_Çast_, or _cest_, is honour. The first letter, _ç_, should be

pronounced _z_; it is rather a favourite with Poland and Bohemia.

Çastibog exactly answers to the Greek Timotheus, as does Çastimir to the

modern German Ehrenfried, very possibly a translation from it. Çastislav

is the most popular form, like all else ending in _slav_, and has

shortened into Çaslav, Çaislav, Cestislav, Ceslav.

Of the same sound is the first letter of _çist_, pure, whence Çistav and

Çistislav. From _tverd_, firm, we have Tverdko, Tverdimir, Tverdislav.

SECTION VI.—_Names of Affection._

The Slavonian nature has much in common with the Irish, and there is

much of caressing and personal affection. _Ljub_, as has been seen, is a

favourite element in names, and _dragi_, dear, does a considerable part.

Dragomira, or Dear peace, was the name of the heathen mother of Boleslav

and Venceslav. Dragoslav, or dear glory, is Russian, and Poland and

Bohemia have used Dragan, Draganka, Dragoj, Dragojila, Dragioila,

Dragnja, Dragotin, Dragotinka, Dragilika, Dragija.

_Duschinka_ is the tender epithet which, in Russia, a serf applies to

her lady in addressing her. It is properly the diminutive of Duscha,

happy, which is sometimes a Christian name in Russia, as well as in

Illyria, where it is called Dusa and Dusica. _Stastny_ is the Bohemian

word for happy, and is sometimes used as a name. Blazena, meaning happy,

in these tongues, is used as the South Slavonic equivalent for Beatrice.

Another word for love is _mil_. Mila and Milica are the feminines,

meaning lovely, or amiable, Milan the masculine; but all these are now

confounded with the numerous progeny of the Latin Æmilius. _Mil_ is a

favourite termination, and is found loving war and glory—Milovoj and

Miloslav.

Cedoljub and Cedomil are both most loving names, the first half of the

name signifying a child, so that they signify ‘child-love,’ or ‘filial

affection.’

Brotherly love is likewise honoured as nowhere else, save in the Greek

Philadelphus, which exactly renders Bratoljub, from _brata_, a word of

the universal family likeness whence ἀδελφός and _hermano_ are the only

noted variations. Brajan and Bragican also belong to brotherhood.

_Deva_ is a maiden, whence Devoslav and Devoslava, probably formed, or

at least used, in honour of the Blessed Virgin.

SECTION VII.—_Names from the Appearance._

A few names of extremely personal application exist, such as the Servian

Mrena, white in the eyes, and Mladen, young, and the highly

uncomplimentary Illyrian Smoljan and Smoljana, from _smoljo_, an

overhanging nose, probably a continuation of the nickname of some

favoured individual.

_Krasan_, beautiful, however, was used in names, as Krasimir, Krasislav,

Krasomil, &c.; and _zlata_, golden, though once used in Zlatoust, as a

literal translation of Chrysostomos, in other names may, it is hoped, be

employed to denote beauty; or else Zlatoljub, with its contractions

Zlatoje and Zlatko, would be a most avaricious name. Zlata, Zlatana,

Zlatibor, and Zlatislav, are also used.

_Tiho_, silent, is a curious prefix. Tihomil, Silent love, and Tihomir,

Silent peace, are clear enough; but Tihoslav, Silent glory, is a

puzzling compound, probably only arising from the habit of ending

everything with _slav_.

It is remarkable, however, that there is an entire absence of the names

of complexion so common among the Kelts and Romans.

CONCLUSION.

MODERN NOMENCLATURE.

It still remains to cast a passing glance over the countries of the

European commonwealth, and observe the various classes of names that

have prevailed in them. It is only possible to do this, with my present

information, very broadly and generally. In fact, every province has its

own peculiar nomenclature; and the more remote the place the more

characteristic the names, and, therefore, the most curious are the least

accessible. It is the tendency of diffused civilization to diminish

variations, and up to a certain point, at least, to assimilate all to

one model, and this process for many years affected the educated and

aristocratic community, although latterly a desire for distinctiveness

and pride in the individual peculiarities of race and family, have

arisen; but, on the other hand, the class below, which used to be full

of individualities, has now reached the imitative stage, and is rapidly

laying aside all national and provincial characteristics, The European

nobility, except where some old family name has been preserved as an

heirloom, thus cease, about the sixteenth century, to bear national

names; but all are on one level of John, Henry, Frederick, Charles,

Louisa, &c., while the native names come to light among citizens and

peasants; but now, while the gentleman looks back for the most

distinctive name in his remote ancestry, and proudly bestows it on his

child, the mechanic or labourer shrinks from the remark and

misunderstanding that have followed his old traditional baptismal name,

and calls his son by the least remarkable one he can find, or by one

culled from literature. These remarks apply chiefly to England, but

also, in great measure, to the town population of France, and to all

other places which are much affected by the universal fusion of national

ideas and general intercourse of the present day.

SECTION I.—_Greece._

Modern Greece has the most direct inheritance from the ancient,

classical, and old Christian names. True, her population has undergone

changes which leave but little of the proud old Ionian or Dorian blood;

but her language has been victorious over the barbarous speech of her

conquerors, and Latins and Bulgarians became Greek beneath her

influence.

The inhabitants of her peninsulas and islands are, then, with few

exceptions, called by Greek names. The exceptions are, in the first

place, in favour of the Hebrew names that are in universal use, not only

the never-failing Joannes and Maria, but Isaakos, David, Elias, and

others, for whom the Greek Church has inculcated more constant

veneration than has the Latin. Next there are the few Latin names that

were accepted by the Greeks during the existence of the Byzantine

empire, and either through martyrs or by favourite sovereigns,

recommended themselves to the love of posterity; but these are few in

number, and Konstantinos is the only distinguished one. And, lastly, an

extremely small proportion have been picked up by intercourse with the

Western nations, but without taking root.

The mass of Greek names belongs to the class that I have called ‘Greek

Christian,’ being those that were chiefly current in the years of

persecution and martyrdom—some old hereditary ones from ancient time,

others coined with the stamp of the Faith. These, with others expressive

of favourite ideas, such as Macharios, Blessed, Sophia, Wisdom, Zoe,

Life, were the staple of the Greeks until the modern revival brought

forward the old heroic and historical names; and Achilles, Alkibiades,

Themistokles, &c., are again in familiar use.

In a list of names used at the present day in the Ionian Islands, I find

seventeen men and four women of the old historical and heroic class; the

four ladies being Kalliope, Arethusa, Euphrosyne, and Aspasia; and,

perhaps, Psyche and Olympias ought to be added to these: twenty-three

male and nineteen female of the Christian Greek class: two Hebrew, _i.

e._ Joannes and Jakobos, of men; three of women, Maria, Anna, and

Martha. Paulos and Konstantinos, and perhaps Maura, alone represent the

Latin, and Artorioos the Kelt, probably borrowed from some Englishman.

Surnames are inherited from the Latin nomina, and began earlier in

Constantinople than anywhere else. They are divided between the

patronymic, ending, as of old, in _ides_, the local, and the permanent

nickname.

SECTION II.—_Russia._

The European portion of the vast empire of Russia is nationally

Slavonic, but much mixed with Tatar; and the high nobility is descended,

at least according to tradition, from the Norsemen. The royal line is,

through intermarriages, almost Germanized. The Church continues the

faith, practice, and ritual of the Greek Church, but in the old Slavonic

tongue, from which the spoken language has much deviated.

The Greek element greatly predominates in the nomenclature: native

saints have contributed a few Slavonic specimens, and a very few

inherited from the Norsemen occur; but the race of Rurik seem very

quickly to have adopted Russian names. The Tatar population hardly

contributes a Christian name to history, and the Germans almost always,

on their marriage with the Russian imperial family, assumed native, _i.

e._ Greek or Roman-Greek, names. The present fashions in nomenclature

are, however, best explained in the following letter from an English

lady residing in Russia:—

'Children (and grown-up persons in their own family) are, I may say,

universally called by their diminutives. In society the Christian name

and patronymic are made use of, and you seldom hear a person _addressed_

by his family name, though he may be spoken of in the third person as

“Romanoff,” or “Romanova” (surnames take the gender and number of their

bearers), except by his superiors, such as a general to his young

officers, &c.

'The patronymic is formed by the addition of _vitch_, or _evitch_, to

the Christian name of a person’s father; as Constantine Petrovitch,

Alexander Andréevitch, in the masculine; and of _ovna_, or _evna_, in

the feminine, Olga Petrovna, Elizavetta Andréovna.

'I would call your attention to the error that is generally made in the

newspapers, where these patronymics are spelt with a _W_, whereas they

really are spelt and pronounced with a _V_.

'The diminutives can always be traced to the root, being derived from

the first, or the accented syllable, of the full name, with the

termination of a little fond syllable, _sha_, _ia_, _inka_, _otchka_,

_oushka_; for instance, Mária, Másha, Mashinka—Olga, Olinka, Olitchka:

Ian, John, Vanoushka, Vanka—Alexandre, Alexandra, Sasha, Sashinka. Not

in one diminutive are there such glaring differences of spelling and

sound, as Dick for Richard, Polly for Mary, Patty for Martha.

'Perhaps it is not superfluous to mention, that there are diminutives of

reproach as well as of affection; if you scold Olga, she becomes Olka;

Ivan, Vanka; and so on. This form, however, is seldom made use of by

well-educated people, except in fun; though there are some who do not

hesitate to make free use of it in their kitchens and nurseries, in a

private sort of a manner. Among the lower orders, and especially in the

country, it is not considered reproachful, but is the general form of

appellation. You observe, that this is formed by the addition of _ka_ to

the principal syllable.

'I find, on attentive search in the “_Monument of Faith_,” a sort of

devotional book of prayer and meditations applied to every day of the

year, and with the names and a short-biography of each saint, that there

are 822 men’s names and 204 women’s in the Russian calendar. Of these,

you will be surprised to hear twelve only are really Slavonic.

Unfortunately I am unable to inform you of their meanings,

notwithstanding every inquiry among the few educated inhabitants of this

little out-of-the-way town; but if ever I have an opportunity of seeing

a real “Sclavonophile,” as searchers into Russian antiquities are

called, I will not fail to ask about it. The names are as follows:—

‘1 Boris (_m._), grand duke; murdered in 1015.

‘2 Gleb (_m._), brother to Boris; murdered in 1016.

‘3 Vetcheslav (_m._), Duke Chetsky.

‘4 Vladimir (_m._), grand duke; baptized in 988 (1st Christian grand

duke).

‘5 Vsévolod (_m._), duke; he changed his name to Gabriel when

baptized; died in 1138.

‘6 Igor (_m._), grand duke of Tchernigoff, 1147. (Norse.)

‘7 Razóomnik (_m._); this name is taken from _rázoom_, which means

sense, wisdom, and signifies a wise, sensible person.

‘8 Olga (_f._), grand duchess, god-mother to Vladimir. She was the

first Christian duchess. (Norse.)

‘9 Ludmilla (_f._), god-mother to Vsevold, and martyred in the cause

of Christianity.

‘10 Véra (_f._), means faith.

‘11 Nadéjda (_f._), hope.

‘12 Lubov, charity, love.

‘All the other names are of Greek, Latin, or Hebrew origin (with a very

few exceptions, of which I will speak afterwards), and though they

generally differ in termination, yet they are to be recognized

instantly. I observe that in Greek names _K_ is used, and not the sound

of _S_, as in Kiril, Kiprian (Cyril, Cyprian). Also that _Th_ takes the

sound of _F_, as Féodore, Fomá (Theodore, Thomas). But the _Th_ is

represented by a letter distinct from that by which _Ph_ or _F_ are

represented, the former being written Θ and the latter Ø, but both have

exactly the same sound. _U_ sometimes becomes _V_ when used in the

middle of names, as Evgenia (Eugenia), Evstafi (Eustace). _B_ in many

instances becomes _V_, as in Vasili (Basil), Varvara (Barbara),

Varfolomey (Bartholomew).

‘The names of other origin are very few, viz.:—

'Avenir—Indian;

Arisa—Arabian;

Daria—Persian;

Sadof—Persian;

Erminigeld—Gothic.

‘German names, I may say, are not to be found in the Russo-Greek

calendar.

‘When I say that there are 1026 Christian names in the calendar, I must

explain that the number of saints is infinitely greater; there being

from two or three to twenty or thirty every day of the year, the 29th of

February included. There are sixty-one St. John’s days, thirty St.

Peter’s, twenty-seven St. Féodor’s, twenty-four St. Alexandre’s,

eighteen St. Gregory’s, sixteen St. Vasili’s, twelve St. André’s, ten

St. Constantine’s, &c.

‘Sometimes the same saint is fêted two or three times in the year, but

the different saints of the same name are very many. The female saints

are in less number. Maria and Anna each occur ten times in the year,

Euphrosinia six times, Féodora eight, and so on. In proportion to the

number of saints so are the names of the population; so that Ivan is the

most common; next, I think, comes Vasili, André, Pëtre, Nicolas

(Nikolâï), Alexandre.

‘The lower orders have no idea of dates; they always reckon by the

saints’ days. Ask a woman the age of her baby, she will say, “Well, I

suppose it is about thirty weeks old.” “What is its name?” “Ivan.”

“Which Ivan?” you ask, your calculations being defeated by the sixty-one

St. Johns. “Why, the Ivan that ‘lives’ four days after dirty Prascóvia.”

You then understand that the child must have been born about the 10th or

12th October, as the blessed saint is irreverently called “dirty

Prascóvia” from falling on the 14th October, a very muddy time of the

year in holy Russia.

‘One name only can be given at baptism, and it must be taken from the

orthodox calendar. German, French, and English names not to be found

there cannot be bestowed, nor can a surname, as in England.’

SECTION III.—_Italy._

Italy, like Greece, has her classical inheritance. Her Lucio, Marco,

Tito, Giulio, bear appellations borne by their Oscan or Sabine

forefathers, even before Rome was a city; but mingled with this ancient

stream there have been such an infinite number of other currents, that

no land has undergone more influences, or has a more remarkable variety

of personal names.

In the decay of the Roman Empire, and the growth of the Church, the old

prænomina were a good deal set aside, by the heathen in his search for

heroic-sounding titles, by the Christian in his veneration for the

martyrs and saints of his Church. So the prosaic matter-of-fact

three-storied name of the Roman was varied by importations, generally of

Christian Greek, but now and then of heroic Greek; and as the Christian

element predominated, the Hebrew apostle or prophet suggested the name

of the young Roman. Barbarians, acquiring rights of citizenship, ceased

to adopt the nomen of their patron, retaining appellations that a Scipio

or Cato would have thought only fit to be led in a triumph, but still

putting on a Latin finish and regarding them as Roman. But

these—disgraceful as they are now regarded—were the days that stamped

the Roman impress on the world, and marked the whole South of Europe

with an indelible. print of Latin civilization and language.

Goths, Vandals, Gepidæ, and Lombards came on northern Italy one after

the other; and the Lombards established a permanent kingdom that deeply

influenced the north of the peninsula and Teutonized its nobility. The

towns were less open to their influence; and Venice remained the Roman

and partly Byzantine city she was from her source—using a language where

her _g_ is still the Greek ζ, and christening her children by the names

of later Rome in its Christian days, only with the predominance of the

national saint, Marco, the guardian of the city ever since his bones

were stolen from Alexandria. The recurring _ano_, or _ani_, of Venetian

surnames is the adoptive _anus_ of Rome—republican Rome—whose truest

representative the merchant city was till her shameful degradation and

final ruin.

The Italian element in the population of Cisalpine Gaul continued far

too strong for the Lombardic conquerors, and ere long had taught them

its own language. If they wrote, it was in their best approach to

classical Latin; when they spoke, it was in the dialectic Latin of the

provinces farther broken by the inability of the victors to learn the

case terminations, which were settled by making, in the first

declensions, all the singular masculines end in _o_, and plurals in _i_,

all the feminines in _a_ and _e_; in the others, striking a balance and

calling all _ite_. But though the speech was Latin, the Lombard kept his

old Teutonic name—Adelgiso, Astolfo, or the like, and handed it on to

his son, softened, indeed, but with its northern form clearly traceable.

Time went on, and the Lombardic kingdom was fused into the Holy Roman

Empire. The towns remained self-governing, self-protecting old Roman

municipalities; the Lombardic nobles, if they had a strong mountain

fastness, lived like eagles in their nests and were the terror of all;

if they had but a small home on the plains, were forced to make terms

with the citizens and accept their privileges as a favour. Thus came the

Teuton element into the cities, and old Lombardic names were borne by

Florentine and Milanese citizens. The Roman nomina so far were preserved

that a whole family would be called after its founder, whether by his

name or nickname. The noted man might be originally Giacopo, but called

Lapo for short. His children were, collectively, Lapi; a single one

would be either Bindo Lapo, or, latterly, _dei Lapi_, one of the Lapi.

Sometimes office gave a surname, as Cancelliero, when the family became

Cancellieri. One of these Cancellieri was twice married; and one of the

wives being yclept Bianca, her children were called Bianchi; their

half-brothers Neri, merely as the reverse; and thence arose the two

famous party words of the Guelfs of Florence. Latterly, when these names

in _i_ were recognized as surnames, it was usual to christen a boy by

the singular, and thus we have Pellegrino Pellegrini, Cavaliere

Cavalieri, and many other like instances, familiar to the readers of

Dante and of old Italian history. Dante’s own names—the first contracted

from a Latin participle, the second the direct patronymic from his

father—Alighiero, the Teutonic noble spear, form a fit instance of the

mixed tongue, which he first reduced to the dignity of a written

language. Those were its days of vigour and originality; of fresh

name-coining from its own resources,—Gemma, Fiamma, Brancaleone,

Vinciguerra, Cacciaguido—words not merely of commonplace tradition, but

original invention.

Meantime southern Italy had been under other influences. Long remaining

a province of the Eastern empire, Calabria, Apulia, and Sicily were the

marauding ground of the Saracens, till the gallant Norman race of

Hauteville came to their deliverance, and imposed on them a

Norman-French royalty and nobility, with their strange compound of

French and Northern names—Robert and Roger, Tancred and William,

Ferabras and Drogo, the latter certainly Frank, as it belonged to an

illegitimate son of Charlemagne. It was brought to England by Dru de

Baladon, a follower of the Conqueror; and we find it again in Sir Drew

Drury, the keeper of Mary of Scotland. It may be related to the

Anglo-Saxon _dry_, a sorcerer, and _dreist_, the German skilful, but its

derivation is uncertain.

When the Norman influence waned, the Swabian power gave a few German

names to the Two Sicilies, but was less influential than either the

French in Naples or the Aragonese in Sicily, where the one strewed

Carlo, the other Fernando and Alfonso.

All this time the Christian name was the prominent one, more used and

esteemed than titles throughout all ranks. Men and women would be simply

spoken of as Giovanni or Beatrice, or more often, by contractions, Vanni

or Bice, Massuccio, or Cecca, now and then with Ser or Monna (signor or

madonna) added as titles of respect.

All the time, what may be called the Roman Catholic influence on

nomenclature was growing in its great centre. The city of martyrs was

filled with churches where the remains of the saint gave the title, and

was thought to give the sanctity, and these suggested names to natives

and pilgrims alike. Cecilia, Sebastiano, Lucia, &c., and more than can

be enumerated, won their popularity from owning a church that served as

a station in the pilgrimages, and thus influenced the world. Relics

brought to Rome, and then bestowed as a gift upon princes, carried their

saints' epithets far and wide; and when Constantinople was in her decay,

and purchased the aid of Western sovereigns by gifts of her sacred

stores, the Greek and Eastern saints had their names widely diffused, as

Anna, Adriano, &c. Moreover, the feasts of different events in the life

of the Blessed Virgin Mary began to tell on Italian names, and

Annunciata, and later, Assunta, were the produce.

Francesco is the most universal name of native Italian fabrication. It

is one of what may be called the names spread by religious orders, all

of which originate in Italy; Benedetto, oldest of all and universal in

Romanist lands; Augustino, never very popular; Domenico, not uncommon in

Italy, but most used in gloomy Spain; Francesco and Clara, both really

universal in Protestant as well as Roman Catholic lands.

The revival of classical literature, produced partly by the influx of

Greek scholars after the fall of Constantinople, partly by the vigour of

Boccaccio and Petrarch, brought a classical influence to bear on Italy,

of which her names are more redolent than those elsewhere. Emilia,

Virgilio, Olimpia, Ercole, Fabrizio, all arose and flourished in Italy,

and have never since been dropped, though the Romanist influence has

gone on growing, and others have affected parts of the country.

Romance had some influence—Orlando, Oliviero, Rinaldo, Ruggiero—and the

more remote Lancilotto, Ginevra, Isolda, Tristano, all became popular

through literature; and the great manufacture of Italian novels, no

doubt, tended to keep others in vogue.

The French and German wars in Italy, the erection of the Lombardic

republics into little tyrannical duchies, and the Spanish conquest of

Naples, all tended to destroy much of the individuality of Italian

nomenclature, and reduce that of the historical characters to the

general European level. And this tendency has increased rather than

diminished, as Spain devoured the North, and ‘balance of power’

struggled for Austrian interests, and established Bourbon kingdoms and

duchies. The old national names were not utterly discarded; there was

still a Lombardic flavour in the North, a classical one in the old

cities, a Norman one in Sicily; but the favourite commonplace names

predominated in the noblesse, and titles began to conceal them.

Moreover, the women were all Maria, and many of the men likewise; and

the same rule at present holds good, though of late the favourites have

become Filomena and Concetta—in honour, the one of the new saint, the

other of the new dogma of Rome.

The House of Savoy, which is just now the hope of Italy, always had its

own peculiar class of names—Humbert, Amé, Filiberto, Emanuele, Vittore,

and these are likely to become the most popular in liberal Italy.

SECTION IV.—_Spain._

Spain has many peculiarities of her own, to which I would fain do

greater justice than is in my power. Celtiberian at first, she seems to

have become entirely Latin, except in those perplexing Basque provinces,

where the language remains a riddle to philologists. One Spanish name is

claimed by Zamacola as Basque, _i. e._ Muño, with its feminine Muña, or

Munila; and for want of a more satisfactory history, one is inclined to

suppose that Gaston, or Gastone, must be likewise Basque. It first comes

to light as Gascon among the counts of Foix and Béarn, from whom the son

of Henri IV. derived it, and made it French.

Rome Latinized the Spanish speech for ever, and left many an old Latin

name, which, however, went on chiefly among the lower orders, while the

Suevi and the Goths ruled as nobles and kings, bringing with them their

Teutonic names, to be softened down to the dignified Romance tongue,

which took the Latin accusative for its stately plurals in _os_ and

_es_. It is likely that the Latin element was working upwards at the

time of the Mahometan conquest, since the traitor Julian, his daughter

Florinda, the first patriot king, Pelayo, all have classically derived

names; and some of these occur in the early royal pedigrees of the

Asturias and Navarre, and the lords of Biscay, as these small mountain

territories proclaimed their freedom and Christianity. Here we find

Sancho (Sanctus), Eneco (Ignatius), Lope, Manse, Fortunio, Adoncia,

Teresa, Felicia, all undoubtedly Latin and Greek; and curiously, too,

here are the first instances of double Christian names, probably the

remnant of the Latin style. Eneco Aristo, Inigo Sancho, Garcias Sancho,

and the like, are frequent before the year 1000; and the Cid’s enemy,

Lain Calvo, is supposed to be Flavius Calvus. The Goths, however, left a

far stronger impression on the nomenclature than on the language.

Alfonso, Fernando, Rodrigo, Berengario, Fruela, Ramiro, Ermesinda, are

undoubtedly theirs; but other very early names continue extremely

doubtful, such as Ximen and Ximena, Urraca, Elvira, or Gelvira, Alvaro,

Bermudo, Ordoño, Velasquita, all appearing in the earliest days of the

little Christian kingdoms, though not in the palmy times of the Gothic

monarchy. These names have been already mentioned, with the derivations

to which they may possibly belong; but they are far from being

satisfactorily accounted for. The simple patronymic _ez_ was in constant

use, and formed many surnames.

As the five kingdoms expanded and came into greater intercourse with

Europe, the more remarkable names gradually were discarded; but Alfonso,

Fernando, Rodrigo, Alvar, Gonzalo, were still national, and the two

first constantly royal, till the House of Trastamare brought Enrique and

Juan into fashion in Castille. The favourite saint was James the Great,

or, more truly, Santiago de Compostella, in honour of whom Diego and his

son Diaz are to be found in very early times. Maria, too, seems to have

been in use in Spain sooner than elsewhere, and Pedro was in high favour

in the fourteenth century, as it has continued ever since.

Aragon and Portugal had variations from the Castillian standard of

language; and Portugal now claims to have a distinct tongue, chiefly

distinguished by the absence of the Moorish guttural; and in

nomenclature, by the close adherence to classic spelling, and by the

terminations which would in Spanish be in _on_, or _un_, being in _aŏ_,

the contraction of _nho_. Aragonese has been absorbed in Castillian, and

Catalan is only considered as a dialect.

After Aragon and Castille had become united, and, crushing the Moors and

devouring Navarre, were a grand European power, their sovereigns lost

all their nationality. French, or rather Flemish, Charles, and Greek

Philip, translated as Carlo and Felipe, reigned on their throne as the

House of Austria, while the native Fernando went off to be the German

Ferdinand. Isabel, the Spanish version of either Jezebel, or Elizabeth,

did retain her popularity, but hardly in equal measure with the

universal Maria; and as the Inquisition Romanized the national mind more

and more, the attribute names of Mercedes and Dolores, and even the

idolatrous Pilar, and Guadalupe, from a famous shrine, were invented.

These were given in conjunction with Maria, and used for convenience'

sake. Literary names seem to have been few or none, and the saint, or

rather the Romanist, nomenclature, was more unmitigated in Spain and her

great western colonies than anywhere else; even in Italy, where the

classics and romance always exerted their power. In the Spanish

colonies, even divine names are used, without an idea of profanity.

The use of the Christian name in speech has, however, never been

dropped, even under the French influence of the Bourbon monarchy; and

Don Martin, Doña Luisa, &c., would still be the proper title of every

Spanish gentleman or lady.

The Spanish names that have spread most extensively have been Fernando

in Germany, Iñigo and Teresa throughout all Roman Catholic countries,

for the sake of the two Spanish saints who revived their old

half-forgotten sound.

SECTION V.—_France._

France, the most influential of European countries for evil or for good,

can hardly be properly spoken of as _one_, in nation or language. Yet

that one dialect of hers that has contrived to be the most universal

tongue of Europe, that character, which by its vivacity and earnestness,

and, perhaps, above all, by its hard, rigid consistency, has impressed

its ideas on all other nations, and too often dragged them in its wake,

though both only belonging to a fraction of the population, are still,

in general estimation, _the_ French, and their importance undeniable.

Dislike, despise, struggle as we will, we are still influenced, through

imitation and vanity, and the deference of the weaker majority, in

matters of conventional taste.

Old Gaul had its brave Keltic inhabitants, and its race in Brittany,

unsubdued by even Rome, were only united to the rest of the country by

the marriage of their heiress, only subdued by gradual legalized

tampering with their privileges. Even in the Keltic province, however,

genuine Keltic names are nearly gone; though Hervé, Guennolé, Yvain,

Arzur, are still found in their catalogues; and in France, Généviève, by

her protection of Paris, left her ancient name for perpetual honour and

imitation.

The Roman overflow came early and lasted long; it left a language and

manners strongly impressed, and the names seem to have been according to

Latin forms and rules. Dionysius, Pothinus, Martinus, Hilarius, are all

found among the Gauls in the end of the Roman sway; and when the Franks

had burst over the country and held the north of the Loire, whenever a

Gaul comes to the surface, he is called by a Roman name—Gregorius,

Sidonius Apollinaris, Germanus, Eligius.

Southern Gaul was, indeed, never Frank. The cities were Roman

municipalities, shut their gates, and took what care of themselves they

could; while the Hlodvehs and Meervehs, the Hilperics, and Hildeberts

ravaged over the stony country, which still called itself Provincia. And

there, though Burgundians on the east, and Goths from the Pyrenees,

gradually contrived to erect little dukedoms and counties, and hold them

under the empire established by Charlemagne, the country was still

peopled by the Romanized Gaul, and the _Langue d’oc_ was spoken and

sung. This was the centre of the softened classic names, Yolande and

Constance, Alienor and Delphine, while the legends of St. Marthe and of

the Martyrs of Lyons supplied provincial saints. The rich literature,

chiefly of amatory songs, died away, and the current remains of the

language are now unwritten, falling further and further into patois, and

varying more from one another. One of its curious peculiarities is to

make _o_ a feminine termination; Dido is there short for Marguerite,

Zino for Theresine, &c.

A great number of French surnames are still Roman, such as Chauvin

(Calvinus), Godon (Claudius), Marat, Salvin, and many more, showing that

Latin nomenclature must long have been prevalent among the mass of the

people, though as history is only concerned with the court, we hear

chiefly of the Franks around the unsteady thrones of Neustria and

Austrasia. The High German of these kingdoms, as used by the Meerwings,

was extremely harsh; Hlodveh and Hlodhild, Hlother and Hlodvald, were

their rough legacies; but, despised as was the name and cheap the blood

of the Roman among them, his civilization was conquering his victors;

and when the Karlings, with their middle class cultivation, subdued the

effete line of Meerveh, they spoke Latin as freely as Frankish, and the

names they bore had softened; Ludovicus and Lotharius, Carolus and Emma

in Latin, or in German, Ludwe and Lothar, Karl and Emme. And now, among

the many saints that were fostered by the religious government and

missionary spirit of Frankland, arose the founders of the chief stock

names of Europe—Robert, Richard, Henry, Williaume, Walther, Bernard,

Bertram, Eberhard, and the like.

When, in the next generation, Germany, Lorraine, and France fell apart,

the latter country was beginning to speak the _Langue d’oui_, retaining

the Latin spelling, but disregarding it in speech, as though the scholar

had written correctly, but the speaker had disregarded the declension,

and dropped the case endings alike of Latin and Teutonic. And so Karl

was Charles, and Lodwe Louis, long before the counts of Paris, with

their assimilation of the Cymric Hu to the Teuton Hugur, had thrust the

Karlings down into Lorraine, and commenced the true French dynasty in

their small territory between the Seine and Loire.

Already had the Northmen settled themselves in Neustria, and, taking the

broken Frank names and mangled Latin speech for badges of civilization

and Christianity, had made them their own, and infused such vigour into

the French people, that from that moment their national character and

literature begin to develop.

Then it was that France exercised a genuine and honourable leadership of

Europe. Her language being the briefest form of Latin, was, perhaps, the

most readily understood of the broken Romance dialects; and though Rome

had the headship of the Church, and Germany the nominal empire of the

West, France had the moral chieftainship.

The Pope did but sanction the Crusades; it was France that planned them.

Frenchmen were the connecting link between the Lorrainer Godfrey, the

Norman Robert, the Sicilian Tancred, the Provençal Raymond, the Flemish

Baldwin. The kingdom of Jerusalem, though founded by the Lorrainer, was

essentially French; the religious orders of knighthood were chiefly

French; the whole idea and language of chivalry were French; and perhaps

rightly, for France has at times shown that rare and noble spirit that

can exalt a man for his personal qualities, instead of his rank, even in

his own lifetime. The nation that could appreciate its St. Bernard, its

Du Guesclin, its Bayard, deserved, while that temper was in it, to be a

leader of the civilized world.

England was in these earlier days regarded as a foreign and

semi-barbarous realm held by a French duke or count, while southern

France was divided into independent fiefs of the empire. The names began

to be affected by reverence for saints, and fast included more and more

of the specially popular patrons, such as Jean, Jaques, Simon, Philippe.

They became common to all the lands that felt the central crusading

impulse, and the daughters of French princes, Alix, Matilde, the

Provençal Constance, Alienor, Isabel, Marguérite, were married into all

parts of Europe, and introduced their names into their new countries,

often backed up by legends of their patrons.

Normandy lapsed to France through King John’s crime and weakness, and

the persecution of the Albigenses, and the narrower views of the popes,

changed the Crusades to a mere conquest of the _Langue d’oc_ by the

_Langue d’oui_, completed by the marriages of the brothers of St. Louis;

and though Provence continued a fief of the empire, and the property of

the Angevin kings of Naples, yet their French royal blood united it more

closely to the central kingdom, and the transplanting of the papal court

to Avignon, gave a French tinge to the cardinalate which it only

recovered from at the expense of the Great Schism.

Philippe le Bel was the last able sovereign of France of the vigorous

early middle ages; but the brilliant character of the nobility still

carried men’s minds captive, and influenced the English even through the

century of deadly wars that followed the accession of the House of

Valois, and ended by leaving Louis XI. king of the entire French soil.

The ensuing century was that when the influence of France on other

nations was at the lowest ebb. Exhausting herself first by attacks on

Italy, and then by her savage civil wars, she required all the ability

of Henri IV. and of Richelieu to rouse her from her depression, and make

her be respected among the nations. Meantime, her nomenclature had

varied little from the original set of names in use in the tenth

century; dropping a few obsolete ones, taking up a few saintly ones,

recommended by fresh relics, and occasionally choosing a romantic one,

but very scantily; François was her only notable adoption. The habit of

making feminines to male names seems to have spread in France about the

eighteenth century, rather narrowing than widening the choice. Jeanne

seems to have been the first to undergo this treatment; Philippine was

not long after, then Jacqueline, and, indeed, it may have been the

habit—as it is still among the peasantry of the South—always to give the

father’s name to the eldest child, putting a feminine to it for a girl.

With the cinque-cento came a few names of literature, of which Diane was

the most permanent; and the Huguenots made extensive use of Scripture

names—Isaac, Gédéon, Benjamin, and many more; but the Christian name was

quickly falling out of fashion. People were, of course, christened, but

it is often difficult to discover their names. The old habit of

addressing the knight as Sire Jehan, or Sire Pierre, and speaking of him

as _le Beau Sieur_, had been entirely dropped. Even his surname was

often out of sight, and he was called after some estate—as le Sieur

Pierre Terrail was to the whole world Chevalier Bayard. Nay, even in the

signature, the Christian name was omitted, unless from some very urgent

need of distinction. Henri de Lorraine, eldest son of the duke of Guise,

signs himself Le Guisard in a letter to the Dauphin Henri, son of

François I. Married ladies wrote themselves by their maiden joined to

their married title, and scarcely were even little children in the

higher orders called by one of the many names that it had become the

custom to bestow on them, in hopes of conciliating as many saints and as

many sponsors as possible,—sometimes a whole city, as when the

Fronde-born son of Madame de Longueville had all Paris for his

godmother, and was baptized Charles Paris.

Now and then, however, literature, chiefly that of the ponderous

romances of the Scudéry school, influenced a name, as Athenaïs or

Sylvie; but, in general, these magnificent appellations were more used

as sobriquets under which to draw up characters of acquaintances than

really given to children. Esther is, however, said to have been much

promoted by the tragedy of Racine.

The Bourbons, with their many faults, have had two true kings of men

among them—Henri IV. and Louis XIV.—men with greatness enough to stamp

the Bourbon defects where their greatness left no likeness.

There is something very significant in the fact, that these were the

days when it was fashionable to forget the simple baptismal name. There

was little distinction in it, if it had been remembered; Louis or Marie

always formed part of it, with half-a-dozen others besides. As to the

populace, nobody knows anything of them under Louis XIV.: they were

ground down to nothing.

The lower depth, under Louis XV., brought a reaction of simplicity; but

it was the simplicity of casting off all trammels—the classicalism of

the Encyclopædists. Christian names are mentioned again, and were chosen

much for literary association. Emile and Julie, for the sake of

Rousseau; and, from Roman history, Jules and Camille, and many another,

clipped down to that shortened form by which France always appropriated

the words of other nations, and often taught us the same practice.

The Revolution stripped every one down to their genuine two names, and

woe to the owners of those which bore an aristocratic sound, or even

meaning. Thenceforth French nomenclature, among the educated classes and

those whom they influence, has been pretty much a matter of taste.

Devotion, where it exists, is satisfied by the insertion of Marie, and

anything that happens to be in vogue is added to it. Josephine

flourished much in the first Bonaparté days; but Napoléon was too

imperial, too peculiar, to be given without special warrant from its

owner; nor are politically-given names numerous: there are more taken

from popular novels or dramas, or merely from their sound. Zephyrine,

Coralie, Zaidée, Zénobie, Malvine, Séraphine, prevail not only among the

ladies, but among the maid-servants of Paris; and men have, latterly,

been fancifully named by appellations brought in from other countries,

never native to France—Gustave, Alfred, Ernest, Oswald, &c. Moreover,

the tendency to denude words of their final syllable is being given up.

The names in _us_ and in _a_ are let alone, in spelling, at least; and

some of our feminine English contractions, such as Fanny, have been

absolutely admitted.

All this, however, very little affects the peasantry, or the provinces.

Patron saints and hereditary family names, contracted to the utmost, are

still used there; and a rich harvest might be gathered by comparison of

the forms in Keltic, Latin, Gascon, or German, in France.

SECTION VI.—_Great Britain._

The waning space demands brevity; otherwise, the appellations of our own

countrymen and women are a study in themselves; but they must here be

treated of in general terms, rather than in detail.

The Keltic inhabitants of the two islands bore names that their

descendants have, in many instances, never ceased to bear and to

cherish. The Gael of Ireland and Scotland have always had their Niel and

Brighd, their Fergus and Angus; Aodh, Ardh, and Bryan, Eachan, Conan,

the most ancient of all traditional names, continuing without interval

on the same soil, excepting a few of the more favoured Greek and old

Italian.

The Cymry, in their western mountains, have a few equally permanent.

Caradoc, Bronwen, Arianwen, Llud, and the many forms of Gwen, are

extremely ancient, and have never dropped into disuse. In both branches

of the race there was a large mass of poetical and heroic myth to endear

these appellations to the people; and it is one of the peculiar features

of our islands to be more susceptible than any other nation to these

influences on nomenclature. Is it from the under-current of the

imaginative Kelt that this tendency has been derived?

Rome held England for four hundred years; and though Welsh survived her

grasp and retained its Keltic character, instead of becoming a Romance

tongue, it was considerably imbued with Latin phraseology; and the

assumption of Latin names by the British princes, with the assimilation

of their own, has left a peculiar class of Welsh classic names not to be

paralleled elsewhere, except, perhaps, in Wallachia. Cystenian, Elin,

Emrys, Iolo, Aneurin, Ermin, Gruffydd, Kay, are of these; and there are

many more, such as March, Tristrem, Einiawn, Geraint, which lie in doubt

between the classic and the Cymric, and are, probably, originally the

latter, but assimilated to those of their Latin models and masters. It

was these Romanized Kelts who supplied the few martyrs and many saints

of Britain; whose Albanus, Aaron, and Julius left their foreign names to

British love, and whose Patricius founded the glorious missionary Church

of Ireland, and made his name the national one. His pupils, Brighde and

Columba, made theirs almost equally venerated, though none of these

saintly titles were, at first, adopted in the Gadhaelic Churches without

the reverent prefix _Gille_, or _Mael_, which are compounded with all

the favourite saintly names of the Keltic calendar.

Again, the semi-Roman Kelts were the origin of the Knights of the Round

Table. Arthur’s own name, though thorough Keltic, is claimed by Greek.

Lancelot is probably a French version of the Latin translation of

Maelgwn; and the traces of Latin are here and there visible in the

nomenclature of the brave men who, no doubt, aimed rather at being Roman

citizens than mediæval knights.

The great Low German influx made our island English, and brought our

veritable national names. An immense variety existed among the

Anglo-Saxons, consisting of different combinations, generally with some

favourite prefix, in each family—_Sige_, _Æthel_, _Ead_, _Hilde_,

_Cuth_, _Ælf_, and the terminations, generally, _beorht_, _red_, _volf_,

_veald_, _frith_, or, for women, _thrythe_, _hilde_, _gifu_, or _burh_.

The like were in use in the Low German settlements on the Continent,

especially in Holland and Friesland.

Christianity, slowly spreading through the agency of the Roman Church on

the one hand and the Keltic on the other, did not set aside the old

names. It set its seal of sanctity on a few which have become our

genuine national and native ones. Eadward, Eadmund, Eadwine, Wilfrith,

Æadgifu, Æthelthryth, Mildthryth, Osveald, and Osmund, have been the

most enduring of these; and Æthelbyrht we sent out to Germany, to come

back to us as Albert.

The remains of the Danish invasions are traceable rather in surnames

than Christian names. The permanent ones left by them were chiefly in

insular Scotland and Ireland. Torquil, Somerled, Ivor, Ronald, Halbert,

are Scottish relics of the invaders; and in Ireland, Amlaidh, Redmond,

Ulick.

But it was the Normans, Norsemen in a French dress, that brought us the

French rather than Frank names that are most common with us. Among the

thirty kings who have reigned since the Conquest, there have been ten

Christian names, and of these but two are Saxon English, three are

Norman Frank, two French Hebrew, one French Greek, one French, one

Anglicized German Greek. Strictly speaking, Richard is Saxon, and began

with a native English saint; but it was its adoption by Normans that

made it popular after the Conquest; and it came in company with William,

Henry, Robert, Walter, Gilbert, all in perpetual use ever since.

Alberic, Bertram, Baldwin, Randolf, Roger, Herbert, Hubert, Reginald,

Hugh, Norman, Nigel, and many others less universally kept up, came at

the same time; and Adelheid and Mathilda were imported by the ladies;

but, in general, there were more men’s names than women’s then planted,

probably on account of William’s policy of marrying Normans to English

women.

Scripture names were very few. There are only two Johns in Domesday

Book, and one is a Dane; but the saints were beginning to be somewhat

followed; Eustace was predominant; Cecily, Lucy, Agnes, Constance, were

already in use; and in the migration, Brittany contributed Tiffany, in

honour of the Epiphany. At the same time she sent us her native Alan,

Brian, and Aveline; and vernacular French gave Aimée and afterwards

Algernon.

It was a time of contractions. Between English and French, names were

oddly twisted; Alberic into Aubrey, Randolf into Ralph, Ethelthryth into

Awdry, Eadgifu into Edith, Mathilda into Maude, Adelheid into Alice.

Saint and Scripture names seem to have been promoted by the crusading

impulse, but proceeded slowly. The Angevins brought us the French

Geoffrey and Fulk, and their Provençal marriages bestowed on us the

Provençal version of Helena—Eleanor, as we have learnt to call their

Alienor, in addition to the old Cymric form Elayne. Thence, too, came

Isabel, together with Blanche, Beatrice, and other soft names current in

poetical Provence. Jehan, as it was called when Lackland bore it, and

its feminine Jehanne, seem to have been likewise introductions of our

Aquitanian queen.

The Lowland Scots had been much influenced by the Anglo-Saxons, whose

tongue prevailed throughout the Lothians; and after the fall of Macbeth,

and the marriage of Malcolm Ceanmore, English names were much adopted in

Scotland. Cuthbert has been the most lasting of the old Northumbrian

class. The good Queen Margaret, and her sister Christian, owed their

Greek names, without a doubt, to their foreign birth and Hungarian

mother, and these, with Alexander, Euphemia, and George, forthwith took

root in Scotland, and became national. Probably Margaret likewise

brought the habit, then more eastern than western, of using saintly

names, for her son was David; and from this time seems to have begun the

fashion of using an equivalent for the Keltic name. David itself,

beloved for the sake of the good king, is the equivalent of Dathi, a

name borne by an Irish king before the Scottish migration. David I.,

nearly related to the Empress Maude, and owning the earldom of

Northumbria in right of his wife, was almost an English baron; and the

intercourse with England during his reign and those of his five

successors, made the Lowland nobles almost one with the Northumbrian

barons, and carried sundry Norman names across the border, where they

became more at home than even in England; such as Alan, Walter, Norman,

Nigel, and Robert.

Henry II. was taking advantage of the earl of Pembroke’s expedition to

Ireland, and the English Pale was established, bringing with it to Erin

the favourite Norman names, to be worn by the newly-implanted nobles,

and Iricized gradually with their owners. Cicely became Sheelah;

Margaret, Mairgreg; Edward, Eudbaird; and, on the other hand, the Irish

dressed themselves for civilization by taking English names. Finghin

turned to Florence, and Ruadh to Roderick, &c.

Henry III. had been made something like an Englishman by his father’s

loss of Normandy; and in his veneration for English saints, he called

his sons after the two royal saints most beloved in England, Edward and

Edmund; and the death of the elder children of Edward I. having brought

the latter a second time to the throne, it was thenceforth in honour.

Thomas owed its popularity to Becket, who was so christened from his

birth on the feast of the Apostle, St. Thomas, and, in effect, saintly

names were becoming more and more the fashion. Mary was beginning to be

esteemed as the most honourable one a woman could bear; and legends in

quaint metrical English rendered Agnes, Barbara, Katharine, Margaret,

and Cecily well known and in constant use.

The romances of chivalry began to have their influence. Lionel and

Roland, Tristram, Ysolda, Lancelot, and Guenever, were all the produce

of the revival of the tales of Arthur’s court, arrayed in their feudal

and chivalrous dress, and other romances contributed a few. Diggory is a

highly romantic name, derived from an old metrical tale of a knight,

properly called D'Egaré, the wanderer, or the almost lost, one of the

many versions of the story of the father and unknown son. Esclairmonde

came out of _Huon de Bourdeaux_; Lillias, such a favourite in Scotland,

came out of the tale of Sir Eger, Sir Graham, and Sir Graysteel; Lillian

out of the story of Roswal and Lillian; and Grizel began to flourish

from the time Chaucer made her patience known.

The Scots, by their alliance with France, were led to import French

terminations, such as the diminutives Janet and Annot; also the foreign

Cosmo, and perhaps likewise Esmé.

Meantime we obtained fresh importations from abroad. Anne came with the

Queen of Richard II.; Elizabeth from the German connections of Elizabeth

Woodville’s mother, Jaquetta of Luxemburg; Gertrude was taken from

Germany; Francis and Frances caught from France; and Arthur was revived

for his eldest son by the first Tudor; Jane instead of Joan began, too,

in the Tudor times.

But when the Reformation came, the whole system of nomenclature received

a sudden shock. Patron saints were thrown to the winds; and though many

families adhered to the hereditary habits, others took entirely new

fashions. Then, Camden says, began the fashion of giving surnames as

Christian names; as with Guildford Dudley, Egremont Ratcliffe, Douglas

Sheffield; and in Ireland, Sidney, as a girl’s name, in honour of the

lord deputy, Sir Henry, the father of Sir Philip, from whom, on the

other hand, Sydney became a common English boy’s name.

Then, likewise, the classical taste came forth, and bestowed all manner

of fanciful varieties; Homer, Virgil, Horatius, Lalage, Cassandra,

Diana, Virginia, Julius, &c., &c., all are found from this time forward;

and here and there, owing to some ancestor of high worth, specimens have

been handed on in families.

The more pious betook themselves to abstract qualities; Faith, Hope,

Charity, Prudence and Patience, Modesty, Love, Gift, Temperance, Mercy,

all of which, even to the present day, sometimes are used, but chiefly

by the peasantry, or in old Nonconformist families.

Between the dates 1500 and 1600 began the full employment of Scripture

names, chosen often by opening the Bible at haphazard, and taking the

first name that presented itself, sometimes, however, by juster

admiration of the character. Thus began our use of Abraham and Sarah,

Isaac and Rebecca, Rachel, Joseph, Benjamin, Josiah, Gershom, Gamaliel,

&c.; and others more quaint and peculiar. The Puritan clergy absolutely

objected to giving unedifying names. A minister was cited before

Archbishop Whitgift for refusing to christen a child Richard. The Bible

was ransacked for uncommon names only found in the genealogies, and

parish registers show the strangest varieties, such as Hope still, Dust

and Ashes, Thankful, Repent, Accepted, Hold-the-Truth, &c. These were

chiefly given at the baptisms in the latter days of Elizabeth and the

reign of James I. They were the real, not assumed, names of the

Ironsides, but they were not perpetuated. A man called Fight-against-Sin

would have too much pity for his son to transmit such a name to him.

Original is, however, a family name still handed on in Lincolnshire.

Probably it was at first Original Sin. The most curious varieties of

names were certainly used in the 17th century. The register of the

scholars admitted to Merchant Taylors' school between 1562 and 1699

shows Isebrand, Jasper, Jermyn, Polydore, Cæsar, Olyffe, Erasmus, Esme,

Ursein, Innocent, Praise, Polycarpe, Tryamour, and a Sacheverell,

Filgate, admitted in 1673.

Comparatively few of these Puritan names were used in Scotland; but

several were for sound’s sake adopted in Ireland as equivalents;

Jeremiah for Diarmaid; Timothy for Tadhgh; Grace for Graine.

Charles was first made popular through loyalty to King Charles I., who

had received it in the vain hope that it would be more fortunate than

the hereditary James, itself brought into Scotland seven generations

back by a vow of Annaple Drummond, mother of the first unfortunate

James. English registers very scantily show either Charles or James

before the Stuart days, but they have ever since been extremely popular.

Henrietta, brought by the French queen, speedily became popular, and

with Frances, Lucy, Mary, Anne, Catherine, and Elizabeth, seem to have

been predominant among the ladies; but all were contracted, as Harriet,

Fanny, Molly, Nanny, Kitty, Betty. The French suppression of the

Christian name considerably affected the taste of the Restoration;

noblemen dropped it out of their signature; the knight’s wife discarded

it with the prefix Dame; married daughters and sisters were mentioned by

the surname only; young spinsters foolishly adopted Miss with the

surname instead of Mistress with the Christian; but the loss was not so

universal as in France, for custom still retained the old titles of

knights and of the daughters and younger sons of the higher ranks of the

nobility. The usual fashion was, in imitation of the French, for ladies

to call themselves and be addressed in poetry by some of the Arcadian or

romantic terms, a few of which have crept into nomenclature; Amanda,

Ophelia, Aspasia, Cordelia, Phyllis, Chloe, Sylvia, and the like.

The love of a finish in _a_ was coming in with Queen Anne’s Augustan

age. The soft _e_, affectionate _ie_ or _y_, that had been natural to

our tongues ever since they had been smoothed by Norman-French, was

twisted up into an Italian _ia_: Alice must needs be Alicia; Lettice,

Letitia; Cecily, Cecilia; Olive, Olivia; Lucy, Lucinda; and no heroine

could be deemed worthy of figuring in narrative without a flourish at

the end of her name. Good Queen Anne herself had an _a_ tacked on to

make her ‘Great Anna’; Queen Bess must needs be Great Eliza; and Mary

was erected into Maria; Nassau had lately been invented for William

III.’s godchildren of both sexes; and Anne, after French precedent, made

masculine for his successor’s godsons. Belinda, originally the property

of the wife of Orlando, was chosen by Pope for his heroine of _Rape of

the Lock_; Clarissa was fabricated out of the Italian Clarice by

Richardson; and Pamela was adopted by him out of Sir Philip Sidney’s

_Arcadia_, as a recommendation to the maid-servant whom he made his

heroine; and these, as names of literature, all took a certain hold.

Pamela is still not uncommon among the lower classes.

In the mean time the House of Brunswick had brought in the regnant names

of German taste—George, of which, thanks to our national patron, we had

already made an English word, Frederick, Ernest, Adolphus—a horrible

English Latinism of good old German, Augustus, an adoption of German

classic taste; and, among the ladies, generally clumsy feminines of

essentially masculine names—Caroline, Charlotte, Wilhelmina, Frederica,

Louisa, together with the less incorrectly formed Augusta, Sophia, and

Amelia.

This ornamental taste flourished, among the higher classes, up to the

second decade of the nineteenth century, when the affectations, of which

it was one sample, were on the decline, under the growing influence of

the chivalrous school of Scott, and of the simplicity upheld by

Wordsworth. The fine names began to grow vulgar, and people either

betook themselves to the hereditary ones of their families, or picked

and chose from the literature then in fashion.

Two names, for the sake of our heroes by sea and land, came into

prominence—Horatio and Arthur, the latter transcending the former in

popularity in proportion to the longer career and more varied

excellences of its owner. Womankind had come back to their Ellen, Mary,

and Lucy; and it was not till the archaic influence had gone on much

longer that the present crop sprang up, of Alice and Edith, Gertrude,

Florence, and Constance, copied again and again, in fact and in fiction,

and with them the Herbert and Reginald, Wilfrid and Maurice, formerly

only kept up in a few old families. It is an improvement, but in most

cases at the expense of nothing but imitation, the sound and the fashion

being the only guides. After all, nomenclature cannot be otherwise than

imitative, but the results are most curious and interesting, when it is

either the continuation of old hereditary names, like the Algernon of

the Howards or the Aubrey of the de Veres, or else the record of some

deeply felt event, like the Giustina of Venice, in honour of the battle

of Lepanto, or our own Arthur, in memory of the deeds of our great duke.

Names are often an index to family habits and temper. Unpretending

households go on for generations with the same set, sometimes adopting

one brought in by marriage, but soon dropping it out if it is too fine.

Romantic people reflect the impressions of popular literature in their

children’s names; enthusiastic ones mark popular incidents,—Navarino,

Maida, Alma, have all been inflicted in honour of battles. Another class

always have an assortment of the fashionable type—Augusta, Amelia, and

Matilda, of old; Edith and Kate at present.

Nonconformity leaves its mark in its virtue names and its Scripture

names, the latter sometimes of the wildest kind. Talithacumi was the

daughter of a Baptist. A clergyman has been desired to christen a boy

‘Alas,’ the parents supposing that ‘Alas! my brother,’ was a call on the

name of the disobedient prophet. There is a floating tradition of ‘Acts’

being chosen for a fifth son, whose elder brothers had been called after

the four Evangelists; and even of Beelzebub being uttered by a godfather

at the font.

Among other such names may be mentioned ‘Elibris,’ which some people

persisted belonged to their family, for it was in their grandfather’s

books: and so it was, being _e libris_ (from the books), the old Latin

manner of commencing an inscription in a book. Sarsaparilla was called

from a scrap of newspaper. ‘Valuable and serviceable’ is also said to

have been intended for a child, on the authority of an engraving in an

old watch; and an unfortunate pair of twins were presented for the

imposition of Jupiter and Orion, because their parents thought them

pretty names, and ‘had heard on them.’

Double names came gradually in from the Stuart days, but only grew

really frequent in the present century; and the habit of calling girls

by both, now so common among the lower classes in towns, is very recent.

With many families it is a convenient custom to christen the sons by the

mother’s maiden name in addition to their first individual name; but the

whole conversion of surnames into Christian names is exclusively

English, and is impossible on the Continent, as state and church both

refuse to register what is not recognized as in use. Of English surnames

we need say nothing; they have been fully treated of in other works, and

as any one may be used in baptism, at any time, the mention of them

would be endless.

In speaking of England we include not only our colonies but America.

There our habits are exaggerated. There is much less of the hereditary;

much more of the Puritan and literary vein. Scripture names, here

conspicuous, such as Hephzibah, Noah, Obadiah, Hiram, are there

common-place. Virtues of all kinds flourish, and coinages are sometimes

to be found, even such as ‘Happen to be,’ because the parents happened

to be in Canada at the time of the birth.

‘Peabody Duty perhaps keeps a store,

With washing tubs, and wigs, and wafers stocked;

And Dr. Quackenbox proclaims the cure

Of such as are with any illness docked:

Dish Alcibiades holds out a lure

Of sundry articles, all nicely cooked;

And Phocion Aristides Franklin Tibbs,

Sells ribbons, laces, caps, and slobbering-bibs.’

The Roman and Greek influence has been strong, producing Cato, Scipio,

Leonidas, &c.; but the habit of calling negroes by such euphonious

epithets has rather discouraged them among the other classes, and the

romantic, perhaps, predominates with women, the Scriptural with men. The

French origin of many in the Southern States, and the Dutch in New

England, can sometimes be traced in names.

SECTION VII.—_Germany._

What was said of Frankish applies equally to old High German, of which

Frankish was a dialect, scarcely distinguishable with our scanty sources

of information.

We have seen Frankish extinguished in Latin in the West; but in the East

we find it developing and triumphing. The great central lands of Europe

were held by the Franks and Suevi, with the half civilized Lombards to

their south, and a long slip of Burgundians on the Rhine and the Alps,

all speakers of the harsh High German, all Christians by the seventh

century, but using the traditional nomenclature, often that of the

_Nibelungenlied_. The Low Germans, speaking what is best represented by

Anglo-Saxon literature, were in the northerly flats and marshes, and

were still heathens when the Franks, under Charlemagne conquered them,

and the Anglo-Saxon mission of Boniface began their conversion.

The coronation of Charles by the pope was intended to establish the

headship of a confederacy of sovereigns, one of them to be the Kaisar,

and that one to be appointed by the choice of the superior ones among

the rest. This chieftainship remained at first with the Karlingen; but

after they had become feeble it remained, during four reigns, with the

house of Saxony, those princes who established the strange power of the

empire over Italy, and held the papal elections in their hands. It was

under them that Germany became a confederation, absolutely separate from

her old companion France.

There is not much to say of German nomenclature. She little varied her

old traditional names. Otto, Heinrich, and Konrad, constantly appeared

from the first; and the High German, as the literary tongue, has had the

moulding of all the recognized forms.

The Low German continued to be spoken, and became, in time, Dutch and

Frisian, as well as the popular dialect of Saxony and West Prussia. The

Frisian names are, indeed, much what English ones would be now if there

had been no external influences.

In spite of being the central empire, the German people long resisted

improvement and amalgamation. The merchant cities were, indeed, far in

advance, and the emperors were, of necessity, cultivated men, up to the

ordinary mark of their contemporary sovereigns; but the nobility

continued surly and boorish, little accessible to chivalrous ideas, and

their unchanging names—Ulrich, Adelbert, Eberhard, marking how little

they were affected by the general impressions of Europe. A few names,

like Wenceslav, or Boleslav, came in by marriage with their Polish,

Bohemian, and Hungarian neighbours; and Hungary, now and then, was the

medium of the introduction of one used at Constantinople, such as

Sophia, Anne, Elisabeth, which, for the sake of the sainted Landgraffinn

of Thuringia, became a universal favourite. Friedrich came in with the

Swabian dynasty; Rudolf and Leopold, with the house of Hapsburg.

Holland and the cluster of surrounding fiefs meanwhile had a fluctuating

succession, with lines of counts continually coming to an end, and

others acceding who were connected with the French or English courts.

The consequence was, that the gentlemen of these territories gained a

strong French tinge of civilization, especially in Flanders, where the

Walloons were a still remaining island of Belgæ. The Flemish chivalry

became highly celebrated, and, under the French counts of Hainault and

Flanders, and dukes of Burgundy, acquired a tone, which made their names

and language chiefly those of France, and tinctured that of the

peasantry and artisans, so as to distinguish them from the Hollanders.

Andreas, Adrianus, Cornelius, saints imported by the French dukes, were

both in Holland and the Netherlands, however, the leading names,

together with Philip, which was derived from the French royal family.

The Dutch artificers and merchants had their own sturdy, precise,

business-like character—their German or saintly names, several of which

are to be found among our eastern English, in consequence of the

intercourse which the wool trade established, and the various

settlements of Dutch and Flemish manufacturers in England.

The revival of classical scholarship in the fifteenth century was

considerably felt in the great universities of the Netherlands and of

Germany, and its chief influence on nomenclature is shown in the

introduction of classical names; namely, Julius and Augustus, and the

Emperior Friedrich’s notable compound of Maximus Æmilianus into

Maximilian, but far more in finishing every other name off with the

Latin _us_. Some were restorations to the original form; Adrianus,

Paulus, and the ever memorable Martinus; but others were adaptations of

very un-Latin sounds. Poppo turned to Poppius; Wolf to Wolfius; Ernst to

Ernestus; Jobst, instead of going back to Justinus, made himself

Jobstius; Franz, Franciscus. The surnames were even more unmanageable,

being often either nicknames or local; but they underwent the same fate;

Pott was Pottus; Bernau, Bernavius; while others translated them, as in

the already-mentioned instance of Erasmus, from Gerhardson, and the

well-known transformation of Schwarzerd into Melancthon. The Danish

antiquary Broby (bridge town), figures as Pontoppidan; Och became Bos;

Heilman, Severtus; Goldmann, Chrysander; Neumann, Neander; and as to the

trades, Schmidt was Faber; Müller, Molitor; Schneider, Sartorius;

Schuster, Sutorius; Kellner, Cellarius.

The German Christian names did not permanently retain this affectation;

but the Netherlanders, owing probably to the great resort to their

universities, retained it long and in popular speech, so that in many

Dutch contractions, the _us_ is still used, as in Janus for Adrianus;

Rasmus for Erasmus; and almost always the full baptismal name includes

the classical suffix. The surnames, of course, adhered, and are many of

them constantly heard in Germany and Holland, while others have come to

England chiefly with the fugitives from the persecution that caused the

revolt of the Netherlands. The Latin left in Dacia and long spoken in

Hungary must have assisted to classicalize the Germans even on their

Slavonic side.

The Reformation did not so much alter German as English nomenclature.

The Lutherans, following their master’s principle of altering only what

was absolutely necessary, long retained their hereditary allegiance to

their saints, and did not break out into unaccustomed names, though they

modified the old Gottleip into Gottlieb. Some of their sects of Germany

however, invented various religious names; Gottseimitdir, Gottlob,

Traugott, Treuhold, Lebrecht, Tugendreich, and probably such others as

Erdmuth and Ehrenpreis were results of this revival of native

manufacture. A few Scriptural names came up among the Calvinists, but do

not seem to have taken a firm hold.

This was the land of the double Christian name. It was common among the

princes of Germany, before the close of the fifteenth century, long

before France and Italy showed more than an occasional specimen. It was

probably necessitated, by way of distinction, by the large families all

of the same rank in the little German states. They seem to have set the

fashion which has gradually prevailed more and more in Europe; indeed,

there are some double names that have so grown together as to be

recognized companions, such as Annstine for Anne Christine, Anngrethe

for Anne Margarethe. At present it is the custom in almost all royal

families to give the most preposterous number of Christian names, of

which one, or at most two, is retained as serviceable, &c.

A few Slavonic names crept in; chiefly Wenzel from Bohemia; Kasimir from

the Prussian Wends; Stanislas from Poland; and the house of Austria,

when gaining permanent hold of the empire, spread the names derived from

their various connections; the Spanish Ferdinand, and Flemish Karl and

Philipp, besides their hereditary Leopold and Rudolf, and invented

Maximilian.

The counter-reformation brought the Jesuit Ignaz and Franz into the

lands where the Reformation was extinguished, and canonized Stanislav.

Under the horrors of the Thirty Years' War, Germany retrograded in every

respect; and when she began to emerge from her state of depression, the

brilliance of the French court rendered it her model, which she followed

with almost abject submission. Every one who could talked French, and

was called by as French a name as might be; the royal Fritz became

Fédéric, and little Hanne, Jeannette, the French _ine_ and _ette_ were

liberally tacked to men’s names to make them feminine, and whatever

polish the country possessed was French.

This lasted till the horrors of the Revolution, and the aggressions that

followed it, awoke Germany to a sense of her own powers and duties as a

nation. Her poets and great men were thoroughly national in spirit; and

though, after the long and destructive contest, she emerged with her

grand Holy Roman Empire torn to shreds, her electoral princes turned

into petty kings, her noble Hanse towns mostly crushed and absorbed in

the new states, her Kaisar merely the Markgraf of Austria, enriched by

the spoils of Lombardy and the Slavonic kingdoms, yet she had recovered

the true loyalty to the fatherland and its institutions, cared again for

her literature and her language, and had an enthusiasm for her own

antiquities, a desire to develop her own powers.

German names, to a degree, reflect this. They have ceased to ape Latin

or French. So far as any are literary, they come from their own national

literature; but as in most of the states only ordinary names are

registered, the variety is not great. More and more German names pass to

England in each generation, and become naturalized there; but the same

proportion of English do not seem to be returned.

Bavaria, having been always Roman Catholic, has more saintly names than

most other parts of Germany, and, in particular, uses those of some of

the less popular apostles, who probably have been kept under her notice

by the great miracle plays.

Switzerland, once part of the empire, though free for five hundred years

back, is a cluster of varying tongues, races, languages, and

religions,—Kelt and Roman, Swabian and Burgundian, Romanist, Lutheran,

Calvinist, German, French, Italian. Names and contractions must vary

here; but only those on the German side have fallen in my way, those

about Berne, which are chiefly remarkable for the Ours and Ursel, in

honour of the bears, and Salome among the women; the diminutive always

in _li_.

SECTION VIII.—_Scandinavia._

Grand old Northmen! They had their own character, and never lost it;

they had their own nomenclature, and kept it with the purity of an

unconquered race.

The few influences that affected their nomenclature were, in the first

place, in some pre-historic time, the Gaelic. Thence, when Albin and

Lochlinn seem to have been on friendly terms, they derived Njal, Kormak,

Kylan, Kjartan, Mælkoln, and, perhaps, Brigitte. Next, in Denmark, a few

Wend names were picked up; and, in fact, Denmark being partly peopled by

Angles, and always more exposed, first to Slavonic, and then to German

influences, than the North, has been less entirely national in names.

In the great piratical days the Northmen and Danes left their names and

patronymics to the northern isles, from Iceland to Man, and even in part

to Neustria and Italy. Oggiero and Tancredi, in the choicest Italian

poems, are specimens of the wideness of their fame. Our own population,

in the north-east of England, is far more Scandinavian than Anglian, and

bears the impress in dialect in manners, and in surnames, though the

baptismal ones that led to them are, in general, gone out of use.

Christianity did not greatly alter the old northern names, though it

introduced those of the universally honoured saints. But the clergy

thought it desirable—and chiefly in Denmark—to take more ecclesiastical

names to answer to their own; so Dagfinn was David; Sölmund, Solomon;

Sigmund, Simon; and several ladies seem to have followed their example,

so that Astrida and Griotgard both became Margarethe, and Bergliot

Brigitte.

The popular nomenclature has included all the favourite saints with the

individual contractions of the country. The royal lines have been

influenced by the dynasties that have reigned. Gustaf grew national in

Sweden after the disruption of the union of Calmar, and Denmark

alternated between Christiern and Friedrich; but the main body of the

people are constant to Olaf and Eirik, Ingeborg and Gudrun; and in the

Norwegian valleys the old immediate patronymic of the father is still in

use. Linnea as a feminine from Linnæus, the Latinism of their great

natural historian’s surname is a modern invention. Linne itself means a

lime tree.

The Northmen have hitherto been the most impressing, and least impressed

from without, of all the European nations; and thus their names are the

great key to those of the South.

SECTION IX.—_Comparative Nomenclature._

Before entirely quitting our subject, it may be interesting to make a

rapid comparison of the spirit of nomenclature, and the significative

appellations that have prevailed most in each branch of the civilized

family which we have been considering.

For instance—of religious names, the Hebrew race alone, and that at a

comparatively late period, assumed such directly Divine appellations, as

Eli, Elijah, Adonijah, Joel. The most analogous to these in spirit would

be the heathen Teutonic ones, Osgod, Asthor, Aasir; but these were,

probably, rather assertions of descent than direct proclamations of

glory.

The very obvious and appropriate Gift of God is in all branches save the

Keltic.

┌───────────────┬───────────────┬───────────────┬───────────────┐

│ Hebrew. │ Greek. │ Teutonic. │ Persian. │

│Jonathan │Theodoros │Godgifu │Megabyzus │

│Elnathan │Dorotheus │Gottgabe │ _i.e._ │

│Nathanael │ —————————— │ (late) │Bagabukhsha │

│Mattaniah │ Latin. │ —————————— │ │

│Nethaniah │ Adeodatus │ Slavonic. │ │

│ │ (late) │Bogdan │ │

└───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┘

Servant of God is everywhere but among Latins and the Slaves.

┌────────────┬────────────┬────────────┬────────────┬────────────┐

│ Hebrew. │ Greek. │ Teutonic. │ Keltic. │ Sanscrit. │

│Obadiah │Theodoulas │Gottschalk │Giolla-De │Devadasa │

└────────────┴────────────┴────────────┴────────────┴────────────┘

Greek and Gaelic likewise own the Service of Christ, by Christopheros

(Christbearer), Gilchrist, and Malise; and the Arabic has Abd-Allah, and

Abd-el-Kadir, servant of the Almighty. The name of the late Sultan,

Abdul Medschid, signified the servant of the All-Famed.

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐

│ THE LOVE OF GOD, OR BELOVED OF GOD. │

├───────────┬────────────────┬────────────┬──────────────────┬───────────┤

│ Greek. │ Latin. │ Teutonic │ Slavonic. │ Persian. │

│Theophilus │Amadeus │Gottlieb │Bogomil │Bagadaushta│

│Philotheus │ │ (late)│ │ │

├───────────┴────────────────┴────────────┴──────────────────┴───────────┤

│ HONOURING GOD. │

├───────────────────────┬───────────────────────┬────────────────────────┤

│ Greek. │ Slavonic. │ Persian. │

│Timotheus │Çastibog │Megabazus │

├───────────────────────┴───────────────────────┴────────────────────────┤

│ GOD'S JUDGMENT. │

├───────────────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────────────┤

│ Heb. │ Greek. │

│ Daniel │ Theokritus │

│ Jehoshaphat │ │

│ Jehoiachim │ │

├───────────────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────────────┤

│ GOD'S GLORY. │

├───────────────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────────────┤

│ Greek. │ Slavonic. │

│ Theokles │ Bogoslav │

├───────────────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────────────┤

│ GOD'S GLORY. │

├───────────────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────────────┤

│ Hebrew. │ German. │

│ Eleazar │ Gotthilf │

└───────────────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────────────┘

The Greek and Slavonic have by far the most directly religious names,

next to the Hebrew, from having been less pledged to hereditary names,

and the time of the conversion. The Gaelic devotion was almost all

expressed in the Giolla and Mael prefix.

Idol names are of course numerous, but comparison between them is not

easy, as they vary with different mythologies. One point is remarkable,

that the Supreme God, whether Zeus, Jupiter, Divas, or Woden, never has

so many votaries as his vassal gods. Zeno, Jovius, and, perhaps, the

Grim of the North, are almost exceptions. The Phœnician Baal had,

indeed, many namesakes, and the Persian Ormuzd, giver of life, had

several, of whom the pope, called Hormisdas, was one. In general, Ares,

Mars, Thor, and Ranovit, the warlike gods, or the friendly Demeter and

Gerda, the beneficent Athene, the brilliant Artemis, and Irish Brighde,

the queens of heaven, Hera, Juno, Frigga, are chosen for namesakes.

Mithras in Persia, and Apollo in Greece, have their share; but, in

general, the sun is not very popular, though Aurora and Zora honour the

dawn; and the North has various Dags.

Of animals the choice is much smaller than would have been expected. The

lion’s home is, of course, the East, and _Sinha_, his Sanscrit title, is

represented by the Singh, so familiar in the names of Hindu chiefs. The

Arabs have Arslan in many combinations; the Greeks introduced Leo, which

has been followed by the Romans, and come into the rest of Europe; but

many as were the lion names of Greece and later Rome, Leonard, and,

perhaps, Lionel, alone are of European growth.

The elephant is utterly unrepresented, unless we accept the tradition,

that the cognomen of Cæsar arose from his African name. Persia has a few

leopards, such as Chitratachna.

The bear does not show himself in favourable colours in the South, and

Ursus and Ursula are more likely to be translations of the northern

Biorn—so extremely common—than original Latin names. The Erse, however,

owns him as Mahon.

The wolf is the really popular animal. Even the Hebrews knew Zeeb

through the Midianites, the Greeks used Lycos in all sorts of forms, the

Romans had many a Lupus, the Teutons have Wolf in every possible

combination, the Slaves Vuk; the Kelts alone avoid the great enemy of

the fold, whose frequency is almost inexplicable. The Kelts are,

however, the namesakes of the dog, the Cu and Con, so much loathed in

other lands, that only a stray Danish Hund, Italian Cane, and the one

Hebrew Caleb, unite in bearing his name in honour of his faithful

qualities.

The horse is, of course, neglected in Judea, where his use was

forbidden; but in Sanscrit was found Vradaçva, owning great horses; and

the horse flourished all over Persia. Aspamithras, horse’s friend,

Aspachava, rich in horses, Vishtaspa, and many more, commemorate the

animal; and in Greece, Hippolytus, Hippodamos, Hippomedon, Hipparchus,

and many more, showed that riding was the glory of the Hellenes. Rome

has no representative of her _equus_, except in Equitius, a doubtful

name, more likely to be named in honour of the equestrian order, than

direct from the animal. Marcus may, however, be from the word that

formed the Keltic March, which, with Eachan and Eochaid, and many more,

represent the love of horses among the Kelts, answering to the

Eporedorix, mentioned by Cæsar. The Slaves have apparently no horse

names; but many of our modern Roses are properly horses, and Jostein,

Rosmund, and various other forms, keep up the horse’s fame in northern

Europe.

Rome dealt, to a curious degree, in the most homely domestic names; Mus,

the surname of the devoted Decius, was, probably, really a mouse; for

while the swine of other nations never descend below the savage wild

boar of the forest—Eber, Baezan, Bravac, the Romans have indeed one

Aper, but their others are but domestic pigs, Verres, Porcius, Scrofa.

Goats flourished in Greece in honour of the Ægis, and of Zeus goats, and

Ægidios, with others, there arose; but Sichelgaita, and a few northern

Geits, alone reflect them. The chamois, or mountain goat, named Tabitha

or Dorcas, and is paralleled by an occasional masculine Hirsch, or stag,

in Germany.

The sheep appears to be solely represented by Rachael, for though the

lamb has laid claim to both Agnes and Lambert, it is only through a

delusion of sound.

Serpents, as Orm and Lind, are peculiar to the North.

The eagle figures in Aias, Ajax, Aquila, the Russian Orlof, and many an

Arn of the Teutons. It is rather surprising not to find him among the

Gael; but the raven, like the wolf, is the fashionable creature, as an

attendant upon slaughter—Oreb, Corvus, Morvren, Fiachra, Rafn, he croaks

his name over the plunderer everywhere but among the Greeks and Slaves.

The swan has Gelges in Ireland, Svanwhit in the North; the dove named

Jonah, Jemima in Palestine, Columba in Christian Latinity, Golubica in

Illyria; but gentle birds are, in general, entirely neglected, unless

the Greek Philomela, which properly means loving honey, were named after

the nightingale. The Latin Gallus may possibly be a cock; but Genserich

is not the gander king, as he was so long supposed to be.

The bee had Deborah in Hebrew, and Melissa in Greek; but, in general,

insects are not popular, though Vespasian is said to come from a wasp;

and among fishes, the dolphin has the only namesakes in Romance tongues,

probably blunders from Delphi.

Plants were now and then commemorated; Tamar, a palm tree, Hadassah, a

myrtle, are among the scanty eastern examples. Rome had a Robur, and

Illyria Dobruslav, in honour of the oak; but the Slaves have almost the

only genuine flower names. Rhoda is, indeed, a true Greek Rose, but the

modern ones are mistakes for _hross_, a horse. Violet, probably, rose

out of Valens, and Lilias from Cæcilius, Oliver from Olaf. Primrose,

Ivy, Eglantine, &c., have been invented in modern books at least, and so

has Amaranth.

Passing to qualities, goodness is found in many an Agathos of the

Greeks, with his superlative Aristos, but early Rome chiefly dealt in

Valens, leaving Bonus and Melior for her later inventors to use. The

_goods_ of the Teutons are rather doubtful between the names of the

Deity and of war, but in passing them, the relation between Gustaf and

Scipio should be observed. The Slaves have many compounds of both Dobry

and Blago, and the Irish, Alma.

Love is everywhere. David represents it in Hebrew, Agape and Phile in

Greek; but the grim Roman never used the compounds of his _amo_, only

left them to form many a gentle modern name—Amabel, Aimée, Amy. Caradoc

was the old Cymric, and Aiffe the Gadhaelic, beloved; and Wine and Leof

in the German races, Ljubov, Libusa, Milica in the Slavonic, proved the

warm hearts of the people. Indeed, the Slavonic names are the tenderest

of all, owning Bratoljub and Çedomil, fraternal and parental love,

unparalleled except by the satirical surnames of the Alexandrian kings.

Purity—a Christian idea—is found in Agnes and Katherine, both Greek;

perhaps, too, Devoslava, or maiden glory, with the Slaves. Holiness is

in the Hieronymus and Hagios of heathen Greece, meaning a holy name, and

in the northern Ercen and Vieh, at the beginning and end of names, the

Sviato of the Slavonians.

Peace, always lovely and longed-for, names both Absalom and Solomon, and

after them many an eastern Selim and Selima. Greece had Irene and

Irenæus, but not till Christian days, and the Roman Pacificus was a very

modern invention; but the Friedrich, &c., of the North, and Miroslav of

the Slav, were much more ancient.

The soul is to be found in Greece, as Psyche, and nowhere else but in

the Welsh Enid. Life, however, figured at Rome, as Vitalis, and in the

Teutonic nations as the prefix _fjor_; and the Greek Zoë kept it up in

honour of the oldest of all female names, Eve.

Grace is the Hebrew Hannah or Anna, and the _charis_ in Greek compounds.

Eucharis would not answer amiss to the Adelheid, or noble cheer, of

Teuton damsels. Abigail, or father’s joy, Zenobia, father’s ornament,

are in the same spirit.

_Eu_, meaning both happy and rich, wealthy in its best sense, is exactly

followed by the Northern _ad_ and Anglo-Saxon _ead_. Eulalia and

Eulogios are the same as Edred, Euphrasia would answer to Odny, Eucharis

and Aine likewise have the same sense of gladness. Eugenois is, perhaps,

rather in the sense of Olaf, or of the host of Adels and Ethels.

Patrocles and Cleopatra, both meaning the father’s fame, have nothing

exactly analogous to them in the Teuton and Keltic world.

Royalty is found in the Syriac Malchus, the Persian Kshahtra, or Xerxes,

the Malek of the Arab, the early Archos, Basileus, and Tyrannos of the

late Greek; even the Roman Regulus, with Tigearnach among the Kelts, and

Rik in its compounds in the Teutonic world. The loftiness and strength

of the royal power is expressed in the Persian prefix _arta_, first

cousin to our Keltic Art and Arthur, akin to the root that forms Ares,

Arius, Arteinus, and many more familiar names from the superlative

Aristos. It is the idea of strength and manhood, perhaps akin to the

Latin _vir_ and Keltic _fear_. Boleslav is the Wendic name, filling up

the cycle of strength and manly virtue.

Majesty and greatness are commemorated by closely resembling words—the

Persian Mathista or Masistes, Megas and Megalos in their Greek

compounds, Latin Magnus and Maximus, Keltic Mor, Teutonic Mer; it is

only the Velika of the Slav that does not follow the same root. The

crown names Stephanas and Venceslas, or crown glory.

Justice and judgment are the prevalent ideas in the Hebrew Dan and

Shaphat, Greek Archos, Dike, and Krite, Latin Justinus, Northern Ragn;

perhaps, too, in the Irish Phelim and Slavonic Upravda. _Damo_, to tame,

is in many Greek names; and _ward_, or protection, answers to the Latin

Titus.

Venerable is the Persian Arsaces, with Augustus and Sebastian. Power

figures in Vladimir and Waldemar, and the many forms of _wald_; and, on

the other hand, the people assert themselves in the Laos and Demos of

Greece, the _leutfolk_ and _theod_ of the Teuton, and even the _ljud_ of

the Slave. The lover of his people may be found under the various titles

of Demophilos, Publicola, Theodwine, and the Slavonic feminine Ludmila;

their ruler, as Democritus, or Archilaus, or Theodoric; their tamer, as

Laodamos; their justice, as Laodike.

Boulos, council, finds a parallel in the Teuton _raad_; but Sophia,

wisdom, is far too cultivated for an analogy among the name-makers of

the rude North.

But fame and glory were more popular than wisdom and justice. _Slava_

rings through the names of the Wends, and _klas_ through the Greeks;

while _hluod_ and _hruod_ form half the leading names of Germanized

Europe.

Clara is the late Latin name best implying fame, but answering best to

Bertha, bright, like the Phlegon of Greece, and Barsines of Persia,

which are all from one root. Lucius, light, translates some of these.

Conquest, that most desired of events to a warlike nation, is the Nike

of the Greeks. Nikias, Victor, Sige, Cobhflaith, are all identical in

meaning; and the Greek and Teuton have again and again curiously similar

compounds. Nicephorous and Sigebot, Nikoboulous and Sigfred, Stratonice

would perhaps be paralleled by Sighilda. Nicolas has not an exact

likeness, because the Teutons never place either _sige_ or _theod_ at

the end of a word.

War itself has absorbed the Teuton _spear_, and is _ger_ in our Teuton

lands. But the Greek _mache_, and Teuton _hadu_, the Kelt _cath_, and

the Slav _boj_ or _voj_, all are in common use. Telemachus, or distant

battle, is best represented by Siroslav, or distant glory. Stratos,

meaning both army and camp, Kleostralos and Stratokles, answer to

Stanislav; and Cadwaladyr, in sound as well as sense, to Haduvald.

Cathair, the Irish battle-slaughter, has likeness in the Teutonic

derivatives of Val, but the North stands alone in honouring the Thiof

with namesakes.

The hero, the warrior himself, the _Hero_ as he really is of Greece, the

_Landnama-bok_ of our Teutons, the _Landnama-bok_ and _Landnama-bok_ and

_Landnama-bok_ of Ireland, the _Landnama-bok_ of the Roman, has

namesakes in hosts. Herakles himself was not far removed from Herbert,

Robert, or Lothaire, in meaning; and Sigeher is the conquering warrior,

as Nikostratos is the victorious army.

In fact, warlike names are exhausting in similarity and multitude, and

our readers will discover many more for themselves. The peaceful ones

are far more characteristic.

See how the ocean figures in Pelagios, in Morvan, Muircheartash,

Haflide,—all the formation of maritime nations, while the Slaves have no

sea names at all, and the Latin Marina is mere late coinage. It is the

Welsh, however, who have the most sea names: Guenever, Bronwen, Dwynwen,

&c.

The earth makes Georgos and Agricola, and its cultivators have in Greece

commemorated their harvest with Eustaches and Theresa; in Illyria, their

vintage with Grozdana; but though the old farmer citizens of Rome were

called Faber, Lentulus, Cicero, and the like, produce of their fields,

these were much too homely for our fierce Teuton ancestry.

Gold is not in much favour; Chryseis, Aurelia, Orflath, and Zlata, just

represent it; and silver is to be found in Argyro, Argentine, and

Arianwen; but iron nowhere but with the Germanic races, Eisambart, &c.,

in accordance with the weapon names in which they alone delight. Nor are

jewels many,—Esmeralda, Jasper (perhaps), Margaret, Ligach, are almost

their only representatives. Spices we have as Kezia, Muriel, and

strangest of all, Kerenhappuch, a box of stibium for the eyes. Whether

the Stein of the North is to be regarded as a jewel does not seem clear,

but it is more according to the temper of the owners to regard it as

answering to Petros, a rock. Veig, Laug, and Øl, represent liquors, and

are one of the peculiarities of the North.

Beauty is less common than might have been expected. Kallista is the

leading owner of the word in Greece, but the Latin _bella_ must not be

claimed for it, and, in spite of the _ny_ and _fridhr_ of the North, it

is the Kelts who deal most in names of beauty,—Findelbh, Graine, and

more than can here be specified.

Indeed, complexion names are chiefly found among the Kelts and Romans.

The white, Albanus and Finn, (which last Finn passed to the North,) with

Gwenn in Wales and Brittany; the light-haired, Flavius, Rufus, Ruadh,

and Dearg. Fulvius, Niger, and Dubh, with the answering Swerker,

paralleled only by the late Greek Melania have very few answering names

in other lands, though the Bruno of Germany corresponds to Don, and the

Blond, now Blount, of England is said to be meant to translate Fulvius.

On exceptional names, from the circumstances of the birth, we have not

here dwelt. They were accidental, and never became national, except from

the fame of some bearer of one. The names derived from places are almost

all Latin, at first cognomina, then taken at baptism by converts. The

number names are likewise Latin. Those of high Christian ideas, like

Anastasius, Ambrosius, Alethea, are generally Greek; and when Latins as

Benedictus, the blessed, and Beatrix, the blesser, are apt to be

renderings of the Greek. The early Latin names are the least explicable,

and the least resembling those of other nations; the Keltic are the most

poetical; the Slavonic either tender or warlike; the Greek and the

Teutonic are the most analogous to one another in sense, and are the

most in use, except the more endeared and wide-spread of the

Hebrew,—John and Mary deservedly have the pre-eminence in the Christian

world above all others.

THE END.

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Transcriber’s Note

The author seems to distinguish between ‘Slave’ and ‘Slavonic’ (usually

abbreviated as ‘Slav’). ‘Slave’ seems to indicate ethnic rather than

language groups.

Please consult the author’s note about the typographical conventions she

observes there.

The lengthy index of names (the Glossary) at the beginning of the text

appears to be a work in progress, and few pains were taken to perfect it

here.

● Many names are out of alphabetic order and remain so here.

● The punctuation in the Glossary is somewhat haphazard or unclear, and

has been regularized without further notice.

● There are incomplete entries, which may skip the meaning, page

references, or both. Missing page references may or may not indicate

that they do or do not appear in the text.

● Some entries include a question mark, indicating some uncertainty in

the author or editor’s mind.

Each entry is given as printed, save where there are obvious

discrepancies between the Glossary and the referenced text. These are

resolved based on the context, as noted below.

Notes

xxv.45 As an example, ‘Anuerin’, which has no page reference, is

mentioned multiple times as a Welsh bard, and the name

appears once in a list of Welsh names, but is not

otherwise remarked upon.

xliii.5 The entry for ‘Coralie’ ends with a comma, without a page

reference. The name appears on p. 456.

xlv.27 In the Glossary, ‘Darius’ includes a page number (followed

by a question mark) which refers to a section on Persian

names, where only ‘Cyrus’ is discussed.

lxii.6 There are two entries for ‘Gandolf’, once as a ‘primary

form’ (capitalized) and once in ‘Roman type’ as a form

‘since assumed’.

lxxxiii.31 The Lusatian name ‘Jjewa’ is not on p. 11 of the text, which

mentions only ‘Hejba or Hejbka’.

xciii.15 _Loiseach_ appears only on p. 133, and not on p. 405, as

printed. The page reference was corrected.

cxviii.23 An out-of-order entry for ‘Marl’ is duplicated in the proper

order.

78.50 The reference to ‘his’ father seems incorrect, since his

wife would be grateful to Phillip II of Spain (husband of

Queen Mary, and hence ‘King Consort’)for interceding in

the life of _her_ father.

100.19 The epsilon in Θεκλα (Thekla) on p. 100 was printed with an

invalid circumflex (~).

290.26 The Anglo-Saxon O character in ‘Ocscetyl’ is printed,

seemingly intentionally, with an interior triangular mark

[Odd Anglo-Saxon O].

305.43 The author gives a rune as ‘thorn’ resembling a capital

Greek lambda (Λ). The thorn rune is actually [thorn].

Other errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected,

and are noted here. The references are to the page and line, or

indicates that the issue appears in a footnote in the original.

Corrections

vi.32 far greater difficulties[.] for Removed.

xxi.1 Teu[,/.] elf ruler, Replaced.

xxiii.4 _Sl[o/a]v._ Gr. helper Replaced.

xxiii.52 Fr. with w[h]iskers Inserted.

xxiv.5 Ama[ oe/deo], Corrupted.

xxv.35 Andreze[k/j] Replaced

(probable).

xxxi.14 BALDETRUD, _[m/f]._ Replaced.

xxxiv.19 Bérang[erè/ère] Replaced.

lx.32 _Fra[ncy/cyn]tje_ Transposed.

lx.44 _Fran[z/s]je_ Replaced.

lxxiii.2 _Netherland[s]_ Added.

lxxiv.15 H[e/é]lène Replaced.

lxxix.22 I[ñ]igo Restored.

lxxxiii.9 Jo[a]qui[n/m]a From p. 37.

xci.47 Le[a/o]nhardine Replaced.

cxiii.12 RADEG[U/O]NDA Replaced.

cxxvi.18 SWANH[WITE/VIT] Replaced.

cxxxii.7 _Tone[e]k_ Removed.

cxlii remembrance of the [Lord] Restored.

cxliii.8 ZLATI[D/B]OR Replaced.

cxliii.11 ZLATOLJU[D/B] Replaced.

13.12 Atalik, [(]fatherlike or paternal,) Removed.

14.42 Rebekah’s two daughters-in-law[s] Removed.

27.23 is used els[e]where Inserted.

29.34 are men[it/ti]oned in the pedigree Transposed.

30.35 N[eu/ue]stra Señora del Pilar Transposed.

30.41 a vision of N[eu/ue]stra Señora Transposed.

36.note _Deutsch[a/e] Mythologie_ Replaced.

43.9 pa[rt/tr]iarch St. Joannes the Silent Transposed.

60.23 a maiden[)] Added.

65.17 still more magnific[i]ent Removed.

65.40 the deacon[n]ess Removed.

67.46 the hateful A[c]quitanian grandmother Removed.

72.19 and ὄρνυμ[υ/ι] (to raise) Replaced.

86.14 Andreje[e]k Removed

(probable).

88.14 [Feminine] Presumed.

88.44 Ε[ὔ/ὐ]στᾶθηος (steadfast) Diacritic

removed.

93.41 Attalus Phila[l]dephus Inserted.

95.14 feminine Λα[ό/ο]δ[α/ά]μεία Misplaced

diacritics.

95.31 Κλ[έ/ε]οπ[α/ά]τρα Misplaced

diacritics.

138.36 merged this unwield[l]y title Removed.

167.48 that[.] after having served Removed.

187.note Michaelis[,/.] Replaced.

191.40 and to France, a[t/s] St. Hilaire. Replaced.

222.note _Deutsch[a/e] Mythologie_ Replaced.

227.12 to interp[r]et his Keltic speech Inserted.

231.39 Lear and [Mananàn/Mănănnán] Replaced.

256.35 mild-tempered or peac[e]able man Inserted.

275.47 one of the kings of Ireland[,/.] Replaced.

277.13 who had quar[r]elled about Added.

285.30 and thus passed away[.] Added.

295.26 Freygerdur [ö/o]f the North Replaced.

314.45 drawn from Wil[eh/he]lm Transposed.

328.12 the Thuringian Irmanfrit, or Ir[u/n]vrit Replaced.

334.12 rime or frost [name/mane] Transposed.

367.5 by the Markgraf Rudiger[.] Added.

368.42 the same whose de[s]cendant Inserted.

377.37 ‘the Confessor[’] Added.

378.26 Ric[k/h] kettle Replaced.

379.30 in the _Nieb[e]lungenlied_ Added.

405.28 Eri[e/c] Probable.

407.note _Récits des Temps Mérovingien[s]_ Added.

408.18 that which i[n]dentifies his appellation Removed.

413.note Turn[n]er Removed.

426.5 a border wolf[.] Added.

444.23 [B/D]ear peace Replaced.

446.24 by the l[e]ast remarkable one Inserted.