pehr-den'-do_), 59
Perdendosi (_pehr-den-do'-see_), 59
Perfect measure, 46
Perfect trill, 23
Per il violino (_eel ve-o-le'-no_), 42
Period, 67
Pesante (_peh-sahn'-teh_), 55
Peu (_peuh_), 42
Phrase, 67
Phrase mark, 18
Pianissimo (_pee-ahn-is'-si-mo_), 56
Pianissimo possibile (_pos-see'-bee'-leh_), 56
Pianisissimo (_pee-ahn-is-is'-si-mo_), 56
Piano (_pee-ah'-no_), 56
Piano assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 56
Piano, description of, 112
Piccolo (_pik'-ko-lo_), 119
Pipe organ, 114
Pitch, def., 134
pitch names, 6
standards of, 137
concert pitch, 138
international pitch, 138
Più (_pe-oo'_), 42
Più allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 54
Più forte (for'-teh), 42
Più lento, 53
Più mosso (_mos'-so_), 54
Più tosto (_tos'-to_), 54
Pizzicato (_pits-e-kah'-to_), 99, 117
Pochetto (_po-ket'-to_), see ino, 42
Poco, 43
Poco a poco animando (_ah-nee-mahn'-do_), 54
Poi (_po' ee_), 42
Polacca (_po-lahk'-kah_), 99
Polka, 69
Polonaise (_pol-o-nez'_), 71, 99
Polyphonic style, 64
Pomposo (_pom-po'-so_), 60
Portamento (_por'-tah-men'-to_), 20
Position, open and close, 94
Possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 43
Postlude, 99
Prall trill, 22
Precipitoso (_preh-che-pi-to'-so_), 60
Prelude, 99
Prestissimo (_pres-tis'-see-mo_), 51
Prestissimo possibile (_pos-see'-bee-leh_), 51
Presto, 51
Presto assai (_ahs-sah'-ee_), 53
Presto (ma) non troppo (_mah non trop'-po_), 53
Prière (_pre-ehr'_), 99
Primary forms, 68
Primitive minor scale, 33
Program music, 74
Pure music, 74
Pure scale, 40
Quadruple measure, 46
Quality, 136
Quartet, 72
Quasi (_quah'-see_), 43
Quintole (_kwin'-to-leh_), 99
Quintolet, 20
Quintuplet, 20, 99
Raised sixth, 34
Rallentando (_rahl-len-tahn'-do_), 53
Rapidamente (_rah-pid-a-men'-teh_), 55
Rate of speed, of sound, 132
Recitative (_res-i-tah-teev'_), 78
Recitativo (_reh-chee-ta-tee'-vo_), 60
Reed organ, 113
Relative minor, 8, 35
Religioso (_reh-lee-jo'-so_), 99
Repetition and contrast, 62, 70
Requiem (_re'-kwi-em_), 99
Rests, def., 10
rules for making, 2
kinds of, 11
peculiar use of, 11
several measures of, 14
Retardation, 93
Rhapsody, 99
Rhythm, def., 82
element of music, 82
how differs from "measure," 44
correct use of word, 48
Rhythmic augmentation, 69
Rhythmic diminution, 69
Rhythmic figures, 44
Ribattuta (_re-baht-too'-tah_), 99
Rigaudon (_rig'-o-don_), 71
Rinforzando (_rin-for-tsahn'-do_), 57
Rinforzato (_rin-for-tsah'-to_), 57
Risoluto (_ree-so-loo'-to_), 60
Ritardando (_ree-tar-dahn'-do_), 53
Ritenente (_ree-ten-en'-teh_), 53
Ritenuto (_ree-ten-oo'-to_), 53
Ritornelle (_ree-tor-nell'_), 99
Ritornello (_ree-tor-nel'-lo_), 99
Rondo, 70, 71
Rules:
For writing music, 1, 2
For turning stems, 1, 2
For altered staff degrees, 10
For embellishments, 22-26
For repeats, 13, 14
For writing chromatic scale, 38
Sans (_sahng_), 43
Sans pedales (_peh-da-leh_), 43
Sarabande (_sar-ah-bahn'-deh_), 71
Sarrusophone (_sar-reoos-o-fohn'_), 123
Saxhorn, p. 125 (footnote)
Saxophone, 121
Scales, def., 27
origin, 28
how different from keys, 28
positions of:
major, 30
minor, 34
chromatic, 38
tones of, called, 5, 36, 37
Chinese, 27
Scotch, 27
Scherzando (_skehr-tsahn'-do_), 60
Scherzo (_skehr'-tso_), 71, 72
Scherzoso (_skehr-tzo'-so_), 60
School-round, 66
Schottische (_shot'-tish_), 99
Score, 99
Scotch scale, 27
Sec (_sek_), 99
Secco (_sek'-ko_), 99
Section, 67
Segue (_sehg'-weh_), 14
Semplice (_sem-plee'-cheh_), 60
Sempre (_sem'-preh_), 43
Sempre forte (_for'-teh_), 43
Sempre lento malinconico assai (_mah-leen-ko'-ni-ko ahs-sah'-ee_), 55
Sempre marcatissimo (_mar-kah-tis'-si-mo_), 60
Sentimento (_sen-tee-men'-to_), 60
Senza (_sen-tza_), 42
Senza accompagnamento (_ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-toh_), 42
Senza repetizione (_reh-peh-titz-e-o'-neh_), 14, 99
Senza replica (_reh'-ple-kah_), 99
Septimole, 20
Septolet, 20
Sequence, 91
Serenade, 99
Serenata (_seh-re-nah'-tah_), 99
Seventh chord, 89
Sextet, 99
Sextolet, 20
Sextuple measure, 46
Sextuplet, 20, 100
Sforzando (_sfortz-ahn'-do_), 57
Sforzato (_sfortz-ah'-to_), 57
Shake, 22
Sharp, 3, 7
Short appoggiatura (_ap-pod-jea-too-rah_), 25
Simile (_see'-mee-leh_), 14, 100
Similiter (_see-mil'-i-ter_), 100
Simple measure, 45
Simple tone, 137
Sin (_seen_), 43
Sin al fine (_ahl-fee'-neh_), 14
Sino (_see'-no_), 43
Sixteen-foot stop, 114
Sixty-four-foot stop, 114
Slentando (_slen-tahn'-do_), 53
Slur, 18
Small octave, 16
Smorzando (_smor-tzahn'-do_), 59
Solenne (_so-len'-neh_), 59
Solfège (_sul-fezh'_), 100
Solfeggio (_sol-fed'-jo_), 100
Solmization, 100
Solo, 43
Sonata (_so-nah'-tah_), 71
Sonata allegro (_ahl-leh'-gro_), 73
Sonata form, 73
Sonatina (_so-na-tee'-nah_), 74
Song form, 68
Sopra (_so'-prah_), 100
Soprano (_so-prah'-no_), 100
Sordino (_sor-dee'-no_), 117
Sostenuto (_sos-teh-noo'-to_), 100
Sotto (_sot'-to_), 100
Sotto voce (_vo'-cheh_), 59
Sound, App. C, 131
Production of, 131
Transmission of, 131
Rate of travel of, 131
Intensification of, 133
Reflection of, 133
Classification of, 133
Spiritoso (_spee-ree-to'-so_), 60
Staccatissimo (_stahk-kah-tis'-si-mo_), 17
Staccato (_stahk-kah'-to_), 17, 20, 100
Staff, 5
Staff degrees, 5
Standards of pitch, 137
Stems, 1
Step, half and whole, 83
Strepitoso (_streh-pee-to'-so_), 61
Stretto (_stret'-to_), 54
Strict imitation, 64
Stringed instruments, 115
Stringendo (_strin-jen'-do_), 54
Stroking notes, 2
Strophe form (_stro'-feh_), 80
Styles, kinds of, 63
how differ from forms, 62
Sub, 43
Sub-dominant, 36
Subject, 64
Subito (_soo-bee'-to_), 100
Sub-mediant, 36
Sub-octave, 16
Suite (_sweet_), 70
Super-dominant, 36
Super-tonic, 36
Suspension, 92
Swell-box, 114
Syllables for sight-singing, 37
Symphonic poem, 75
Symphony, def., 73
Syncopation, 44
Tail of note, 1
Takt pausa (_tahkt pow'-zeh_ or _pah-oo'-za_), 11
Tanto (_tahn'-to_), 43
Tarantella (_tah-rahn-tel'-lah_), 71
Tempered scales, 137
Tempo, 48-50
Tempo commodo (_ko-mo'-do_), 55
Tempo di marcia (_de mar'-chee-ah_), 55
Tempo di menuetto (_meh-noo-et'-to_), 55
Tempo di valso (_vahl'-so_), 55
Tempo giusto (_jew-sto_), 54
Tempo ordinario (_or-dee-nah'-ree-o_), 55
Tempo primo (_pree'-mo_), 54
Tempo rubato (_roo-bah'-to_), 54
Tenor, 100
Tenuto (_teh-noo'-to_), 55, 100
Terminology Reforms, App. D., p. 139
Tetrachords in scales, 29
Thematic development, 69
Theme, 69
Theme and variations, 69
Thesis, 67
Thirty-two-foot stop, 114
Thorough-bass, 89
Three-lined octave, 16
Through-composed form, 80
Tie, 18
Timbre (_tambr_), 82
Time, wrong uses of word, 48
Toccata (_tok-kah'-tah_), 100
Tonality scale, 27, 28, 38
Tone, how represented, 10
ornamental tone, 22
key-tone, 27
of resolution, 93
Tone-poem, 75
Tonic, 36
Tonic minor, 36
Tranquillo (_trahn-quil'-lo_), 61
Transposition, 94
Tre (_treh_), 43
Treble staff, 6
Tre corde (_kor'-deh_), 43, 59
Très (_treh_), 43
Très lentement (_lahng-te-mahng_), 52
Très vivement (_ve'-veh-mahng_), 42
Triad, def., 87, 88
Trill, 22
Trio, 72
Triple measure, 46
Triplet, 19, 100
Tristamente (_tris-tah-men'-teh_), 61
Trombone, 125
Troppo (_trop'-po_), 43
Trumpet, 124
Tuba, 125
Turn, 24, 25
Tutte le corde (_toot'-teh leh kor'-deh_), 59
Tutti (_toot'-tee_), 100
Two-foot stop, 114
Two-lined octave, 16
Un (_oon_), 43
Una (_oo'-nah_), 43
Una corda, 43, 59
Uno (_oo'-no_), 43
Un peu (_oon peuh_), 43
Un peu crescendo (_kre-shen'-do_), 43
Un poco animate (_ah-ni-mah-'to_), 54
Untempered scale, 40
Upper partials, 136
Upper tetrachord, 29
Veloce (_veh-lo'-cheh_), 55
Viola (_vee-o'-lah_), 117
Violin, 117
Violoncello (_vee-o-lohn-chel'-lo_), 118
Vivo (_vee'-vo_), 51
Vivace (_vee-vah'-cheh_), 51
Vivacissimo (_vee-vah-chis'-see-mo_), 51
Vocal music, 76
Volante (_vo-lahn'-teh_), 55
Waltz, 68
Whole-step, 83
Whole-step scale, 28, 40
Wood-wind instruments, 115