Two kinds of chipmunks, the Cooper and Hollister, are known to occur
within the park. Although their altitudinal ranges overlap, the two
species may be quite readily distinguished by their variation in size
and other characteristics. A brief discussion of each follows:
[Illustration: The Hollister chipmunk is a lively and audacious
little animal.]
The Cooper chipmunk, _Tamias townsendii cooperi_ Baird, is the larger of
the two species mentioned above. It is predominantly dark brown in
color; the light colored stripes above and below the eye are indistinct;
the black head stripes are not conspicuous; the nine alternating black
and grayish white lengthwise stripes on the back are somewhat obscured
by the dark color; the tail is black above, grizzled with white, silvery
margined, reddish brown below. The total length of a typical specimen is
ten inches; head and body, five and one-half inches, tail four and
one-half inches.
This chipmunk is found in the higher eastern Cascade Mountains and
Olympic Mountains of Washington. In Mount Rainier National Park it
occurs from park boundaries to 6,000 feet, almost to forest line.
The Hollister chipmunk, _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_ (Hollister), also
called the little chipmunk or Alpine chipmunk, is about a third smaller
in size than the Cooper chipmunk. It is predominantly gray brown in
color. The light colored stripes above and below the eye are distinct;
the black head stripes are more conspicuous than those of the Cooper,
the back stripes are sharply defined; the tail is brown mixed with black
above, margined with yellowish brown, yellowish brown below. The total
length is about eight and three-fourths inches; head and body four and
three-fourths inches, tail four inches.
The Hollister chipmunk is found in the higher Cascade Mountains of
Washington. In Mount Rainier National Park it occurs generally in the
Hudsonian Zone between 4,500 and 6,500 feet, rarely lower or above
forest line, but it is one of the few park animals recorded on the
summit of Mount Rainier.
_Specimens in park collection:_ Cooper chipmunk, RNP-7, RNP-8, RNP-9,
RNP-16, RNP-18, RNP-74, RNP-110; Hollister chipmunk, RNP-28, RNP-29,
RNP-30, RNP-95; Longmire Museum, Park Headquarters.
The lively, audacious, and beautifully marked chipmunks are the most
popular of all the animals of the park. Locally abundant as they are in
the neighborhood of the campgrounds and lodges, easily observed because
of their diurnal habits and lack of fear, they are a source of
entertainment and amusement to many park visitors.
Like the mantled ground squirrels, the chipmunks adapt themselves
rapidly to man’s presence, forage about camps and lodges in search of
various delicacies, invade camp stores without hesitation, but are such
engaging company that it is difficult to regard them as anything other
than friendly guests.
Many varieties of seeds and berries furnish the food supply of this
animal, and quantities are stored in their burrows for use during the
spring and early summer. Although the chipmunks hibernate during most of
the winter, they sometimes venture out on warm, spring-like days,
returning to their winter nests when the weather again becomes
inclement.
Predaceous birds and mammals active during the daylight hours are all
enemies of the chipmunks. These natural enemies work to keep the
chipmunk populations free of contagious diseases such as relapsing
fever, which is transmissible to human beings, by removing sick and
sluggish chipmunks before they can infect their companions.
[Illustration: Mantled ground squirrels are popular with park
visitors.]
CASCADE MANTLED GROUND SQUIRREL, BIG CHIPMUNK
_Citellus saturatus_ (Rhoads)
As the name implies, the mantled ground squirrels are ground dwellers.
In general external appearance they resemble the eastern chipmunks, but
are considerably larger, and much bigger than their environmental
associates, the western chipmunks. They may be further distinguished
from the latter species by the more robust body, the conspicuous white
eye-ring, and the absence of stripes on the head. The Cascade species of
mantled ground squirrel is about twelve inches in length overall, with a
flattened, somewhat bushy, narrow tail some four inches long. The sexes
are colored alike, the mantle over the head, sides of the neck,
shoulders, and forearms is reddish-brown, mixed with black, which is in
distinct contrast to the rest of the upper parts. The back is grizzled
black, merging into grizzled red-brown over the rump, with a narrow
yellowish-white stripe, edged with black, on each flank from shoulder to
thigh. The underparts and the upper surfaces of the feet are
yellowish-white. The tail is well-clothed with dark, yellow-tipped hair
above, yellowish-brown below.
_Specimens in park collection:_ RNP-33, RNP-34, RNP-36; Longmire Museum,
Park Headquarters.
The mantled ground squirrels are found only in western North America, on
the forested mountain slopes from California, Arizona, and New Mexico
north into British Columbia.
The species common to Mount Rainier National Park is found in the
Cascade Mountains of Washington, and on the Mountain it is confined
principally to the Hudsonian zone, between 4,500 and 6,500 feet. It is
most abundant on the east side, but is very common locally in the
Paradise Valley vicinity.
This animal inhabits by preference the rather open, rocky hillsides, and
is seldom seen in the heavily forested sections. Burned over brush lands
are favored localities, particularly on those slopes exposed to the sun.
The big chipmunks are less graceful than their livelier, smaller
cousins; they are unsuspicious and easily observed, and are very popular
with park visitors because of their obvious lack of timidity. They are
quick to adapt themselves to the proximity of humans, and sometimes
become nuisances about campsites and dwellings because of their
audacious thefts of various foodstuffs.
The capacious cheek pouches are used in collecting seeds, nuts, roots,
berries, and the bulbs of various plants, which are stored in
underground caches. Although these ground squirrels hibernate from early
fall until late spring, forage is meager during the first few weeks
after emergence from their long winter nap, and without provision for
these lean times, the animals would surely starve. They often appear
when the snow is still deep over their burrows, digging several feet
upward through this white blanket to emerge on the surface.
The most dreaded enemy is the weasel, but the ground squirrels are
preyed upon by coyotes, foxes, and hawks as well, since they are a
staple item in the diet of most predators.
DOUGLAS PINE SQUIRREL, CHICKAREE
_Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii_ (Bachman)
A dark grayish brown squirrel about twelve inches in length overall;
with prominent ears; moderately slender in form; tail almost as long as
the body, somewhat flattened, well clothed with hair but not bushy, more
gray than the body. The underparts vary from a pale yellow brown to
reddish brown. The sexes are colored alike; the pelage is fairly long,
soft, but not silky. The characteristic appearance is one of extreme
alertness.
[Illustration: Common throughout forested sections, the Douglas pine
squirrel is a vociferous bundle of energy.]
_Specimens in park collection:_ RNP-10, RNP-11, RNP-15, RNP-47, RNP-100,
RNP-107; Longmire Museum, Park Headquarters.
The Douglas squirrel is classified as one of the red squirrels, or
chickarees, which are distributed over most of forested North America.
In Mount Rainier National Park these squirrels are common, and are found
throughout the area from the park boundaries to forest line, and
occasionally even higher.
This vociferous, restless bundle of energy is seen and heard by almost
every park visitor, bounding across the highway or trail, or scampering
madly up a nearby tree, to peer around the trunk or perch upon limb just
out of reach where it scolds and chatters vehemently at all intruders.
Unlike the flying squirrel, the chickaree is abroad throughout the
daylight hours, busy, inquisitive, obviously and usually noisily,
resentful of interference with what it considers its own affairs. Only
in the spring is this squirrel somewhat subdued, probably because of the
youngsters tucked away in a nearby nest in some tree hollow. The young
do not venture into the world until more than half grown, when they take
their places in the regular routine of family activities.
Because the Douglas squirrel does not hibernate, it gathers the cones of
most of the coniferous trees, as well as the winged seeds of the vine
maple and even mushrooms to furnish food over the lean winter months.
The late summer and early fall is a busy time for this industrious
fellow. The swish and thump of falling cones is a common sound through
the woods when the harvest is in progress. A number of cones are neatly
clipped from the tree tops, then the worker descends the tree to gather
and store them in a hollow stump, beneath a log or the roots of a tree,
or even in a hastily excavated hole in the forest floor. Interrupt this
activity by secreting a few of the fallen cones, and the imprecations
called down upon your head would scorch the printed page if they could
be translated into human speech.
Although preyed upon by winged and four-footed predators alike, the
chickaree holds its own very well, probably because this fellow is
seldom caught napping, certainly not because of shy and retiring habits,
since the “chatterer” is one of the most conspicuous and interesting of
our woodland creatures.
CASCADE FLYING SQUIRREL
_Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus_ (Rhoads)
A medium-sized, arboreal squirrel; dark-brown above, light brown on the
under parts, light gray or sometimes light brown on the sides of the
face, the sexes colored alike, the young darker than the adults. The
eyes are large and dark, the pelage is soft and silky. The flat, furry
tail and the fold of loose skin between the fore and hind legs on either
side distinguish this animal from any other.
_Specimens in park collection:_ None.
Flying squirrels inhabit a large part of forested North America. The
Cascade sub-species is found from southern British Columbia southward
along the Cascade Range to the Siskiyou Mountains of Northern
California.
[Illustration: Park visitors rarely see the beautiful little flying
squirrel.]
Although seldom seen because of its nocturnal habits, the flying
squirrel is locally abundant in some sections of the park, particularly
at Ohanapecosh Hot Springs.
The most interesting characteristic of this little tree-dweller is its
unique habit of gliding from tree to tree through the air. In launching
its “flight” the squirrel leaps into space from its perch on a dead snag
or tree, extends the fore and hind legs, spreading the loose fold of
skin along its sides, and with the flat tail fluttering behind, sails
obliquely downward, alighting on the ground or the lower trunk of
another tree. This aerial maneuver cannot truly be called flight, but
has resulted in the name “flying squirrel.”
Little is known of the life history of this beautiful little animal,
because of the difficulty of observation. Old woodpecker holes or
natural cavities in trees are favorite nesting places, and the flying
squirrel is almost never found away from the nest except at night or
when disturbed. It is a shy and retiring creature, preyed upon by owls,
martens, weasels, and other small carnivorous animals on the rare
occasions when it comes to the ground. Flying squirrels are omnivorous,
nuts and other vegetable foods are apparently preferred, although meat
is sometimes taken when available.
CASCADE PIKA, CONY
_Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ Howell
This small, rodent-like animal is robust, short-legged, with a tail so
short that it is not noticeable in field observation. The sexes are
colored alike; gray-brown above, whitish below, ears darker, feet light.
The pelage is soft and quite dense. In general appearance the pikas
closely resemble the rabbits, except for their small size, short legs,
and short, rounded ears. The peculiar “bleating” call is unmistakable.
_Specimens in park collection:_ RNP-12, RNP-13, and one mounted
specimen; Headquarters Museum, Longmire.
The many sub-species of the pika are widely distributed at the higher
elevations throughout the Rocky Mountains and the Coast Ranges. The
typical habitat is the rock-slides and talus slopes near forest line.
In the park one may expect to find the pika on any rocky slope from
3,000 (rarely lower) to 8,000 feet. They are infrequently seen in
winter, due to the depth of snow over most sites which they inhabit, but
during clear, sunny days they occasionally venture out in exposed
locations.
The common name “hay-maker” has often been applied to the pika, because
it is one of those provident creatures which literally “makes hay”
during the summer months, curing and drying a wide variety of grasses
and other plants which are stored for winter food. The hay-barn of the
pika is in a sheltered crevice or beneath an overhanging boulder in the
masses of rock where it makes its home. These hay-piles are much in
evidence where pikas are abundant.
The protective coloring of the animal makes it difficult to distinguish
among the rocks, and it is commonly heard before it is seen. The sharp,
short bleat, almost a chirp or squeak, often repeated at rapid intervals
when the pika is alarmed, is distinctive. If the observer remains
motionless, and carefully searches nearby with his eyes, he is almost
certain to see a tiny “rock-rabbit” scamper quickly and with silent,
sure feet across the rocks, to disappear in a crevice or to perch on an
exposed boulder. Should the watcher remain quiet, the pika will resume
its interrupted activities until again disturbed.
[Illustration: The busy beaver is an industrious engineer.]
The well-chosen shelter of the pika, deep down beneath the rocks,
affords adequate protection from most predators. Only the weasels, and
their relatives, the martens, are capable of following these elusive
creatures through the talus. Undoubtedly the hawks and eagles may strike
suddenly from the air and be successful in capturing a pika less alert
than his fellows, but such occasions must be rare.
PACIFIC BEAVER
_Castor canadensis leucodonta_ Gray
The beaver is the largest North American rodent, and the species found
in Mount Rainier National Park is the largest of any of the recognized
geographical range. An adult will weigh thirty pounds or more, up to a
maximum of sixty pounds. The form is robust; the tail is broad, flat,
and scaly; the ears are short; the hind feet webbed. The pelage is
composed of short, soft underfur, with long guard hairs. The sexes are
alike in size and color, a dark, glossy, reddish brown above, lighter
brown below. The beaver is aquatic in habit.
_Specimens in park collection:_ Mounted specimen, Longmire Museum, Park
Headquarters.
The geographical range of the beaver extends over most of North America
from the Rio Grande northward.
Beaver are not now abundant in the park, and it is doubtful that they
were ever numerous. Observations have been made in many sections,
notably Fish Creek, Tahoma Creek, along the Nisqually River from the
park entrance to the mouth of the Paradise River, Longmire Meadows, the
Ohanapecosh River, and Reflection and Tipsoo Lakes. Records indicate
that Fish Creek and Tahoma Creek are the sites most extensively used by
beavers during recent years, although intermittent activities have been
noted in the vicinity of Longmire Meadows. A colony on Kautz Creek was
undoubtedly destroyed by the flood of October, 1947.
No other animal played as important a role in the early history and
exploration of this country as did the beaver. This is particularly true
of the Rocky Mountain west, and to a lesser extent of the Northwest. The
fur trade made the beaver pelt a standard of exchange, and to get beaver
the trappers moved westward, seeking out this valuable animal in the
most inaccessible and remote regions. These early explorations, which
had as their incentive fur rather than the expansion of territory, paved
the way for later settlement by those seeking new lands and a better
livelihood in the West. So great was the demand for fur that the
beavers, in the beginning abundant, were reduced in numbers to a point
where returns did not compensate trappers for the risk and hardship
involved.
The first mention of beaver in the park is found in _Mammals and Birds
of Mount Rainier_, Taylor and Shaw, which states:
“Dr. A. K. Fisher records that several beavers lived at Longmire
Springs until 1896, when a trapper killed them all.”
By 1905, according to the _Annual Report of the Secretary of the
Interior_, beaver had been exterminated within the boundaries of the
park.
However, by 1919, beaver were again active on Fish Creek, along the
eastern base of Mount Wow, and in December, Mr. Roger W. Toll, park
superintendent, reported two dams, each 100 to 200 feet in length. Mr.
Toll’s observations were set forth thus in a letter:
“The beavers are now living in these lakes, and fresh signs are
abundant. There are numerous tracks in the snow leading from the lakes
to the thickets of alder, elder, and willow which they are eating.
There is no typical beaver house in the lakes, but the under-water
entrance to their house can be seen leading under the roots of a fir
tree about four feet in diameter that stands on the edge of the upper
lake.”
It is in this immediate vicinity that fairly extensive beaver workings
were observed in November, 1947, including newly repaired small dams and
fresh cuttings.
The house or burrow in the stream bank studied by Mr. Toll appears
typical of the beaver in this area. In other sections, notably Rocky
Mountain National Park, Colorado, where beavers are abundant, an
extensive system of dams and canals is frequently developed on the
smaller streams, with a large house completely surrounded by the
impounded water a central feature of the colony. No such elaborate
workings have been found here. Since the beavers habitually reside in
burrows along the margins of streams they are referred to as
“bank-beavers.” A plausible explanation for this habit is the constant
and ample flow of water, which eliminates the necessity for large dams,
and is adequate to cover at all times the underwater entrances to the
burrows.
A small stream, bordered by cottonwood, alder, and willow, tracing its
course through swampy places or meadow lands at intervals, is the
preferred habitat of the beaver. The bulk of its food is made up of the
bark of the tree species mentioned above, although coniferous trees are
sometimes used, perhaps as an appetizer. The roots of aquatic plants are
eaten also, as well as the smaller roots of tree species. In an active
beaver colony, freshly peeled twigs and branches will be found lodged
against the upstream side of the dam, as well as along the stream and
pond margins.
Much has been written concerning the sagacity, engineering ability, and
industry of the beaver. Certainly “busy as a beaver” is an apt
comparison for the industrious. The amount of tree-felling, food
harvesting, and construction and repair which a colony of beavers will
accomplish overnight is remarkable.
Other characteristics, while impressive, are not the unerring instincts
that were often attributed to the animal by early writers. While the
dams are in most instances sturdily constructed of brush, small stones,
mud, and, at times, sizeable short lengths of trees, a sudden spring
freshet may completely destroy a poorly located structure. That the
beaver exhibits what might be considered good judgment in taking
advantage of natural stream barriers in dam construction is commonly
demonstrated, however. It is not unusual to find trees that have fallen
across water courses, or boulders in or on the margins of streams, used
to provide a portion of a dam, apparently by design rather than by
accident.
The felling of trees is approached in a haphazard fashion, without
regard to the direction of fall. It appears that the beaver, or beavers,
set to work to gnaw the trunk through at a comfortable working height
above the ground, a point they can reach from a sitting position. Where
the tree falls is left entirely to chance. There may be a half circle of
open space in one direction, yet it is quite possible that the tree will
topple in the opposite direction and so lodge before it reaches the
ground. Under such circumstances the beavers may cut another section or
several sections from the butt of the tree, without eventually
accomplishing their purpose.
Nevertheless, to give credit where credit is due, it must be admitted
that the beaver is unique in the animal kingdom by virtue of its feats,
even though these are largely the result of instinct.
Among the natural enemies of the beaver clan are listed most of the
predators; fox, coyote, cougar, bear, wildcat, and where their habitats
coincide, the otter. It seems that all of these exhibit a liking for the
flesh of this largest of rodents, although a painstaking stalk,
consummated by a swift rush or leap is necessary for success, lest the
beaver escape to his natural refuge, the water. The otter, of course,
may enter the burrow or house and kill the young, but it is not likely
that it has the strength required to deal with a full grown animal.
MOUNT RAINIER APLODONTIA, MOUNT RAINIER MOUNTAIN BEAVER
_Aplodontia rufa rainieri_ Merriam
A stout-bodied rodent, about the size of a muskrat, with a tail so short
that it is concealed in the fur. Sexes are alike in size and color;
upper parts light brown with a darker overcast, under parts a dull
brown, sometimes showing white patches. Eyes and ears small.
_Specimens in park collection:_ RNP-80, RNP-104, and a mounted specimen,
Longmire Museum, Park Headquarters.
The various subspecies of aplodontia are found only along the western
coast of North America, from the mountain ranges westward to the
Pacific. It is not known to occur elsewhere in the world.
The Mount Rainier mountain beaver is found only on and in the immediate
vicinity of Mount Rainier, where it is abundant in some localities from
park boundaries to 6,000 feet. It has been reported from the Paradise
River (5,200 feet), Longmire, Reflection Lake, Ohanapecosh, Comet Falls,
the Rampart Ridge Trail, the Nisqually Entrance, in the Nickel Creek
burn, and on the Wonderland Trail on the north side of Stevens Canyon
(3,000 feet).
The common name of this animal is not particularly appropriate, since it
resembles the muskrat and pocket gophers in appearance and habits more
closely than it does the beaver to which it is not closely related. It
prefers a wet habitat, but is not aquatic. It occasionally gnaws through
the small stems of willow, alder, and other shrubs, felling them to the
ground, but it makes no attempt to construct dams or canals. Tiny
rivulets are often diverted to flow through the mountain beaver’s
burrows, perhaps by accident, possibly because the animal intended such
diversion.
The food of the aplodontia includes almost every succulent plant found
in the park, as well as many shrubs and the bark of some trees. Bracken
appears to be on the preferred list. During the summer months the
presence of the animal in a locality is often indicated by bundles of
plants cut and piled in exposed places to cure. The mountain beaver is
more particular in this respect than the pika, the bundles are often
rather neatly arranged on a log or stump, the base of the stems at one
end of the pile, nicely evened up, and the entire bundle intact. After
curing, the bundles are stored in the burrows, to serve as food and
nesting material.
A rather extensive system of burrows from a few inches to a foot or two
beneath the surface, and piles of freshly excavated earth are also
evidence of the workings of this animal. The typical site chosen for
development is ordinarily moist, probably not because the aplodontia is
a lover of water, but because it is in such locations that suitable food
plants abound. The burrows are constructed as exploratory routes in
foraging, with what appears to be a main gallery intersected by a number
of branches. These burrows emerge in thick cover or under logs, with the
openings often connected by well-beaten runways where the overhanging
plants and shrubs afford concealment.
Such extensive workings were found along the Wonderland Trail in Stevens
Canyon in 1947 and 1948. The first indication of the activity of
mountain beavers was the undermined condition of the trail in several
places, where burrows crossed under the path and caved beneath the feet.
Upon investigation many freshly cut stems of bracken were discovered,
and several piles of recently excavated earth, in some instances
sufficient to fill a bushel basket. This site was typical: excellent
cover; several small streams; and deep, very moist soil with few rocks
and an abundance of food plants.
Natural enemies of aplodontia undoubtedly include nearly all of the
predatory animals, particularly the skunks and weasels, which can invade
the dens without difficulty.
YELLOW-HAIRED PORCUPINE
_Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum_ Brandt
The porcupine is a large, short-legged rodent (total length about 30
inches), clumsy and awkward appearing, slow-moving, bearing long, sharp
quills or spines over most of the body and on the short, club-like tail.
The pelage is composed of soft, brownish-black or black hair. Intermixed
with the pelage, and extending beyond it are the quills and long, stiff,
shiny, yellowish-tipped hairs, which give a yellow tinge to the
underlying dark color. It is impossible to confuse this unique animal
with any other found in the park.
[Illustration: The almost impregnable armor of the porcupine is
adequate protection against most predators.]
_Specimens in park collection:_ RNP-42, RNP-47, and a mounted specimen,
Longmire Museum, Park Headquarters.
The several species of porcupine are widely distributed, ranging in the
timbered regions of the northeastern states, the Rocky Mountains from
near the Mexican boundary northward, and from northern California into
Canada and Alaska.
Formerly rare, the first actual record was of a single individual in
Paradise Valley in 1933, porcupines are increasing throughout the
forested areas of the park, although the animal is still considered
uncommon.
An apparent lack of interest or concern in events is probably the
outstanding characteristic of the porcupine. Protected as it is with an
almost impregnable defense of quills, it has no need for speed and shows
little fear of any other creature, even man. If pursued when
encountered, it will waddle away at top speed, which is about equal to a
man’s brisk walk. If crowded closely, the animal will take to the
nearest tree if given the opportunity, or may thrust its head beneath a
convenient root, log, or rock, then thrash the muscular tail about
vigorously in an effort to discourage attack. The tail is indeed a
formidable weapon. The quills are loosely attached to the skin, and are
readily detached when they strike any object. They may even be loosened
by the swinging of the tail, and fly through the air for a short
distance. It is conceivable that quills thus detached might actually
penetrate the skin at short range, but a porcupine can not “shoot” its
quills.
During the winter months “Porky” feeds upon the bark of various trees,
with an apparent preference for the conifers and coniferous foliage. At
times a single tree may furnish food for several days. The porcupine is
not a traveler, and rarely moves far, since food is ordinarily readily
available. In summer bark is eaten at times, but the diet is
predominantly the leaves and new twigs of shrubs, grasses, and succulent
plants.
The inordinate liking for salt exhibited by the porcupine is well known.
Tool handles which bear a trace of dried perspiration are eagerly
devoured; it is common to find table-tops and other articles of
furniture in abandoned camps almost destroyed if they retain any
evidence of bacon, salt pork, or other salty foods. This habit has
created a hearty dislike among campers and woodsmen for the
“quill-pigs,” and they are notorious as camp nuisances.
Because of its nocturnal habits, the porcupine is not often seen. It
prefers to remain concealed in the uppermost branches of a
thick-foliaged tree, or perhaps in a hollow stump or log during the day,
venturing out at dusk to forage.
Natural enemies of this animal include many of the predators, although
the protection afforded by the quills is sufficient to discourage attack
in most instances. Perhaps extremities of hunger result in desperate
attempts upon occasion, but it is difficult to imagine any flesh-eater
coming out better than second-best in an encounter, with one exception.
Observations and records of naturalists, trappers, and other competent
observers throughout the north woods country indicate that the fisher is
an implacable and deadly enemy of the porcupine, which is the fisher’s
favorite prey and which it kills by tearing open the unprotected belly.
Observers have found trapped fishers to contain porcupine quills in the
intestines and in other parts of the body, with no apparent harmful
effects. Since the fisher has been almost exterminated over most of its
range within the United States, however, it cannot be regarded as an
effective check upon the increase in the porcupine population. In rare
instances, coyotes and cougars have been recorded as preying upon the
porcupine, and forest fires have been important in reducing their
numbers in the past.