LIFE IN ASIATIC TURKEY.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
_Medium 8vo, with Map and numerous Illustrations. Cloth, 10s. 6d._
ANATOLICA; OR, A VISIT TO SOME OF THE ANCIENT RUINED CITIES OF CARIA,
PHRYGIA, LYCIA, AND PISIDIA.
[Illustration: YOUROUK ENCAMPMENT
in the Taurus
_Stanford’s Geogˡ. Estabᵗ._]
LIFE
IN
ASIATIC TURKEY.
A JOURNAL OF TRAVEL
IN
CILICIA (PEDIAS AND TRACHŒA), ISAURIA, AND PARTS
OF LYCAONIA AND CAPPADOCIA.
BY THE
REV. E. J. DAVIS, M.A.,
ENGLISH EPISC. CHAPLAIN, ALEXANDRIA.
AUTHOR OF ‘ANATOLICA; OR, A VISIT TO SOME OF THE ANCIENT RUINED CITIES
OF CARIA, PHRYGIA, LYCIA, AND PISIDIA.’
Map and Illustrations,
FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR AND MR. M. ANCKETILL.
LONDON:
EDWARD STANFORD, 55, CHARING CROSS, S.W.
1879.
PREFACE.
When we consider the great number of European and American travellers who
annually visit the Levant, it is strange how seldom any of them extends
his journey into Northern Syria, or the adjacent provinces of Turkey in
Asia.
The hard and fast line of travel seems to be drawn at Beyrout, or a few
miles to the northward of it.
Northern Syria is almost a “terra incognita,” the only good general map
of it being that of Mr. E. G. Rey, published by the Paris Geographical
Society. Indeed, for one traveller who explores this most interesting
region, there are thousands who hurry over the well-worn and familiar
routes of Palestine.
The adjacent territory of Karamania is almost equally unvisited, and
only once perhaps in every thirty years does a European traveller
painfully make his way through some portion of the province. The only
other Europeans who care to visit it are a few buyers of walnut wood, or
leech merchants, chiefly Greeks, whose one aim is to forward their trade
interests, and on whom the wonderful antiquities and surpassing beauties
of the country naturally make but little impression.
Of course there are good reasons to be given for all this. Until within
a few years, so unsettled has been the state of the country, that a
European traveller would have incurred no slight personal danger, even
though he bore a firman from the Porte, unless he could afford the
expense of a numerous and well-armed escort; and even then, many parts of
the borderland between Syria and Karamania, and notably the Amanus and
Giaour Dagh, would have been inaccessible, being in a state of chronic
rebellion against the Government. Moreover, so unhealthy are many parts
of the country, and so great the labour and privation an explorer of it
must inevitably incur, that it is not strange the price should have been
generally deemed too high to pay. Of late years, however, the authority
of the Ottoman Government has been considerably strengthened in S.E. Asia
Minor; commerce has begun to open up districts hitherto almost unknown,
and thus these very interesting regions may perhaps attract, ere long,
that attention which their unrivalled natural beauty and their many
historical associations deserve.
The following pages contain the record of a journey made in the summer of
1875 through portions of Cilicia, Lycaonia, Cappadocia, and the little
known district of Isauria, including a visit to the ruins of ancient
Isaura, which had been previously visited only by Hamilton in 1836, and
by Texier a little before that period.
At a time when the reputation of the Turks as a nation and a government
is sunk to the lowest depth, it may be not uninteresting to see what that
people is in a remote province of the empire, almost uninfluenced by the
pseudo-civilization of Stamboul.
One cannot help pitying the ill-fortune of a race which is certainly
endowed with many noble qualities, and regretting the sad destiny of
a country which contains so many elements of material prosperity. And
yet further, one cannot help protesting against the injustice, and want
of fair play, displayed in 1876 towards the subjects of the Porte. The
Ottoman Government is extremely bad, its sins of omission and commission
notorious, but the people should not be confounded with the corrupt
official and governing class.
I mixed familiarly with them (scarcely coming in contact with the
authorities except when it was absolutely necessary for the purposes of
my journey), and they made a very favourable impression upon me, combined
with a feeling of deep commiseration.
As for any special class oppression of Christian by Muslim in Karamania,
nothing of the kind exists, so far as my experience went. Both classes
unhappily suffer alike; both are crushed by the same impartial tyranny
and misrule!
Waiving, however, considerations as to the respective merits of the
parties to the late war, we may at least admit that a people which has so
valiantly defended itself under overwhelming odds against the hereditary
foe of its name, religion, and race, deserves careful study, and may not
be dismissed in the off-hand manner so usual with some of our orators and
newspaper writers.
I have endeavoured to give a faithful description of the country and its
inhabitants as I found them. If the following pages shall in any degree
help to make known what the Osmanli is at home, they will have done some
service.
Let us hope that the fiery trial of 1876-7 will be productive of good to
the various races under the sceptre of the house of Othman.
But if the conquest of the Osmanlis by Russia be the only means of
improvement, the result can only be obtained after an amount of bloodshed
and misery so awful that the whole civilized world will stand aghast at
it; nor will humanity gain anything by the substitution, for Osmanli
misgovernment, of a new tyranny, more grinding, bigoted, and methodically
merciless than the old!
I take the opportunity of acknowledging the kind assistance I have
received from my friends Mr. M. Ancketill and Dr. Neroutsos Bey of
Alexandria.
ALEXANDRIA, _November, 1878_.
[Illustration: A SKETCH MAP to illustrate REVD. E. J. DAVIS’ JOURNEYS in
CILICIA, &c.
_Stanford’s Geogˡ. Estabᵗ._
London: Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross.]
CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER I.
THE COAST OF SYRIA.
Postal Service of the Coast of Syria—Acre, Sidon—A Resident’s
Opinion as to Turkish Administration—Halet Pasha—Essaad
Pasha—Tripoli—The Kadisha—Mosque—Coast Line and Nusairiyeh
Mountains—Alexandretta—Causes of its Unhealthiness—Its
Commercial Advantages—Constant changes of Governors—Want of
means of Communication—Roads and Railroads could be easily
constructed—Murder of a Missionary—Monuments of former British
Residents—Want of Good Harbours—Mersina in 1812—Causes of
its increase—Description of Town—Europeans do not thrive
there—Why—Plain of Mersina—Mounds 1-15
CHAPTER II.
MERSINA. POMPEIOPOLIS. ASAAB-EL-KEF. TCHANDEER.
Heat and Unhealthiness of Mersina—Summer Resorts of
the People—Geuzna—Ichma—Causes of the Misery of the
Turkish Population—The Government does nothing, and
will allow nothing to be done—Corruption of Provincial
Governors—Ingratitude of Turks—Good Qualities, especially
of the Lower Classes—A Comment on the Charge of
Ingratitude brought against the Turks—Pompeiopolis—City
Wall—Port now a Corn-field—Moles—Dimensions
of Port—Colonnade—Inscriptions—Theatre—Utter
Destruction of Town—Colonnade hitherto spared—Greek
Schools—Hospital—Church—Funereal Monument—Purchase of
Horses—Only one Road in Cilicia—Its History—Khalil, Taki
Ed-Deen, and Mahmoud Pashas—Soil of Plain like that of the
Delta of Egypt—Geuzlük Kalaat a Necropolis—Way in which a
Finder of Antiquities is rewarded here—Filthiness of Tarsus—Its
Unhealthiness—The Christians advancing—Bazaars—Excellent Iron
and Leather Work—Gardens round Tarsus—Nightingales—Armenian
Church—Antique Treasure—Lower Level of Old City—Gates of
Town—Walls—Tomb of Sardanapalus—Form and Dimensions—Falls of
the Cydnus—Water of the Cydnus Unwholesome—Changes in Course of
Stream—S. Paul’s Well—Excursion to Asaab-el-Kef—Sheikh of the
Mosque and his Family—Imperial Benefactress—An Ancient Armenian
Fortress—Church and Hermitage—Oppression endured by all
Classes, Muslim and Rayah alike—Rock of Tchandeer—Translation
of Armenian Inscriptions 16-47
CHAPTER III.
ADANA, MESSIS, AND THE AMANUS.
Plain once a vast Marsh—Look-out Mounds—Vineyards near
Adana—The Seihoun (Sarus)—Ancient Bridge—Its History—Prosperity
of Adana—Visit to the Wali—How the right of Petition in Turkey
is suppressed—Unhealthiness during Summer—A Mining Engineer
in the Ottoman Service—The Old Gold Mines of Philip II. and
Alexander the Great—A Coal-mine at the Port of Ayass—Why so
few Public Works succeed in Turkey—The Bishop of Adana—The
Congregation—Character of the Bishop—An Improving Pasha—Exports
of Cilicia—Tobacco Culture Disappearing—Why—Foreign Wheat and
Cotton Seed degenerates in Cilicia—Advances to Cultivators—Risk
in making them—Canals needed—Railway planned, but not made—Fine
Port of Ayass—Scanty Population—No Trees on Plain—Turkish
Population losing Ground—Christians rising—Great Transfer of
Land from Muslim to Christian throughout the Interior—Slavery
not Common—Brigandage diminished—Bridge of Adana—Deep and
Violent Current of the Sarus—Personal Beauty and Fine Physique
of the People—The Olou Jamaa—Great Plain—Nour Dagh—Bridge of
Messis—Two of its Arches destroyed—Otter’s Account of it in
1736—Great Inundations—Ruins of Mopsuestia—Inscriptions—Border
Fortresses—Ilan Kalesi—Kourt Kalesi—Extreme Beauty and
Fertility of the Plain—Circassian Settlers and their
Villages—Giamli Keui—Legend of Ilan Kalesi 48-75
CHAPTER IV.
THE PYRAMUS. GIAOUR DAGH AND MARASH.
Swiftness and Depth of Pyramus—Toprak Kalesi—A Snake in
the Grass—Osmanieh Recruits—Politeness and Grave Courtesy
of the Osmanlis—Disturbed State of the Borderland—Robber
Chiefs—Government obliged to suppress them—Stubborn
resistance—Occasional Outbreaks occur even now—Mountaineers
forced to settle in Plain—Osmanieh—A Keurdt like a Sculptured
Figure from Nineveh—A Rayah Host—Yalpouzi River—Devrishli
Bel, the only Pass through the Giaour Dagh—Labourers to reap
the Harvest in the Plain—Keupèk Kalesi—Impracticable Group
of Mountains—An Armenian Protestant Village—The Billali
Pass—Poverty of the People, yet not without Compensating
Advantages—We lose the Way—An Armenian Country Gentleman’s
House—A Warm Welcome to Starved Guests—Grace before and Music
during Meat—Toros Chakrian’s House—Our Host’s Children—Our Host
attacked by Brigands a few Weeks before—Giaour Dagh Minor and
Lake—Ak Sou and Bridge—Khan at Marash—An Inspection of Weights
and Measures—American Presbyterian Mission—Population of
Marash—Religious Sects—Success of Protestant Mission—Military
Service Tax—Climate and Health of Marash—Cheapness of
Provisions—Trade and Manufactures—Fortress—Images of Lion and
Panther—Visit to the Churches of the Protestant Mission—Routes
from Osmanieh to Marash—Pass once closed by an Ancient
Wall—Islahiyeh—Roads from Interior to Alexandretta could be
easily constructed 76-103
CHAPTER V.
THE KURSOULOU AND KAYISH RIVERS. BAZAAR. BOUDROUM.
Bridge over the Pyramus—Conglomerate—Landslips—An
Armenian Hamlet—Confluence of the Rivers Kursoulou and
Jeihaàn—Bridge over the Kursoulou—The Pass of Khadj
Bel—Dourbin Dagh—Grand Volcanic Ridges of the Giaour
Dagh—Bivouac in the Forest—Endurance of the Cappadocian
Horses—Little Cultivation—Scanty Population—Scarcity of
Birds and Animals—Great Heat of Mountain Valleys—Ajemli—An
Armenian United Family—Scorpion—Centipede—Venomous Snakes
in Cilicia—Difficulty of obtaining precise Information
from Orientals—Greek Inscription—The Guide to Boudroum—The
Kayish Sou, and Broken Ancient Bridge—Koum Kalaat—Dangerous
Ford—Churning—Forest Hills—Absence of Animal Life—Exhilarating
Air—The Village of Kars or Bazaar—Site of a Considerable
Ancient City—Antiquities—An angry Imām—Inscriptions—Exemption
from Military Service Tax—Governor or other Official gives a
Tone to the Administration—Mount Hemita—The only Relics of
former Muslim Villages—Fort of Boudroum—Temple—Tombs—Site
of the Ancient City—Colonnade—Churches—Second
Colonnade—Theatre—Gymnasium—Inscription—Danger of lingering
in such Solitary Spots near the Frontier—Summer Camp of the
Villagers of Hemita 104-135
CHAPTER VI.
THE SAVROON AND SOMBAZ RIVERS. ROCK FORTRESS OF
ANAZARBA AND SIS.
Churning and Bread-making—Threshing Machine—Fort of
Hemita—Windlass at the Ferry—Fords on the Savroon—The
Sombaz—The Present Owner of Anazarba—Low Price of Land—Arslan’s
House—System of Cultivation—Double Wall (ancient) with
Towers—Earthquakes which had Destroyed the Town—Arch of
Triumph—Theatre—Stadium—Three ancient Aqueducts—Ascent to
the Fortress—Church and place of Burial of the Roupenian
Thakavors of Armenia (Minor)—Inner Enceinte of Fortress
inaccessible—Inscription on Rock outside the City Gate—Turkman
Camp—Beauty of the Approach to Sis—The Khan—Carelessness
of Orientals as to Personal Conveniences—Church of the
Patriarchate—Shrines—Coronation Chair of the Armenian
Kings—Bells—Fortress almost Impregnable in Middle Ages—Captured
by Muslims of Egypt—Intense Heat of the Plain—No Trees,
scarcely even Bushes on it—Bivouac—Suspicious Visitors—Method
of tethering Horses to prevent Theft—A slight Mistake—A Day
of “Thunder, Lightning, (Hail, and) Rain”—Miserable State of
the People in such a Season—Our Greek Interpreter abandons
us—Fashionable Resorts of the Adaniots 136-164
CHAPTER VII.
LIFE IN ADANA.
Always try to be a Debtor in the Levant, never a Creditor—My
Friend’s Sickness—Danger of neglecting the Endemic Diseases
of these Lands—Great amount of Malaria in the Plain—Epidemic
of Typhus in 1873-4—Of Small-pox in 1874—Religious
Sects in Adana—Sleeping Cribs in Summer—Midnight Call
to Prayer—Market Day in Adana—Labourers—Wages—Scarcity
of the Precious Metals—Great Mortality amongst the
Labourers—Their Peaceable Behaviour—A Model to Nations of
higher pretensions to Civilization—Executions in Adana—A
Scene of Horror at an Execution—Prisons in Adana—Increasing
Sickness of my Friend—The End—River-side Café—Beauty of
Adana—Noble Mountain Scenery—Ajemi Kahve—True Politeness of
the Company—Exquisite Atmospheric Effects—Free Trade not
the Rule here—Supply and Price of Food—No Adulteration in
Turkey—Mechanics’ Wages—Produce and Trade of Cilicia—Scarcity
in 1873—Barley—Transport—Cotton of Cilicia—Wool—Sesame
Seed—Imports—Rate of Interest—Fellahhin Borrow—but Repayment
uncertain—The Dîme—Protestant Armenian Chapel—Real Religious
Liberty in Turkey—Education in Adana—Christian Sects fast
advancing in Education—Backwardness of Turks in this
respect—The Sheikh of the Sourijis—The Defterdar of the
Province—Scene in his Bureau—Prefect of Police of Adana—A
Conversation on Politics—The Russians—Yakoob Beg—Environs of
Adana unsafe even now—Support from the Authorities necessary
for the Traveller in Asia Minor 165-197
CHAPTER VIII.
HIGHLANDS OF CILICIA. THE CILICIAN GATES. PASS OF BOZANTI.
No Travelling by Day in the Plain—A Night
March—Jackals—Labourers exposed to the deadly
Night Air—A Fever-stricken Village—Approach to the
Highlands—Turkmans—Yaramiz Fountain—Specimen of the Way in
which a Turkish Governor recoups himself—Entrance to the Pass
of “Kulek Boghaz”—Geuzlük Khan—“Water, Stones, and a Bench
to Sleep on”—Sunstroke most common in earlier Part of the
Day—Snow-range in Brilliant Sunlight—Ravine leading to the Pylæ
Ciliciæ—A Naturalist in the Mountains—House of the Austrian
Botanist, Kotchy—Opinions as to Russian aims by a Traveller of
Experience—The Village only affords Water—Peak above Defile—A
Night on the Roof of the Police Station—Ibrahim Pasha’s
rule in Cilicia—Passes from the Interior over the Mountain
Chain rendered impracticable—The Pylæ Ciliciæ—Tremendous
Rock-walls—No Egyptian or Assyrian Inscriptions—Ibrahim Pasha’s
Entrenchments—Hadjin Dagh—Bel Amalik Dagh—Khan at Bozanti—An
Armenian Host who knows how to Charge—Ak Keupri—Two Sources of
unwholesome Water—Ravine of the Ak Sou—Tahta Keupri—Roman Bath,
and Hot Mineral Spring—Tchifteh Khan—Vast Precipices of the
Bulghar Dagh 198-220
CHAPTER IX.
OLOUKISHLA. PLAIN OF LYCAONIA. EREGLI.
Visit to the Mines of Bulghar Maden—Hamathite
Inscription—Oloukishla—A Turkish Salaamlik—The Great
Khan—Mosque, Bath, and Bazaar all in Ruins—Contributions
to Supper—A hungry Party—Sufferings of Village during
the Famine—The Lemurs—First View of the Great Plain of
Lycaonia—Symmetrical Volcanic Cones—Extreme Beauty of
Flowers—Lonesomeness of the Country—Village of Tchaian in
Famine Time—Piteous Tale of Suffering—Estimated Loss of
Flocks and Herds not exaggerated—Hassan Dagh and Karajah
Dagh—Causes of the unhealthy Climate of Lycaonia—Position
of Eregli—The Ak Göl (“White Lake”)—The Duden—Visitors from
a Famine-stricken Village—Hadji Hassan’s Garden—Tameness of
the Birds—Nightingales—Storks—An Osmanli’s Repose—A Good
Waiter—Little Osman and his afflictions—How we fared at
Eregli 221-244
CHAPTER X.
IBREEZ. THE GREAT PLAIN. DEVLEH.
Start for Ibreez—Extreme beauty of Landscape—A Picturesque
Karamanian Lane—Number and Tameness of the Nightingales—The
River of Ibreez—The Mukhtar’s House—Great Source under Red
Precipices—Hamathite Inscriptions and Bas-relief—Our Armenian
Guide—A would-be Soldier—A ruined Christian Hermitage—Ali
Aga’s Unwelcome Guests—Valuing the Dîme—Bitter Complaint
of Peasants—The Ushirjis discuss the Stream with me—Their
Legend of its Origin—Description of the Bas-relief and
Inscriptions—Ibreez visited by Otter in 1737—In 1840 by
Moltke and Fischer—Cruel Oppression of the People—Yet they
submit—Fish of the Ibreez River—A Night Walk through the
Lanes of Eregli—Price of Provisions in Eregli—Prices in
former Days—Baron de Tott—The Asper—Para—Cost of entertaining
Man and Horse at Van two centuries ago—Price of a Horse in
1705—A Cheap Entertainment—Cost of a Ship of War in 1750—in
1657—in 1820—Rent in Khans of Constantinople two Centuries
ago—Visitors—An Armenian Priest—Magnificence of Flowers on
the Great Plain—Dreary District round Devleh—Suffering and
Loss of the Villagers during the Famine 245-269
CHAPTER XI.
DERBE. KARAMAN.
Rock Cemetery—Brilliant Colouring of the Plain—Treacherous
Climate—Excavating the Sarcophagus—Serpek on the Site of
Ancient Derbe—Derivation of the Name Devleh—Tradition
of Villagers—Our Hostess’s Butter—Storehouses of the
Natives—Wages—Sterling Character of the Osmanlis—Climate in
Winter—Wolves—How the Peasants pass the Winter—Happy Condition
before the Famine—Laziness of the Men—Inscriptions—Volcanic
Cones—Discovery of the Sarcophagus—Dimensions—It had
been broken into before—Its Contents—Description of the
Sarcophagus—Brilliant Colouring of the Mountain Ranges—A
Wilderness—The Tomb of Hadji Ahmed—Great Marsh—Clearness of
the Air—Sidevre—Inhospitality of its People—A Keurdt—The Yeni
Khan—A Hospitable Friend, and his History—The Merchants of
Kaisariyeh—Appearance of Karaman—Climate—Former Importance
of the Place—Mosques—Valideh Tekkesi—Khatounieh—Beautiful
Gateway—No Remains of Ancient Laranda—Courtesy and Kindness of
the People of Karaman 270-300
CHAPTER XII.
LYSTRA. KESTEL. MAUGA. MOUT.
Excursion to Kara Dagh—Extreme Penury of the Provincial
Governments—Village of Kilbassen—Its Sufferings during
the Famine—The Land Changing Hands—Turkish Population
Diminishing—Bin Bir Kilissé (The Thousand and one
Churches)—Village of Maden Shehir—A Turkish Betrothed
Maiden—Pastoral Music—Our Host—Ruins—Probably this is the Site
of Lystra—Kenger Coffee—Huge Antique Water Vessel—Brigands
in Bozalla Dagh—The Kaimakam’s Warning to us—The People
Better than their Reputation—Deep Limestone Ravine—Village
of Geuèzz—The Mukhtar’s Granary—Thunder-storm—The Village in
Famine Time—A Delicate Question—Passes through the Taurus
to the Sea Coast—Echoes of Thunder in the Ravine—Native
Archæologists—Geudètt—Its Yaila and Hospitable People—Climate
and Appearance of this Highland District—Kestel Dagh
and Village—Hospitality is refused us—The Kaimakam’s
Secretary—Visitors—Their Discontent with their own
Government—A Conversation on Politics—Ruins of an Ancient
City—Church—Fort—The Valley of the Gieuk Sou (Calycadnus)—A
Night with the Yourouks—The Rock Fortress of Mauga—Tremendous
Rock Precipices and Abysses—Arabic Inscription—Heat of the
River Valley—Intense Solitude of the Pine Woods—Fountain of
Mout—Castle of Mout, and Mausolea of the Sons of Karaman
Oglou—The Fountain at Evening 301-333
CHAPTER XIII.
VALLEY OF THE CALYCADNUS. PALÆPOLIS. ERMENEK.
Claudiopolis—The Yatar Tash—Latin Inscription—Guides to Ford
the River—Swiftness of the Gieuk Sou—Adrass, Bardat, and
Geden Mountains—Villagers Refuse a Guide—Churlishness of the
Peasantry of this District—Vast Forests—Precipices of Adrass
and Bardat—Bivouac with the Miller of Bejeh—The Volcanic Flame
on Daoush Tepe—Ruins of Balabolu (Palæpolis)—Sarcophagi—Huge
Old Juniper Trees—Tradition of the Capture of the City—Tombs
of the Muslim Soldiers—Snakes and Snake Bites—Effect of a Good
Cuffing—The Tea Plant Grows Wild in these Mountains—“Tell
us how to find the Buried Treasures!”—The Korou Deresi
(Parched Valley)—Descent to Ermenek—Terrible Hail-storm—Our
Khan Swamped—Immense Damage done by the Hail—Description of
Ermenek and its Neighbourhood—Difficulty of Reaching the
Sea Coast—Beauty of the Children and Young Girls—Nahli’s
Former Visit to Ermenek, and Adventures there—Nawàhi—Gelibel
Dagh—Yourouk Camp at Altoun Tash—A Hospitable Old Lady and
her Daughter 334-360
CHAPTER XIV.
TCHUKOUR. DURGÈLLER. ALATA. KHADEM.
Passage of Muharram Bel—Kizilja and its Kadi—Guide to
the Inscription of Tchukour—Had been a Prisoner of War
at Tiflis—Coarse Barley Bread—Tchukour—The Officer from
Stamboul—Ravine of the Gieuk Sou—Rock Fortress—Latin
Inscription—Wild District—An Assassination—Fountains
of Yerkooblü—“Black Water”—The Hospitable Mudir of
Durgèller—Derivation of the word “Durgèller”—Villagers
have a Bad Reputation—The Head Servant warns me against
Thieves—Precautions of our Souriji—Start for Alata—A
Disagreeable Zaptieh—View over Isauria—Anxiety on Account
of my Baggage—A Line of Precipices—Villagers of Alata
Inhospitable—Difficulty of finding a Guide—Remarkable
Geology of the District—Mernak—Handsome Room of the
Mukhtar—The Serai at Khadem—The Kaimakam and his Friends—I
am Suspected of being a Russian Spy—The House of the Mufti
of Khadem—Fever—Visitors—My Host a Fine Specimen of the
Osmanli Country Gentleman—A Native Doctor—Healthy Climate of
Khadem—My Host’s House—His Hospitality—His Wealth—The History
of his Family, and their Settlement in Khadem—The True Meccan
Coffee—His Sons—Their Great Respect for him—Filial Piety
amongst the Osmanlis—An Examination of Nahli—“You Tchelebi, I
suppose, do drink Raki?” 361-398
CHAPTER XV.
MOUNTAINS OF ISAURIA. RUINS OF ISAURA.
Birds—Nahli’s Grievance—The Mufti’s Kindness—An Excellent
Zaptieh—Course of the Alata River—Site of an Ancient Ruined
Town—Mosque of Bolat—Ibex Horns—High Plateau—Extensive Vine
Cultivation—Endurance of our Zaptieh—Ashikler—Dreadful
Ascent to it—Wild Appearance of the Isaurian Country—Temple
Tombs—Gateway of Isaura—Fortifications—Bas-reliefs—Arch of
Triumph—Inscriptions—Agora—The Great Look-out Tower—Ideas
about Buried Treasure—Vast Ranges of Mountains seen from
Isaura—Lake of Seidi Shehir—The Porch of the Mosque at
Aijilar—Origin of the Name—Routes in the Mountains of
Isauria—Elmasun—Inhospitable Villagers—Obliged to Billet
Ourselves—Intense Heat and Lonesomeness of the Great
Plain—Bussola—Kassaba—A Funeral—Resignation of the Muslim not
from Apathy—Anecdote in Point—Behaviour of the Muslim under
Affliction—Ilisera—Return to Karaman 399-430
CHAPTER XVI.
PASS OF DUMBELEK. HIGH RANGES OF TAURUS. EFRENK.
Change in the Climate since our Former Visit—Unable to
Obtain Baggage Horses—High Charges of the Khanji—Greed and
Overreaching Spirit of Most Oriental Christians—Their General
Character when they become Rich—Village of Ibrala—A Cool
Reception—The Evening Prayer—Rocky Plateau above Ibrala to
the Base of the High Mountains—No Water for Seven Hours’
March—Fountain, but no Shade—Characteristic Reply of an
Old Osmanli Shepherd—Camp of Mustafa Tekerlèk—Appearance
and Behaviour of the Yourouk Chief—An Alvanlö Villager in
Hiding—Yourouks Necessary in these Mountains for the Safety of
Travellers—Mustafa examines our Souriji—A Starvation Supper—The
Tea Plant grows Wild here—Our Revolvers—Obtrusive Behaviour
of the Alvanlö Man—Mustafa’s Heart fails Him—Turkish Form of
Taking Leave—We Learn more about Mustafa Tekerlèk—Descent into
Valley of Efrenk—Our Lodging for the Night—Humidity of the
Valley—A Case of Sunstroke 431-447
CHAPTER XVII.
GEUZNA. FEVER EPIDEMIC IN MERSINA.
Juniper Forest—Fine Forests of Southern Karamania—Complete
Change of Climate and Vegetation on descending from the
Highlands—Great Rainfall on the First Ranges of the
Taurus—Geuzna, the “Yaila” of Mersina—Nahli’s way of
Communicating Bad News—Cholera and Quarantine—Climate
of Geuzna—An English Speculator—A Café Full of
Fever Patients—Deadly Nature of the Fever of
Cilicia—Boloukli—Powerful Sun and Suffocating Heat of
Plain—Great Sickness in Mersina—The Khan—Nahli enters
Government Service—Bad News from Syria—Our Friend Mustafa
Tekerlèk in Trouble—Had been formerly somewhat of a
Brigand—Two of a Trade seldom agree—Our Souriji a Retired
Brigand—Risk to European Travellers—Less near the Coast—But
People of the Country not Dishonest—Brigandage in Asia
Minor—Heat and Malaria—Travelling in Asia Minor Dangerous
in Hot Season—Sickness in the Town on the Increase—The
Naturalist from Kulek Boghaz—Strength and Health
failing—Natives Suffer Equally—A Crisis—Choice between Fever
and Starvation—Damp Heat—Sea Breeze—Land Breeze—Cholera
Expected at Adana—Nahli’s Experience as a Tax-gatherer—He
is too Honest for Turkey—Ferocity of the Wolves—My former
Interpreter Hanna—I unwittingly escaped a Serious Danger—Great
Interest of Travel in Asia Minor—But it is Dangerous—A
Telegram from Mersina viâ Diàrbekìr and Constantinople to
England—Attack of Ague—Boatmen and Labourers of Mersina
nearly all Arabs—Last View of Cilicia—The Ex-Pasha of
Bagdad—Arab Horses—Their Peculiarities—Forest on Fire—Tedious
Voyage—Heat—Quarantine—Home 448-475
Condition of the Muslim Peasantry in Asiatic Turkey 477-484
The Armenian Kings of Cilicia 485-491
Historical Summary 492-526
Itinerary 527
Glossary 529
Index 531
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Yourouk Encampment _Frontispiece_
Sketch Map _To face Contents_
Route Map ” _page_ 1
Tarsus in August ” ” 30
Demir Kapou (Iron Gate), Tarsus ” ” 37
Adana ” ” 60
Plan of Messis ” ” 66
Messis and the Pyramus ” ” 68
Marash ” ” 102
Town and Fortress of Sis ” ” 152
The Ajemi Café at Adana ” ” 182
The Pylæ Ciliciæ ” ” 212
Site of Derbe ” ” 278
Karaman ” ” 300
The Rock of Mauga ” ” 328
Plan of the Ruined City of Isaura ” ” 412
And Twenty-four Woodcuts in the Text.
[Illustration: MAP OF ASIA MINOR SHEWING THE DISTRICT VISITED BY REVD. E.
J. DAVIS.
_Stanford’s Geogˡ. Estabᵗ._
London: Edward Stanford, 55, Charing Cross.]
LIFE IN ASIATIC TURKEY.
CHAPTER I.
THE COAST OF SYRIA.
The postal service of the coast of Syria and Karamania is discharged by
no less than four lines of steamers, the French, Russian, Austrian, and
Egyptian. The three former receive a subvention from the governments
to which they respectively belong, for the commerce of these coasts is
by no means sufficient to support so many steamers, and in the case
of the Russian and French lines political considerations are chiefly
regarded. The Egyptian line is worked at a loss; but so long as Europe
is content to lend money to the Khedive, it will be of no moment whether
the undertaking pays or not. There is a line of Egyptian steamers, in
the Red Sea, which is supposed to be worked at a profit, but so great
is the competition on the Mediterranean side—to say nothing of other
disadvantages—that it is not possible for the Compagnie Khédiviale to
succeed, although the ships are good and the commanders experienced
Italian or Dalmatian seamen.
I left Alexandria on April 11th, 1875, for Mersina, by the Russian
steamer ‘Alexander’; the ship was crowded, and the accommodation bad,
but the captain was most polite, the ship’s steward attentive, and the
cookery excellent. Dinner, according to Russian custom, is commenced by
salted meats, caviar, pickles, sardines, &c., served with a small glass
of vodki or raki. The wine is of two kinds, black and white, both the
produce of the Crimea. At evening tea is served in tumblers with slices
of lemon.
_April 12th._—Arrived at Port Said. The town seems much increased since
my last visit, and I observe that the deposit of sand on the west side of
the jetty is rapidly advancing.
The Duke of Mecklenburg came on board here on his way to Jaffa. His suite
consisted of five or six young men, and with him came Count Levachoff,
the Russian Governor of Tiflis, and his wife, an English lady. The
Egyptian frigates in the harbour manned yards, fired salutes, and their
bands played “God save the Queen.” The larger frigate gave a grand
breakfast to the Duke.
_April 13th._—Arrived at Jaffa. The Duke and his suite went ashore at
about 11, and at midday our steamer left for Acre. There is a fine view
of the long projecting ridge of Mount Carmel as the steamer coasts along.
We passed the Caipha light at about 11 P.M., and at midnight anchored
off Acre. There had been a steady north breeze all day, which died out
suddenly as we entered the bay of Acre. We left Acre at 1 A.M., and on
_April 14th_ reached Saida at daybreak. The town is built on a tongue of
land under low undulating hills, covered with the fresh green of corn
land and pasture; the harbour is formed by a small rocky island, and
might easily be made a good port. A picturesque old castle rises close
by the beach. The site of Saida hardly admits the existence of a large
city, according to modern estimation. It is probable that the size and
importance of ancient cities were overestimated; Sidon could hardly have
been the rich and populous place which the language of Scripture would
lead us to suppose, but the relatively restricted commerce and wealth
of the Scriptural times would give importance to what we should now
regard as inferior. Saida is famous for its fruit; and the delicious
fragrance of its orange gardens was wafted far out to sea. Here I made
the acquaintance of Mr. W., a British merchant of Beyrout. He is leaving
the East, and is glad to escape from it, although he liked Beyrout, and
felt much interest in the people of the country. He held the gloomiest
views about Turkish finance, and said that great trouble was expected in
the autumn (events have, unfortunately, only too well verified his fears!
1876-7). He mentioned his own experience of the utter corruption and
hopeless confusion of Turkish provincial administration, an experience
which I find universal and everywhere corroborated. Halet Pasha, the
late Governor-General of Syria, was an intensely bigoted, corrupt, and
indolent man. Under him the province was fast going to utter ruin; many
parts were becoming depopulated owing to excessive taxation, the inroads
of the Bedaween, and village warfare. At last he was recalled, and Essaad
Pasha sent in his place (since dead, 1876). He was a man of energy and
honesty, and being also a very able man, soon began to put things in
order; but he did not govern Syria many months, for he was recalled to
Stamboul to marry the Sultan’s niece. The lady, it seems, saw him at a
review, fell in love with him (he was just then a widower), and asked
that he might be married to her, and, as it was reported, much against
his will, he was obliged to submit. Mr. W. also gave me an account of the
stupid administration of the Beyrout Custom House.
Reached Beyrout at 8 A.M. Here by appointment I met my friend and fellow
traveller, Mr. Seiff, of Dresden. The day was occupied in making various
purchases for our intended journey, and in rambling about this very
pretty and flourishing city.
_April 15th._—Reached the roadstead of Tripoli at 8 A.M. The town is at a
distance of about two miles from the sea, situated in a hollow under the
hills which form the first slopes of Lebanon.
Tripoli is separated from the sea by a small triangular plain, about
one mile and a half broad. At the point of this plain, which projects
into the sea, is the landing-place “el Mina,” a little town of itself.
The site of the old town was on the promontory at the base of which
the present city stands. The remains of a great wall some twenty feet
in thickness, with the ruins of towers, may still be traced across the
promontory from the mouth of the Kadisha to the seashore on the S.W.
The ancient Phœnician city was formed by colonies from Sidon, Tyre, and
Aradus, but the present city only dates from the time of the Crusades.
Raymond, Count of Toulouse, built the castle in the twelfth century
for the protection of pilgrims, and gradually the new town sprang up
around it along the course of the river. The castle, of red and yellow
limestone, stands on a ridge a little to the S.E. of the town. There is a
noble background of mountains, culminating in Jebel Mukhmel, under which
is the famous grove of cedars. On the left is Jebel Akkar; but none of
these mountains, though apparently loftier, are so thickly covered with
snow as Sunnin.
Here too, as at Saida, the scent of the orange groves was perceptible far
off the shore (it was, indeed, almost too strong), and the short-lived
spring verdure was exquisitely beautiful. The bay of Tripoli is deep and
capacious, defended by a number of rocky islets extending northwards from
the point of the promontory. But it is only a roadstead, and lies open to
the gales from the N.W., which are frequent and violent along all this
coast.
The waters of the bay are now deeply stained by the red deposit of the
impetuous Kadisha, whose sources lie far up under the crests of Lebanon,
and which when spring comes, and the snows begin to melt, “runs purple to
the sea,” like the stream of the loved Adonis.
Between the sea and the town of Tripoli extends a tract of land of
extreme fertility, resembling the district round Jaffa. It is cultivated
with the utmost care, and from it comes the finest fruit in all Syria.
The soil is a rich red earth, without a stone, and the gardens are
carefully fenced or walled in. The people look healthy, especially the
children, who are fine stout little creatures, with lustrous eyes, and
deep peach-like tint; many with blonde hair, and I saw no ophthalmia
amongst them. The town is remarkably clean, and the streets are well
paved with squared stones, yet the place has a bad reputation for
insalubrity. Outside the town a troop of Turkish cavalry was encamped;
their horses looked poor, and the men, though stout and strong, were
clumsy and ill set-up. We visited a fine mosque, which much resembled the
mosques in Cairo, having high niches over its gateways, ornamented with
stalactites. The upper lintel of the door was square and straight, the
stones mortised one into the other, exactly as in the mosques of Cairo.
The large courtyard of the mosque was surrounded by a fine arcade of
pointed arches; the gateway into this courtyard was an arch in imitation
of Greek work, with the abacus and egg ornament, but cut very shallow:
the lower edge of the arch being of the wreathed cable pattern. The
gateways of several other buildings near the great mosque are equal in
point of execution to the mosques of Cairo; the material of which they
are built is like that of the castle, a hard reddish limestone, but with
alternate layers of black basalt. The inscriptions on these mosques are
not in Cufic, but in the usual Arabic characters. A number of false
antique coins were offered to me for sale, but no genuine antiques.
I observed, however, in some of the shops, some fine Cufic copper
vessels. Two large Corinthian capitals were lying at the gateway of the
guard-house, towards the sea. For many centuries the site of ancient
Tripoli has served as a quarry, and even yet the supply of marble and
hewn stone is far from being exhausted.
We left Tripoli at 2 P.M. The coast-line is marked by long stripes of
emerald green, showing the site of gardens and corn-fields. Between the
end of the Lebanon range, and the beginning of the Nusairiyeh mountains,
is a broad depression; and beyond this, low hills mark the beginning of
the Nusairi country. Fortunately the sea was smooth, for our ship was
most uncomfortably crowded; though we had happily escaped the “Cook” and
“Stanger” tourist parties—but many Americans and English had joined us at
Beyrout on their way to Constantinople. One band of “Stanger” tourists—an
aristocratic German party from Berlin—has been very unfortunate. They had
been miserably provided, had suffered much from bad weather, and some of
their number when near Damascus, were assaulted and robbed by their own
escort.
_April 16th._—Arrived early at the roadstead of Alexandretta. The town
is close to the sea, and built along the shore upon a low ridge of sand,
behind which, for about three miles, a low marshy plain, only a very
little above sea-level, extends up to the foot of lofty hills, which are
now beautifully green from the spring verdure. High above these hills
rises the main chain of the Amanus, with here and there a snow mountain.
No trees nor bushes break the dull uniformity of the plain. There is
a certain amount of movement visible, long trains of camels come and
go, the beach is heaped with bales and merchandise, a number of large
lighters are drawn up along the shore. But it is a miserable place; there
are but few stone-built houses, and the outskirts of the town consist of
wretched wooden huts, many of them raised a few feet on posts, so as to
be somewhat out of reach of the malaria, which here is especially deadly.
Landed to visit the English Vice-Consul, Mr. Francks, and his young wife,
just arrived, (who I am sorry to say is since dead). He spoke of the
constant changes of governors; within eight months there had been five
new governors of Aleppo. One of them was Mohammed Rushdi Pasha, who was
afterwards sent to the Hedjaz as governor, and died there. The last new
governor came into the port, by the Russian steamer ‘Vladimir,’ whilst
we were lying there. Mr. Francks told us that Alexandretta, though still
very unhealthy, had less of virulent malignant fever than formerly,
owing, he thought, to improved cultivation. There was much less game also
than in earlier days, and this too he attributed to the same cause. Still
the health of the place must always be bad. There is a fetid swamp at
the back of the town, and the mountains which hem in the plain cut off
the breeze, so that in summer the air is perfectly stagnant; and every
little torrent from the heights forms a long line of marsh, as it slowly
makes its way to the sea, through the rank, oozy soil. But in despite of
these serious drawbacks, the position of Alexandretta, as the anchorage
nearest to Beylan, the only pass through the mountains towards Aleppo and
North Syria, will always make it an important _entrepôt_. Some of the
cottages were actually surrounded by a green and fetid marsh! None but
acclimatized residents could have existed a week in such a position. Even
they are unable to endure it long, and generally the people of the place,
as I heard, are short-lived.
Alexandretta seems a little improved since I saw it in 1865; a few new
buildings have been erected, and a road constructed for a little distance
towards Beylan. A man who had just ridden down from Aleppo, to come on by
the steamer, told me that owing to heavy rain all the bridges had been
washed away, and the road was well-nigh impassable. He said that the
trade between Aleppo and Alexandretta was very considerable; he thought
that some 30,000 to 40,000 camels would be employed in bringing down
produce, between that time and October. About 10,000 bales of cotton,
30,000 of wool, and an immense quantity of valonea were exported every
year from Alexandretta. The Government never gave the least help, by
road-making or other improvements (the same complaint everywhere!), and
at times camels could not advance at all. The Beylan pass once crossed,
a railway to Aleppo would be easy, as nearly the whole country is level.
The people of Aleppo are not at all fanatical, perhaps in consequence of
the large proportion of Christians and Jews living in the place. The town
is clean, but its water execrable. He mentioned the Aleppo boil, and said
that it was not known what caused it; I think, however, that he gave a
very exaggerated account of it. Polluted water has been assigned as its
cause; another, and more probable account, is, that it arises from the
puncture of a venomous mosquito. The scourge is not confined to Aleppo,
it prevails in Mesopotamia, and on the coast of Arabia. The boil almost
invariably appears in the face, especially on the nose, and strangely
enough, it often appears long after the patient has left the country. It
is always obstinate, lasting for months together, and causing the most
disfiguring scars.
We entered the Greek churchyard at Alexandretta, and I copied some of the
inscriptions.
“In memory of—Rev. Jackson Coffing, A.M., a citizen—of the
United States of America—and—Missionary of the American
Board—resident at Adana—died at Alexandretta—March 16,
1862—from wounds received near—this place at the hands
of—assassins—aged 37 years—fear not them which kill the—body.”
It seems he was riding from Adana to Alexandretta; but when about half
an hour from Alexandretta, he and his attendant were stopped in a grove
of myrtle,[1] by a party of mountaineers, who demanded their money. Mr.
Coffing drew out a revolver, upon which the mountaineers fired on them;
the attendant was badly wounded, Mr. Coffing mortally, and he died in
the house of Mr. Levi, the then British Vice-Consul, at Alexandretta. It
is supposed that robbery was not the real reason for the murder—but Mr.
Coffing was a most zealous missionary—too zealous for his own safety!
and had made many enemies at Adana, who had determined to be rid of him.
Mr. Francks said that the United States Consul-General at Beyrout had
used every effort to bring the murderers to justice, but in vain; as
the Ottoman authorities either dared not, or would not, send troops to
the village of the murderers in the Giaour Dagh. I have heard, however,
another account, according to which, one assassin was caught and executed
soon after the murder, and another several years after, owing to the
unceasing exertions of the American Ambassador at Constantinople. An
American frigate was sent to see that justice was done, and the man was
accordingly hanged; but my informant, who knew all the facts of the case,
declared that however much the culprit may have deserved his fate on
other grounds, he had nothing to do with Mr. Coffing’s murder. According
to Mr. Francks’ account, even those arrested on suspicion were suffered
to escape.
On highly ornamented monuments of white marble, are the following
inscriptions:—
“Martinus Loe, Londinensis, Anglorum, per tria fere lustra
accurate curans, Alexandriæ qui loco adeo insaluberrimo
tot sæcula audiant! cum officio et negotiis, si quis alius
nequaquam impar Spartam quam nactus est semper ornans immaturo
fato quadrigenarius licet 24 Novembris A.D. 1677 conterraneis
suis et externis, indigenis et advenis, universis equidem
miseris præsertim et pauperibus flebilis occidit, nulli
flebilior quam Luciæ viduæ afflictissimæ binisque infantibus
Martino et Mariæ—quæ optimo marito hoc monumentum sacravit.”
“Hic jacet D Lucia uxor Q.D. Martini Loe consulis pro S.M.
Britannica Scandarone. Vixit annos L, obiit die XII Julii MDCC.”
“H L Johannes Wilson Anglo Britannorum agro ... moniæ natus ex
domo satis honesta satis antiquâ, Anglorum mercatorum res hic
loci summâ cum laude per varios annos gessit, vir qui officio
suo et negotiis ne unquam quidem defuit—fato ahi nimis immaturo
in loco insaluberrimo cum triginta et octo annos summo cum
honore superasset—ipsissimo die—anno autem salutis Christianæ
MDCCXII abreptus fuit. Multis ille bonis flebilis occidit—nulli
flebilior quam Mariæ viduæ mœstissimæ filia Martini Loe ex
eadem gente oriundi quæ optimo marito maximo dolore hoc
monumentum posuit. Felices ter et amplius per XVII annos nos
irrupta tenuit copula.”
“Depositum Edmundi Sawyer Armigeri Angli, claris parentibus
orti apud Kettering in Agro Northamptoniensi qui rei
mercatoriæ gratiâ in Aleppo aliquot annos vixisset donec tabe
correptus—et in patriam suam terrestrem patrimonio satis amplo
dilatam reversurus reperta prius magni pretii margarita fide
scilicet verâ cum pœnitentia ad cælestem morte translatus est.”
I could find no date upon the last monument.
The mountains round the bay of Alexandretta present many varieties
of trachyte; the main range is limestone, but pierced, upheaved, and
modified in its structure by volcanic action. The forms of the mountains
here are very beautiful.
We left the roadstead of Alexandretta a little before midnight, and stood
over to the coast of Karamania. After we had passed Cape Mallus, a slight
S.W. breeze sprang up, and the ship began to roll considerably. The ports
of North Syria and Karamania, though effectually sheltered on the north,
offer but little protection against S. and S.W. winds; indeed, excepting
Ayass, which is comparatively unknown, there is no good port along the
whole coast of Karamania, before one reaches Marmorice.
_April 17th._—Soon after daybreak Mersina was in sight. This place,
which in Captain Beaufort’s time (1812) consisted of a few wretched
huts, raised on piles, as a means of escaping the malaria of the plain,
owes its development to the active demand for cereals, consequent upon
the Crimean war, and is now a large and flourishing “Scala,” at which
most of the produce of Cilicia is exported. As at Alexandretta, vessels
of large draught must anchor at a considerable distance from the shore,
and sometimes in winter cannot approach at all. The sea-coast is here
bordered by a line of light-brown sand-hills; the plain beyond them,
which extends towards the east till lost to sight, is bounded on the
north by the Taurus, at a distance of about two hours’ ride. The nearer
mountain heights are of a light-grey colour, and covered with sparse
brushwood and trees; the inner ranges stand thick with forest, and the
highest chain rises to the limit of perpetual snow.
We landed at a ruinous-looking custom-house. The douaniers were civil,
but we heard that this was not the case usually; indeed some of the
European consular agents had been obliged to complain of their harshness
and incivility. Mersina possesses no inn, so that unless the traveller
bears letters of introduction, the only shelter to be had is in the khan,
good in its way, but presenting a somewhat abrupt introduction to the
discomforts of travel in Turkey.
Owing, however, to the kindness of the British Vice-Consul, a lodging in
a private house was found for us.
Mersina seems a flourishing little place; its bazaars, thronged by the
various races who have settled here, present a scene of great animation;
some of its streets are paved with squared blocks of limestone, the
work of Khalil Pasha, a former governor of the vilayet of Adana; and
there are many really good stone houses. As usual in the ports of these
regions, Greeks and Christians of Syria are the principal inhabitants—the
Greeks being energetic, enterprising, and many of them rich. The purely
European residents are very few in number; an unhealthy climate and
the lax commercial morality of the place, render it almost impossible
for a European to thrive, or even live there. A large proportion of
the population consists of Christians from North Syria, or people of
the Nusairiyeh mountains, who are here called “fellahhin,” and are not
very orthodox Muslims. Excepting the officials, very few Turks reside
in Mersina; but the floating Turkish population is large, as almost the
entire transport of the province is by means of camels, and the camel men
are invariably Turks. Their dress is most picturesque; and it was curious
to observe their way of feeding their animals, by thrusting down their
throats huge balls of well-kneaded meal, in the same way as poultry are
fattened in Europe.
In the afternoon we walked out to see the environs of the town. For about
half an hour’s distance extend gardens, thickly planted with fruit-trees.
Brightly coloured cottages, or summer huts raised on piles, project from
each mass of foliage; but all is neglected, and one can nowhere see the
fine cultivation of the gardens around Tripoli. Although the soil is most
fertile, the fruit and vegetables are insipid, the only exception being
peaches, which are here of excellent quality, and grow to a large size.
Beyond the gardens, an undulating plain of rich red soil extends to the
foot of the mountains; not a third of it is under cultivation, most is in
brushwood, or scrubby pasture; the wheat, however, is well irrigated, and
grows luxuriantly.
At about equal distances from Mersina, three mounds, evidently
artificial, rise from the plain; one of them is still crowned by a small
fortification, said to be of Genoese work—in this district all ancient
buildings are attributed to the Genoese. These mounds were doubtless
used in the olden time as fortified watch-towers, and large hewn stones
are still dug from them, and carried to Mersina for building purposes.
The approach of an enemy could be easily perceived from them, as they
command a view of the whole plain east and west, far as the eye can reach.