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In this e-text, a superscript is indicated by a carat (^)
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MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY
by
KARL W. GEHRKENS, A.M.
Associate Professor of School Music
Oberlin Conservatory of Music
[Illustration: [publisher logo]]
The A. S. Barnes Company
New York 1914
Copyright, 1914, by
The A. S. Barnes Company
PREFACE
The study of _music notation and terminology_ by classes in
conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools
is a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-existence of such
courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which
might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the
really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing interest in
music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the
present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more
systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more
_intelligent_ class of pupils, it has become increasingly necessary to
establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music (after
having had considerable experience with music itself) might acquire a
concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms, most
of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many of
which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps
knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly
and economically to others.
To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the
author has been for several years gathering material from all available
sources, and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in
related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only
some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms, but
will also enable him to see more clearly _why_ certain terms have the
meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the
derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their
definition.
The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of
terms has of course been influenced largely by the author's own
individual experience, hence many teachers will probably feel that
important terms have been omitted that should have been included. For
this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would
probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would
satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms.
In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to
use such words as _note_, _tone_, et cetera with at least a fair degree
of accuracy, and while the attitude of the author on this point may be
criticized as being puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his
opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be
profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been
inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large
extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is
well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of
edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually
begin to come, the _need_ of reform must be felt by a fairly large
number of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few
musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the
changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful
thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points
at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought
to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume, and
that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree.
It is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the
teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms
studied, but the spelling and pronunciation as well. For this latter
purpose a pronouncing index has been appended.
It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have
been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear
and beautifully worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt
or the Century Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an
almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of Grove's
Dictionary. Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the
arrangement of the material, etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H.
Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heacox,
Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I. Rice,
Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as well as to various members of
the Music Teachers' National Association who have offered valuable
advice along certain specific lines.
K.W.G.
OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC, _June, 1913_
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.--Some Principles of Correct Notation 1
1. Note.
2, 3. Rules for turning stems.
4. Use of cross-stroke.
5. Rest.
6. G Clef.
7. F Clef and C Clef.
8. Sharp and double-sharp.
9. Flat, double-flat and natural.
10. Tie.
11. Dot after a note.
CHAPTER II.--Symbols of Music Defined 5
12. Staff and Great Staff.
13. Leger Lines.
14. Staff degrees.
15. Clef.
16. Treble and bass Clefs.
17. Movable C Clef.
18. Sharp.
19. Flat.
20. Double-sharp and double-flat.
CHAPTER III.--Symbols of Music Defined (_continued_) 8
21. Natural
22, 23. Key-signature; how determine whether a major or minor key.
24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across bar.
26. Rules concerning altered staff degrees.
27. Enharmonic.
28. Notes; pitch and length of tones.
29. Rests.
30. Lists of notes and rests.
31. English names for.
32. Less common forms.
33. Whole rest, peculiar use of.
34. Bar.
35. Double-bar.
CHAPTER IV.--Abbreviations, Signs, etc. 13
36-40. Signs for repetition.
41. Continuation.
42. Rest.
43. Pause.
44. Hold.
45-47. Alteration of Pitch.
48. Octave names.
CHAPTER V.--Abbreviations, Signs, etc. (_continued_) 17
49-51. Dots after notes.
52. Dots over or under notes.
53. Dash over note.
54. Tie.
55. Slur.
56. Slur or tie with dots.
57. Dash over note.
58. Dash and dot over note.
59. Accent marks.
60. m.d., m.g., etc.
61. Arpeggio.
62. Messa di voce.
63. Violin bow signs.
CHAPTER VI.--Embellishments 22
64. Definition and kinds.
65. Trill.
66-68. Mordent.
69-72. Turn.
73, 74. Appoggiatura.
75. Acciaccatura.
CHAPTER VII.--Scales 27
76. Definition, and old forms.
77. Origin.
78. Key.
79. Three general classes.
80. Diatonic, defined.
81. Major diatonic.
82. Tetrachords.
83. The fifteen positions.
CHAPTER VIII.--Scales (_continued_) 33
84. Minor diatonic.
85. Original form.
86. Harmonic minor.
87. Melodic minor.
88. Eleven positions.
89. Relative minor.
90. Tonic minor.
91. Diatonic scale names.
92. Syllable-names.
93. Chromatic scale.
94. Nine positions.
95. Whole-step scale.
CHAPTER IX.--Auxiliary Words and Endings 42
CHAPTER X.--Measure 44
97. Definition.--Two essential characteristics.
Rhythm vers measure.
98. Syncopation.
99. Simple and compound measures.
100. Commonest varieties.
101. Other varieties.
102. Rare varieties.
103. The signs, C and [cut-time symbol].
CHAPTER XI.--Tempo 48
104. Misuses of the word "time."
105-107. How to correct these: by substituting "rhythm," "measure,"
and "tempo."
108. Three ways of finding the correct tempo.
109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms.
CHAPTER XII.--Tempo (_continued_) 52
110-119. Tempo-terms.
CHAPTER XIII.--Dynamics 56
120-131. Terms relating to dynamics.
CHAPTER XIV.--Terms Relating to Forms and Styles 62
132. Definition of form.
133. Basis of form.
134. Difference between form and style.
135. Introductory.
136. Two styles.
137. Monophonic music.
138. Polyphonic music.
139. Counterpoint.
140. Imitation.
141. Canon.
142. School round.
143. Fugue.
CHAPTER XV.--Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (_continued_) 67
144. Phrase-section.
145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent.
146. Primary forms.
147. Theme.
148. Thematic development.
149. Rondo.
150. Suite.
151. Dances in suite.
152. Scherzo.
153. Sonata.
154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music.
155. Concerto.
156. Symphony.
157. Sonata-form.
158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata.
159. Program music.
160. Symphonic or tone poem.
CHAPTER XVI.--Terms Relating to Vocal Music 76
161. Anthem.
162. A capella.
163. Motet.
164. Choral.
165. Mass.
166. Cantata.
167. Oratorio.
168. Opera.
169. Libretto.
170. Recitative.
171. Aria.
172. Lied.
173. Ballad.
174. Folk-song.
175. Madrigal.
176. Glee.
177. Part-song.
CHAPTER XVII.--Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals 82
178. The four elements of music.
179. Rhythm.
180. Melody.
181. Harmony.
182. Timbre.
183. Interval--harmonic and melodic.
184. Number name and specific name.
185. Prime.
186. Second.
187. Third.
188. Fourth.
189. Fifth.
190. Sixth.
191. Seventh.
192. Octave.
193. Ninth.
194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished and augmented intervals.
195. Inverted intervals.
CHAPTER XVIII.--Chords, Cadences, etc. 87
196. Chord. Triad. Root.
197. Major, minor, diminished, augmented triads.
198. The Common chords.
199. Fundamental position. First inversion. Second inversion.
200. Figured bass.
201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord.
202. Cadence.
203. Authentic cadence.
204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic.
205. Plagal cadence.
206. Half-cadence.
207. Deceptive cadence.
208. Sequence.
209. Modulation, harmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh.
210. Suspension.
211. Retardation.
212. Anticipation.
213. Pedal point.
214. Close and open position.
215. Transposition.
CHAPTER XIX.--Miscellaneous Terms 95
CHAPTER XX.--Miscellaneous Terms (_continued_) 98
APPENDIX A.--The History of Music Notation 101
APPENDIX B.--Musical Instruments 112
1. Two classes.
2. Piano.
3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe.
5. Instruments used for ensemble playing.
6. Band.
7. Orchestra.
8. The stringed instruments.
9. Wood-wind.
10. Brass.
11. Percussion.
12. Proportion of instruments, in an orchestra.
13. Books recommended.
14. Violin.
15. Viola.
16. Violoncello.
17. Double-bass.
18. Flute.
19. Piccolo.
20. Oboe family.
21. Clarinet and bass clarinet; saxophone.
22. French horn.
23. Trumpet.
24. Cornet.
25. Trombone.
26. Tuba.
27. Kettle-drum.
28. Harp.
APPENDIX C.--Acoustics 131
1. Definition.
2. Sound, production of.
3. Sound, transmission of.
4. Rate of travel.
5. Intensification of.
6. Classification of.
7. Tones, properties of.
8. Pitch.
9. Intensity.
10. Quality.
11. Overtones.
12. Equal temperament.
13. Standards of pitch.
APPENDIX D.--Terminology Reform 139
APPENDIX E.--Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3 149
PRONOUNCING INDEX 159
CHAPTER I
SOME PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT NOTATION
1. The _note_ (from _nota_--Latin--a mark or sign) consists of either
one, two, or three parts, ([Illustration]) these being referred to
respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called _tail_ or
cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned
up, but on the left side when turned down.[1] [Illustration] The hook is
always on the right side.[2] [Illustration]
[Footnote 1: It should be noted at the outset that this statement
regarding the down-turned stem on the left side of the note-head, and
also a number of similar principles here cited, refer more specifically
to music as it appears on the printed page. In the case of hand-copied
music the down-turned stem appears on the right side of the note, thus
[note symbol]. This is done because of greater facility in writing, and
for the same reason other slight modifications of the notation here
recommended may sometimes be encountered. In dealing with children it is
best usually to follow as closely as possible the principles according
to which _printed_ music is notated, in order to avoid those
non-satisfying and often embarrassing explanations of differences which
will otherwise be unavoidable.]
[Footnote 2: An exception to this rule occurs in the case of notes of
unequal value stroked together, when the hook appears on the left side,
thus [Illustration].]
In writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with
a heavy pressure on the pen point, but in writing at the board
they are most easily made by using a piece of chalk about an
inch long, turned on its side.
2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following
_rules for turning stems_ apply: (1) If the note-head is _below_ the
third line, the stem must turn up. (2) If the note-head is _above_ the
third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note-head is _on_ the
third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the
symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The
following examples will illustrate these points.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper
part all turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that
the parts may be clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano
and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by _one_
performer and also in simple, four-part vocal music in which all voices
have approximately the same rhythm, several notes often have one stem in
common as in Fig. 3.
[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written
in groups of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by
_one cross-stroke_. In such a case all the stems must of course be
turned the same way, the direction being determined by the position of
the majority of note-heads in the group. Notes thus _stroked_ may be of
the same or of different denomination. See Fig. 4.
[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to
each note. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.)
5. _Rests_, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by
using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under Sec. 1.) The
double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the third space
unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff
they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may
be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on
the spaces. The hook of the eighth rest is usually placed on the
_third_ space. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied.
6. The _G clef_ should be begun at the second line rather than below the
staff. Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it
most easily in this way, and the process may be further simplified by
dividing it into two parts, thus, [Illustration]. The descending stroke
crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line. The circular
part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second spaces.
7. The _F clef_ is made either thus, [bass clef symbol], or thus, [old
bass clef symbol], the dots being placed one on either side of the
fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that the clef
marks. The C _clef_ has also two forms, [C clef symbol] and [tenor clef
symbol].
8. The _sharp_ is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy
slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right,
[sharp]. The sharp should never be made thus, [Illustration].
The _double sharp_ is made either thus [double-sharp symbol] or [old
double-sharp symbol], the first form being at present the more common.
9. The _flat_ is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the
curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The _double flat_
consists of two flats,[3] [flat][flat]. The _natural_ or _cancel_ is
made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, thus [Illustration].
[Footnote 3: It is to be hoped that the figure for the double-flat
suggested by Mattheson (who also suggested the St. Andrew's cross
([symbol]) for the double-sharp) may some time be readopted. This figure
was the Greek letter B, made thus, [Greek: b], and its use would make
our notation one degree more uniform than it is at present.]
10. The _tie_ usually connects the _heads_ of notes, thus [tie symbol].
11. The _dot after a note_ always appears on a space, whether the
note-head is on a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot
after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the space _above_
that line if the next note is higher in position and on the space below
it if the following note is lower.
[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
_Note._--Correct notation must be made a habit rather than a
theory, and in order to form the habit of writing correctly,
_drill_ is necessary. This may perhaps be best secured by
asking students to write (at the board or on ruled paper) from
verbal dictation, thus: Teacher says,
"Key of B[flat], three-quarter measure: First measure, DO a
quarter note, RE a quarter, and MI a quarter. Second measure,
SOL a quarter, LA a quarter, and SOL a quarter. Third measure,
LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked in pairs. Fourth measure,
high DO a dotted half." Pupils respond by writing the exercise
dictated, after which mistakes in the turning of stems, etc.,
are corrected. The _pitch names_ may be dictated instead of
the syllables if desired, and still further practice may be
provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to other
keys.