Towards the close of the sixteenth century, Galileo, while seated in
the Cathedral of Pisa, had his attention attracted by the swinging of
a lamp suspended from the ceiling. Observing that it performed its
vibrations apparently in equal times, whether moving over small or
great arcs, he was led to the investigation of the laws of its
oscillation, and thus called the attention of philosophers to an
instrument, which in the multiplicity of its applications has since
proved of incalculable benefit to mankind.
It seems strange that a motion so familiar as the vibration of a
suspended body had never before attracted the notice of observing
minds; and still more strange would it seem, if, after its laws had
been discovered, and its important practical applications ascertained,
it had never been applied to its useful purposes. Yet has mankind very
generally down to the present day, thus neglected an instrument of
more extensive application than the pendulum. I allude to _Popular
Education_, an agent certainly the most important of any that can be
applied to the melioration of the condition of the human race. That
knowledge is power, stands in no need of proof or formal illustration.
It may be assumed as axiomatic. But if we reason from the conduct of
mankind, we shall be led to the conclusion that the aphorism applies
only when society is viewed in its constituent parts, and not when the
whole mass is regarded. Still speculatively it is allowed to be of
general application. How is this inconsistency to be reconciled? Has
the importance of Education become one of those propositions which
from being universally admitted, have ceased to interest the curiosity
or engage the attention of mankind? Has the policy of former ages of
keeping in ignorance the great body of the people, in order that they
might be the more readily oppressed by the enlightened few, who held
the reins of government, grown into a custom too inveterate for the
more enlarged speculations of modern times to remove? These inquiries
we will not pursue, but will proceed to offer some observations on the
advantages of Popular Education.
{89} Under Popular Education may be included an acquaintance with
Reading, Writing, English Grammar, Geography, and the leading
principles of Science; such information in fact as would enable the
people to avail themselves of the lessons contained in books, and to
discharge with ease and propriety the various avocations of common
life. The advantages of Popular Education as thus defined are so
diversified and so connected with the whole intertexture of society,
as to render it impracticable on the present occasion to trace them
out fully. Only some of its most striking effects on the condition of
the people can be noticed. My purpose however will be effected, if I
shall succeed in directing the attention of my young friends, many of
whom will shortly engage in the busy scenes of life, to a subject
fraught with interest to our common country, to a cause which, in the
various stages they may occupy in society, will demand their liberal,
zealous and patriotic support.
By the general diffusion of information, superstition will be banished
from amongst the people. Superstition has been defined, "the error of
those, who in their opinion of the causes on which the fate of men
depends, believe or disbelieve without judgment or knowledge." It is a
compound of the credulity and fears of men--a monster truly of
frightful mien--destructive of the happiness of individuals, by
continually presenting to the mind imaginary causes of terror, and
associating with the most common occurrences of life, the dread of
impending calamity--no less destructive of the welfare of nations, by
affording an agent which designing men will ever be ready to employ in
effectuating their schemes of oppression. It is indeed the fulcrum on
which ambition may gain a leverage for moving the moral world. The
feelings to which it gives rise are of a uniform character, and when
they pervade a whole people, to address them effectually no great
diversity of means are required. Hence the important part it has
played in the subversion of kingdoms and revolutions of empires.
Examples need not be adduced to illustrate its pernicious influence on
individual and national happiness. It stands in bold relief on almost
every page of history; three-fourths of the habitable globe are at
this day living monuments of its power. The rest is still marked by
the traces of its slow retreat.
The only effectual barrier to the desolating influence of superstition
is to be found in the diffusion of Popular Education. Teach men that a
_sequitur_ is not necessarily an effect, and they will cease to regard
many of the ordinary occurrences of life as portentous because they
have once been accidentally conjoined with misfortunes. They will
cease to regard those phenomena of the material world which present
nature in aspects awful and sublime, as ominous of convulsions in the
moral or political world.
The influence of the enlightened few will never be able to banish
superstition from the unenlightened multitude. To eradicate it the
torch of knowledge must be lit in every mind. So far from
superstitious prejudices being removed by the authority of
philosophers, they are contracted by them from the illiterate, through
the influence of early education, and are persisted in through a
disposition in the human mind to regard with some degree of favor that
which has been believed in all ages, however absurd in reason. Addison
affords a remarkable instance of the influence of popular belief over
a philosophic mind. We learn from the Spectator[1] that he did not
entirely refuse his assent to the existence of ghosts, apparitions and
witchcraft. In the time of this eminent writer, a period distinguished
in the history of English Literature, there was scarce a village in
England in which witchcraft was not accredited; so little authority
did the great men of that age, who by their writings have had an
acknowledged influence on the moral improvement of the nation, exert
in eradicating superstition from the minds of the unenlightened common
people.
[Footnote 1: Nos. 110 and 117.]
Education exerts a negative agency in promoting human happiness by
removing superstition, one of its greatest enemies. But by expanding
the mind to more enlarged conceptions of the order and beauty of the
universe, it makes a real addition to the sum of human enjoyments. Our
capacities are at best but extremely limited. It has been permitted to
us however, to explore the threshold of the labyrinth of nature. Our
discoveries present us at every step with ends wisely and beneficently
planned, and means adapted with the most admirable simplicity and
economy to the production of those ends. No human investigation has
ever advanced so far as to point out aught of error in the arrangement
of the system of things around us. Every thing, whose purpose we can
understand, bears the impress of wisdom. How elevating to the mind of
man to rise from the contemplation of this visible order, to a Being
on whom we can rely with the utmost surety as having arranged every
thing, not only in our small planet but in the whole immensity of
creation, with the same admirable wisdom and economy which our limited
faculties enable us to trace in the small part which falls under our
immediate inspection! Yet to the vulgar mind is denied this ennobling
feeling. The ignorant man
"marks not the mighty hand
That ever-busy wheels the silent spheres;
Works in the secret deep; shoots, streaming, thence
The fair profusion that o'erspreads the spring:
Flings from the sun direct the flaming day;
Feeds every creature; hurls the tempest forth;
And as on earth this grateful change revolves,
With transport touches all the springs of life."
It is true, all people, all nations have acknowledged a Supreme Being.
But wherever the human mind has been enthralled by ignorance, he has
been acknowledged rather as a being of Terror than as a being of
Benevolence. 'Tis Education that endues men's minds with a just sense
of the attributes of the Supreme Being, and brings them acquainted
with their own high destiny, and is in truth, as it has been defined
to be, the "handmaid of Religion."
Among an educated people morality and private virtue must flourish.
For in the language of Lord Bacon, "learning disposeth the
constitution of the mind not to be fixed in the defects thereof, but
still to be susceptible of growth and improvement." The human mind is
endowed with a variety of passions, implanted in it for the wisest
purposes, but requiring the control of reason not to run into excesses
destructive of individual happiness and the peace of society. A
cultivated mind not only controls the impetuosity of those passions
which hurry onward into crime and misery, but peculiarly {90}
encourages the growth of those benevolent affections whose
gratification rests on prospective good. In the constitution of the
mind experience shows the striking fact (and it pleads forcibly in
favor of the general diffusion of Education among the people) that the
growth of the malevolent affections is nurtured by ignorance, and that
of the benevolent by knowledge. The former are more truly the
instinctive affections and generally operate under immediate stimuli.
The latter may be termed the rational affections, for their stimuli
are often remote and chiefly felt by the mind, which traces the
relations of things and sees the intimate connexion of virtue with
individual and general happiness.
The diffusion of Education will heighten and extend the pleasures of
social intercourse, pleasures which truly "exalt, embellish, and
render life delightful." Regard for a moment the condition of the
savage in that intercourse with his fellows, where sensual indulgences
and rude exultation in the slaughter of his enemies, constitute the
chief of that happiness which their society affords. Think of the aged
and infirm parent falling under the parricidal hand, because forsooth
his limbs are no longer active in the chase, his arm no longer nerved
to deal the deadly blow to an insulting adversary. Think of the sick
and afflicted, deserted in their last moments and left to expire
without the hand of friendship to close the dying eye. Think of woman,
formed to soothe, to polish and refine our ruder natures, doomed to a
degrading servitude, and thought worthy only to minister to the
passions of their haughty lords. From this rude society turn to that
of civilized life. Benevolence spreads her arms to embrace the human
race. Sympathy awakens at the notes of woe. Charity forgets not her
work of love, but visits the habitation of poverty and wretchedness,
and with a generous hand relieves want and soothes the wounds of
adversity. Filial piety softens the pillow of declining age. Whilst
friendship and affection wait upon the couch of sickness, forgetful of
fatigue, contagion and death. In scenes of health and prosperity,
peace and joy reign--mutual confidence and endearment characterize
domestic life--rational enjoyment marks the social circle, nurturing
feelings which strengthen the bonds imposed upon mankind by mutual
wants and mutual dependance. Lovely woman holds her just
ascendancy--shines alike in every relation of life--a voluntary homage
paid to her charms--her smile encouraging to virtuous enterprise and
noble achievement--her frown chilling the ardor of even hardy
insolence and impious daring. Does this contrast result from
difference in mental cultivation? History presents it as the primary
cause. Ignorance and barbarism, as applied to nations, may in fact be
considered as convertible terms. But if in reference to social
intercourse, such effects as those which civilized society presents,
are the results of the increase and diffusion of knowledge among the
comparatively small portion of mankind who enjoy its immediate
advantages, what might we not expect from the general spread of
information among the whole body of the people?
Turning from society to the individual in his solitary moments,
knowledge is no less the friend of human happiness. It affords
materials from which the activity of the mind weaves a pleasing
entertainment, when friends are no longer present to cheer with their
social converse, and when the appetites revolt by reason of satiety
from sensual indulgences. A book may beguile the tedium of a gloomy
day, draw the mind abroad, and prevent its dwelling on imaginary ills
that more truly destroy happiness than real misfortunes. The mind must
have its excitement; and if it is not endued with that degree of
knowledge necessary to stimulate inquiry, and afford a relish for
books, it is liable to seek for this excitement in the brutalizing
indulgences of the sensual appetites or in the uncontrolled movements
of the passions. By furnishing the minds of the people with the due
degree of elementary instruction, the best security will be afforded
of their minds being usefully or innocently employed, instead of being
perverted to their own misery and the disturbance of the public
tranquillity.
Such are some of the moral effects of Education. Its diffusion among
the people tends to improve their individual and social happiness. It
is likewise the great instrument of improvement in the arts and
sciences. Discoveries and inventions are said to be the product of the
age in which they are made, rather than of the individuals who are
immediately instrumental in bringing them forward. But are they not
dependant more on the spread of knowledge among the people at large,
than on any unusual advancement in learning among philosophers
themselves? Speculative philosophy has done much in promoting useful
inventions and discoveries. But on the other hand, how much that is
really useful do we not owe to the active minds of those engaged in
the ordinary vocations of life, and who never had the advantages of
instruction in the higher branches of science? It would be a curious
and interesting inquiry to trace out the numerous improvements in the
arts and sciences, for which we are indebted to geniuses rising
superior to the disadvantages of fortune and early education. The list
of such names as Ferguson, Watt, Scheele, would be found to swell the
catalogue of those whose exertions have contributed to enlarge the
field of science, and extend the power of man over the physical
creation. Genius is confined to no rank--it is to be found in all the
grades of society. Spread elementary instruction among the people,
extend to them the means of improvement, and superior minds wherever
fortune may have placed them, will not long remain in obscurity. Their
inherent vigor will break through difficulties, surmount obstacles,
and supply the deficiences occasioned by the want of a collegiate
education. In order too that profit be derived from the improvements
of scientific men, the minds of the people must be sufficiently imbued
with information to appreciate their labors, and to throw off
prejudices and break through established customs so far as to adopt in
practice what speculation teaches will be useful. Many important
discoveries made in preceding ages, when the mass of the people were
sunk in ignorance, have been lost to us, because there was not that
diffusion of information necessary for preserving and handing them
down. It may be said that science has nothing to fear from such a
state of things for the future, since the press and other means of
diffusing information preclude all danger of any of its discoveries
being lost. We readily admit the great advantages afforded by the
press and the extensive intercourse between different parts of the
world in preserving and transmitting knowledge. But how many
discoveries which contained the germs of future {91} sciences have
been made and neglected for the want of a proper depository in a
cultivated and enlightened community? Scarcely a branch of science can
be mentioned, in tracing the history of which, we cannot refer back to
some neglected discovery which was its real origin. But neglect has
not been the only impediment to the progress of science. The
difficulties which the fathers of science had to contend with, in the
prejudices of the people, at the revival of letters, are familiar to
all. The propagation of the true doctrine of the solar system exposed
Galileo to the persecution of the age in which he lived. Yes--not the
illiterate only--the learned Cardinals of the seventeenth century (if
they deserve the title of learned) compelled him, under pain of the
awful terrors of the Inquisition, to abjure his conviction of the most
sublime truth in science. And while Philosophy must drop a tear over
this weakness in one of her most distinguished promoters, every friend
of human happiness must regret that ignorance, or execrate that
bigotry which could impose such degradation on one of the greatest
geniuses of any age.
Inventions and discoveries owe their origin to chance, or some happy
idea suddenly striking the mind, or to patient reflection and
experiment. Those accidents that lead to them are as liable to occur
to one individual as another. But to the uncultivated mind they occur
and pass away without exciting one profitable reflection, without
drawing the attention to those relations of cause and effect, which
being pursued under different circumstances might lead to important
discoveries in the arts and sciences. Accidents however occurring to
individuals of cultivated minds, have led not only to important
solitary discoveries, but to the origin of new sciences, and the
formation of new systems of existing sciences. The origin of the
science of Galvanism is too familiar to be repeated. It is well known
that it was owing to accident. Accident likewise suggested to Haüy his
beautiful system of Crystalography. It is said that whilst examining a
collection of minerals, he dropped a beautiful specimen of calcareous
spar crystalized in prisms, which was broken by the fall. He observed
with astonishment that the fragments had the smooth regular forms of
the rhomboid crystals of Iceland spar. "I have found it all he
exclaimed:" for at this moment he conceived the fundamental idea of
his new system. Thus, an accident which to ordinary minds would have
been productive only of regret for the destruction of a beautiful
specimen in mineralogy, was to the philosophic mind of Haüy the
occasion of the most real delight; for it led him to a discovery which
he saw was to be of importance to science. The circumstances of the
early life of Haüy enforce strongly the importance of diffusing
information among the people, sufficient to afford them the means of
advancing in improvement, and to enable them to turn the accidents
that are continually occurring in life, to the benefit of mankind. He
was born in obscurity, the son of a poor weaver, and we are indebted
to the _primary schools_ in Germany for the evolution of his genius,
and the valuable contributions made by him to science.
The diffusion of information among the people will be favorable, not
only to the progress of discovery, but also to excellency in the
mechanic arts. It is maintained by many that the practical artist does
not require the aid of science. Manual dexterity indeed can be
acquired by practice only, but yet a moderate share of scientific
information will render skill more available. Every artist in fact, by
experience, acquires that portion of science which is necessary for
excellence in his art; but it is at the expense of much time and many
failures. By the diffusion of Popular Education, this information
would become a standing fund upon which artists could draw in pursuing
their different occupations, without having to derive it from the slow
lessons of experience.
By raising the standard of education among the people, the standard
would be raised among the learned also; for what is termed learning is
only a relative quality. The whole extent of human knowledge is
insignificant in comparison with the infinity of truths which remain
undiscovered or unobserved. The heights and depths of science, which
in our pride we fondly imagine we have explored, only strike us with
astonishment because we compare them with that even surface along
which ignorance plods. As the progress of information advances, the
greater is that portion of knowledge which becomes the heritage of the
people. By the mere intercourse of society, much knowledge is
diffused, independently of that which is spread by the regular
institutions for learning; and the quantum of this erratic knowledge
rises in a greater ratio than the general intelligence of the people.
In this country a century back, the assertion that the sun remains
stationary, or nearly so, and the earth by its revolutions gives
occasion to day and night, and the rotation of the seasons, would
probably have been heard with astonishment, and received with
incredulity by the mass of the people; because their senses, and the
common use and acceptation of language led them to believe the
reverse. Yet what novice at the present day, enlightened in comparison
with a period of one hundred years back, would require to be informed
of a truth so well known? This important truth has, like many other
scientific truths, become familiar to every member of society. The
information thus diffused, would be increased by raising the standard
of education among the people. Much of that knowledge which before
constituted a part of the stock peculiar to the learned, would become
the common property of the people at large. The former would
necessarily conform to a higher standard of acquirements. The plan of
instruction in colleges and universities would become more liberal and
extensive: for on this condition would depend the distinction of their
alumni from the uninitiated.
The education of the people presents itself in an interesting light,
when viewed in connexion with our political institutions. The study of
history and mankind shows the essential connexion of light and
liberty. Wherever solid learning has prevailed, governments have been
best administered, and the people have been most happy. And on the
other hand the most barbarous, rude and uncultivated nations have been
most subject to tumults, seditions and changes. In all governments
learning exerts a most favorable influence, by impressing on the minds
of rulers the true character of their station, and on the minds of the
people a just sense as well of their rights, as of their duties
towards the established authority. But in our government the
intelligence of the people is the very soul of its existence. There
are here no distinctions of {92} rank--no great interests artificially
balanced against each other, to keep the body politic _in equilibrio_.
Our government recognizes but one class--the people; and but one
interest--the interest of the people. To the good of the people the
exertions of all must be directed; and this end, to be clearly
discerned, and steadily pursued, requires the public mind to be
enlightened. The constitutional distribution of the powers of
government, constitutes the basis of a political system the most
admirable which human wisdom has yet devised--a system which, duly
administered in its several parts, tends more than any other to
maintain the natural equality and liberty of man, and to promote the
welfare and happiness of the people. But the just operation of our
political system requires that the powers distributed to the several
departments be kept within their proper sphere of action. Experience
shows that written constitutions are in themselves an insufficient
barrier to the encroachments of men in power. Ambition and interest
can easily, by construction and implication, from the most limited
grants of power, derive authority for the most arbitrary and
oppressive acts. This evil has been provided against as far as
practicable, in the separation of the powers, and the organization of
the different departments of the government. But another check which
our system contemplates, and certainly one of the most effectual in
its operation, is to be found in the intelligence and vigilance of the
people. Sovereignty residing with them, it is their opinion which must
in all cases determine finally, what and how much power has been
delegated, and to which government, and which department of government
it has been committed. Measures affecting deeply the public interests
must often be decided by a few voices in the state and national
legislatures. Over these decisions the people exert a controlling
influence. How important then is it that they be sufficiently
enlightened to discern their true interests--to distinguish between
sectional and general good--and with that spirit of liberality which
free institutions engender, to submit to temporary and local evil, in
consideration of permanent and general advantage!
But it may be asked, has not experience shown that a very moderate
share of intelligence, in the great mass of the people, is sufficient
for the harmonious and beneficial operation of our republican system?
Have not the people, as they have advanced in intelligence, shown
themselves less capable of self-government than their predecessors? To
these questions it may be answered, that no precise degree of general
intelligence can be marked as the point at which the people become
capable of self-government; but the very nature of a republican
government supposes them to be enlightened, and common sense dictates
that by extending the breadth of that foundation on which the whole
fabric rests, the best security is obtained for its permanency. Let us
dismiss the narrow notion that degeneracy is the necessary
accompaniment of learning and refinement. It is true, the boasted
republics of antiquity, at the golden period of their literature, sunk
into servitude. But their degeneracy and their overthrow were not the
effects of their literature; they were only accidental concomitants.
They were either overwhelmed by external force, or sunk at length the
victims of their own policy. Rome, by her policy of subjecting all
nations to her sway, neglected the sources of prosperity contained
within her own bosom. By the spoils of foreign conquest the city
became enriched--rapine became honorable--the provinces were
plundered--wealth was acquired without labor--luxury and
licentiousness prevailed--useful employments were neglected, (for the
poor subsisted by the _largesses_ of the ambitious great)--every thing
was venal. The morality of the state became rotten to the core.
Ambitious demagogues, with their mercenary followers, overturned the
institutions of their country. Rome sunk--yes, even _in spite of_ her
refinement.
But no just comparison can be instituted between ancient republics and
our own, in relation to the causes which produced the overthrow of the
former, and those which may endanger the permanency of the latter. The
theories of ancient and modern republics are essentially different.
The science of government has become better understood than formerly,
and a more liberal policy marks the practice of rulers. Statesmen have
discovered that the prosperity of nations is dependant on the wise
administration of their internal concerns. Wars have become less
frequent and less dangerous to the existence of nations. And the
modern mode of warfare has given to cultivated infinitely the
superiority over rude and uncultivated nations. With these advantages,
the fruits of science in our favor, we need not dread the fate of
bygone republics; we need not fear that the progress of intelligence
and refinement will occasion that degeneracy which has been falsely
attributed to them on a superficial view of the history of ancient
nations. The passions of men will indeed continue to operate as they
ever have done: but the diffusion of information among the people will
be the surest means of counteracting their evil tendency, or directing
them to proper objects.
Late events in the history of our republic have indeed shaken the
faith of some in regard to the permanency of our institutions. At its
origin, we were united by external dangers and the common defence of
our liberties. At a later period, the adjustment of foreign relations,
and the development of our system of government, interested the
attention of rulers and people. But now we have been for some time at
peace with foreign nations--our national character has been
established abroad--and the settlement of most subjects in controversy
with other countries, together with the gradual extinction of the
national debt, have given place to a more immediate attention to our
internal concerns. Legislation on sectional interests has brought the
public sentiment of the North and South into conflict. Organized
opposition to the exercise of powers claimed by congress, has
threatened the very permanency of the Union. But the patriotism which
directed the councils of our fathers is not yet fled. The wisdom of
our legislators, aided by an enlightened public sentiment, has happily
averted the danger. Let us not rest in security however. The
diversified interests of our wide-spread country will continue to give
rise to legislation which will excite popular discontents, and
conflicts of public opinion, in relation to the delegated powers of
the federal government. A grievous evil confined to one portion of the
Union, threatens at no distant day to test the strength of the bonds
which bind us together. The tendency of the feelings beginning {93} to
be developed among our northern brethren, cannot be mistaken. Free
from slavery themselves, the relations in which it stands to our
citizens and our government cannot be rightly estimated by them.
Abstract speculation, mistaken philanthropy, fanatic zeal in the cause
of freedom, may exclaim--the rights of man must be vindicated--the
crusade must be commenced against the violators of
humanity--opposition must be borne down by the strong arm of
government. But let the day come when a northern majority shall in
madness interfere in this delicate subject, and our union as freemen
is gone forever. Civil war and bloodshed will deface and destroy the
beautiful proportions of the temple of freedom. The Cæsar of America
will arise to bind together the disjointed fragments of the edifice
with the chain of Despotism.
Means for averting these ills are to be sought. Where shall we look
for them except in the general diffusion of intelligence among the
people? Spread knowledge among the people, and their minds will be
awakened to a due sense of the value of our free institutions. They
will be quick to detect ambition, aiming under a false pretence of
public utility, at private aggrandizement. They will be ready in
discerning the true interests of the nation, however designing men may
endeavor to blind their perception. They will cultivate that liberal,
compromising spirit, which submits to partial evil for the general
good. Yea, they will cherish that patriotism which in the hour of
danger will stand by the republic, and seal with the blood of freemen
the "_esto perpetua_" of the Union.