TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES (_Continued_)
(Sections 144 to 160 relate particularly to terms used in
descriptions of _monophonic_ music[33].)
[Footnote 33: There is a very pronounced disagreement among theorists as
to what terms are to be used in referring to certain forms and parts of
forms and it seems impossible to make a compromise that will satisfy
even a reasonable number. In order to make the material in this chapter
consistent with itself therefore it has been thought best by the author
to follow the terminology of some single recognized work on form, and
the general plan of monophonic form here given is therefore that of the
volume called _Musical Form_, by Bussler-Cornell.]
144. A _phrase_ is a short musical thought (at least two measures in
length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The
typical _phrase_ is four measures long. The two-measure _phrase_ is
often called _section_. The word _phrase_ as used in music terminology
corresponds with the same word as used in language study.
145. A _period_ is a little piece of music typically eight measures
long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined
divisions of a larger form. The _period_ (when complete in itself) is
the smallest monophonic form.
The essential characteristic of the _regular period_ is the fact that it
usually consists of two balanced phrases (often called _antecedent_ and
_consequent_ or _thesis_ and _antithesis_), the first phrase giving rise
to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key,
deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of
completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close.
The second half of the period is sometimes a literal
repetition of the first half, in all respects except the
cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one
of the elements--rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs.
58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost
invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes)
the more obvious the form of the period, while the more
complex the music, the less regular the period.
[Illustration: Fig. 58. MOZART]
[Illustration: Fig. 59. SCHUBERT]
146. The _primary forms_ are built up by combining two or more periods.
The _small two-part primary form_ (often called _song-form_ or
_Lied-form_) consists of two periods so placed that the second
constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of
this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the
first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity.
The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven)
quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are
"Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes," and "The Last Rose of Summer."
[Illustration: BEETHOVEN]
The _small three-part primary form_ is like the two-part primary form
except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated
between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure
phrase.
The _large two- and three-part primary forms_ usually have
sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise
similar in construction.
These various _primary forms_ are used in constructing many
varieties of compositions, among them the _theme and
variations_, the _polka_, the _waltz_, the _march_, etc., as
well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets,
etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be
regular here because the form of vocal music is largely
dependent upon the structure of the text.
147. A _theme_ is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue,
as the basis of the development section in "sonata form," etc. Sometimes
it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are
made, as _e.g._, in the familiar _theme and variations_.
148. _Thematic development_ consists in taking a short theme (or several
short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and
contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality
changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a
composition. Fig. 60 _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, and _f_ show how the theme
given in Fig. 60 (_a_) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are
hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied
without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic
development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31, No. 3, as
analyzed in Appendix E. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "Sec. 3" in
original.]
[Illustration: Fig. 60.]
For further illustrations of development in the case of this
same theme, see--Christiani--The Principles of Expression in
Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing
themes have been adapted.
149. A _rondo_ is an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in
which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same
form (_i.e._, not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme
being separated by contrasting material.
The _rondo_ is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been
used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic
construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in
dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first
subject again; (6) second subject, in _tonic key_; (7) coda (or ending).
The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and
contrast (mentioned in Sec. 134) as here worked out, as the rondo was
the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily
solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is
readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of
all--the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of
sonatas or sonatinas.
150. A _suite_ is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in
nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an
introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to
secure contrast of movement--a quick dance being usually followed by a
slower one.
The suite is interesting to students of the development of
music as being the first form _in several movements_ to be
generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity
from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the
eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata,
whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be.
The _suite_ was formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord,
clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvo[vr]ák, Lachner,
Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also.
151. Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following:
_Allemande_--duple or quadruple measure.
_Bolero_--triple measure.
_Bourée_--duple or quadruple measure.
_Chaconne_--triple measure.
_Courante_--a very old dance in triple measure.
_Csardas_--Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure.
_Gavotte_--quadruple measure.
_Gigue_ (or _jig_)--duple measure.
_Habanera_--Spanish dance in triple measure.
_Minuet_--slow dance in triple measure.
_Mazurka_--Polish dance in triple measure.
_Polonaise_--Polish dance in triple measure.
_Rigaudon_--lively dance in duple or triple measure.
_Sarabande_--triple measure.
_Tarantella_--swift Italian dance in sextuple measure.
The _allemande_ is especially interesting to students of music form
because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the
sonata-allegro (_i.e._, the first movement of the sonata). The
_sarabande_ and _courante_ are likewise interesting as the prototypes of
the second movement, and the _bourée_, _minuet_, etc., for their
connection with the third movement.
152. The _scherzo_ (lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental
composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the
sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an
independent piece.
153. A _sonata_ is an instrumental composition of three or more
movements (usually four), the first and last of which are almost always
in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity
of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a
broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its
name from the fact that its first movement is cast in _sonata-form_.
(See Sec. 157 for description of sonata-form.)
When the _sonata_ has four movements, these are usually arranged as
follows:
1. A quick movement (_allegro_, _presto_, etc.), often
preceded by a slower introduction.
2. A slow movement (_largo_, _andante_, _adagio_, etc.).
3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case
the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is
played.
4. A quick movement--the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes
another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations.
These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of
contrasting rhythms.
154. A _trio_ is a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin,
and cello), while a _quartet_ is a sonata for four instruments, the most
common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins,
viola, and violoncello.
The term _chamber music_ is often applied to instrumental music for
trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are
suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall.
The words _trio_ and _quartet_ are also applied to vocal works
for three and four voices respectively, these having no
relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The word
_trio_ is also applied to the middle section of minuets,
scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage
of writing this part for three instruments only.
155. A _concerto_ is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral
accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt
it to a composition in which there must necessarily be opportunity for
a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements
in the _concerto_.
The great majority of _concertos_ are for piano and orchestra,
but examples of concertos for violin, cello, flute, oboe, and
other solo instruments (all with orchestral accompaniment)
have also been written. A few modern composers have applied
the term _concerto_ to certain large organ works (with no
orchestral accompaniment, the composition being written for
just the one instrument), but this use of the word is so
contrary to the accepted definition that it is hardly
justifiable.
When a concerto is played on two pianos (without orchestra),
this does not mean that there is no orchestral part, but that
there is no orchestra to play it, and so the parts that should
be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been
arranged for a second piano (sometimes organ).
156. A _symphony_ is a sonata for full orchestra. In general its
construction is the same as that of the sonata, but it is usually of
much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal
and rhythmic material. The symphony is generally conceded to be the
highest type of instrumental music ever evolved.
The _symphony_ was accepted as a standard form in the time of
Haydn (1732-1809) and was developed enormously by Haydn
himself, Mozart (1756-1791), and Beethoven (1770-1827),
reaching perhaps its highest point in the famous "Nine
Symphonies" of the last-named composer. Later symphony writers
whose works are at present being performed include Schumann,
Tschaikowsky, and Dvo[vr]ák.
The word _symphony_ was formerly used synonymously with _ritornelle_,
both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of
vocal works, but this usage has now entirely disappeared.
157. _Sonata-form_ (sometimes called _sonata-allegro_) is a plan for the
construction of instrumental music (sonatas, quartets, symphonies,
etc.), in which three rather definite divisions always occur, the third
division being a more or less literal repetition of the first.
These _three parts of sonata-form_ with their usual
subdivisions are:
I. EXPOSITION
(1) Principal theme (or first subject).
(2) Link-episode (or modulation group).
(3) Secondary theme (or song group), always in a nearly
related key.
(4) Closing group.
(5) Coda.
II. DEVELOPMENT SECTION
Treating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost
infinite variety of fashions, according to the principles of
thematic development. (See Sec. 148).
III. RECAPITULATION (OR REPRISE)
Consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in the
_exposition_, but differing from this first section in one
essential point, viz., that instead of stating the secondary
theme in a _related_ key, the entire recapitulation is in the
_principal_ key. This third section is always followed by a
coda (which may either be very short or quite extended),
bringing the whole movement to a more definite close.
The second part of _sonata-form_ (the development section) is
sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three
divisions, and it is at this point that the composer has an
opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and
inventive skill. It is principally because of this development
section that the sonata is so far superior as a _form_ to its
predecessors. For an analyzed example of _sonata-form_, see
Appendix E. The student is advised to take other sonatas and
go through the first movements with a view to finding at least
the three main divisions mentioned above. In some cases the
form will of course be so irregular that all the parts
indicated cannot be discovered, but the general outlines of
the scheme will always be present.
158. A _sonatina_, as its name implies, is a little sonata. It differs
from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development,
the second section being of slight importance as compared with the
corresponding section of a sonata.
A _grand sonata_ is like an ordinary sonata in form, but is of unusually
large dimensions.
159. _Program music_ is instrumental music which is supposed to convey
to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in
him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the
composer's mind by some scene, event, or idea. The clue to the general
idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a
poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer,
but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except
the title of the composition.
_Program music_ represents a mean between _pure music_ (cf.
the piano sonata or the string quartet) on the one hand, and
_descriptive music_ (in which actual imitations of bird-calls,
whistles, the blowing of the wind, the galloping of horses,
the rolling of thunder, etc., occur), on the other. Most
program music is written for the orchestra, examples being
Liszt's "The Preludes," Strauss' "Till Eulenspiegel," etc.
160. A _symphonic poem_ (or _tone poem_) is an orchestral composition of
large dimensions (resembling the symphony in size), usually embodying
the program idea. It has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often
characterized by an almost total lack of design, but there are also
examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the
entire composition, being adapted at the various points at which it
occurs to the particular moods expressed by the _program_ at those
points.
The _symphonic poem_ was invented by Liszt (1811-1886) and has
since been used extensively by Strauss, Saint-Saëns and
others. It came into existence as a part of the general
movement which has caused the fugue and the sonata
successively to go out of fashion, viz., the tendency to
invent forms which would not hamper the composer in any way,
but would leave him absolutely free to express his ideas in
his own individual way.