[1] This is the view of the _Sachsenspiegel_, and also of Albert of
Stade (quoted in Schroder, p. 476, n. 27): "Palatinus eligit, quia
dapifer est; dux Saxoniae, quia marescalcus," &c. Schroder points out
(p. 479, n. 45) that "participation in the coronation feast is an
express recognition of the king"; and those who are to discharge
their office in the one must have had a prominent voice in the other.
[2] See Schroder's _Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_, p. 820.
ELECTRA ([Greek: Elektra]), "the bright one," in Greek mythology. (1)
One of the seven Pleiades, daughter of Atlas and Pleione. She is closely
connected with the old constellation worship and the religion of
Samothrace, the chief seat of the Cabeiri (q.v.), where she was
generally supposed to dwell. By Zeus she was the mother of Dardanus,
Iasion (or Eetion), and Harmonia; but in the Italian tradition, which
represented Italy as the original home of the Trojans, Dardanus was her
son by a king of Italy named Corythus. After her amour with Zeus,
Electra fled to the Palladium as a suppliant, but Athena, enraged that
it had been touched by one who was no longer a maiden, flung Electra and
the image from heaven to earth, where it was found by Ilus, and taken by
him to Ilium; according to another tradition, Electra herself took it to
Ilium, and gave it to her son Dardanus (Schol. Eurip. _Phoen._ 1136). In
her grief at the destruction of the city she plucked out her hair and
was changed into a comet; in another version Electra and her six sisters
had been placed among the stars as the Pleiades, and the star which she
represented lost its brilliancy after the fall of Troy. Electra's
connexion with Samothrace (where she was also called Electryone and
Strategis) is shown by the localization of the carrying off of her
reputed daughter Harmonia by Cadmus, and by the fact that, according to
Athenicon (the author of a work on Samothrace quoted by the scholiast on
Apollonius Rhodius i. 917), the Cabeiri were Dardanus and Iasion. The
gate Electra at Thebes and the fabulous island Electris were said to
have been called after her (Apollodorus iii. 10. 12; Servius on _Aen._
iii. 167, vii. 207, x. 272, _Georg._ i. 138).
(2) Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytaemnestra, sister of Orestes and
Iphigeneia. She does not appear in Homer, although according to Xanthus
(regarded by some as a fictitious personage), to whom Stesichorus was
indebted for much in his _Oresteia_, she was identical with the Homeric
Laodice, and was called Electra because she remained so long unmarried
([Greek: 'A-lektra]). She was said to have played an important part in
the poem of Stesichorus, and subsequently became a favourite figure in
tragedy. After the murder of her father on his return from Troy by her
mother and Aegisthus, she saved the life of her brother Orestes by
sending him out of the country to Strophius, king of Phanote in Phocis,
who had him brought up with his own son Pylades. Electra, cruelly
ill-treated by Clytaemnestra and her paramour, never loses hope that her
brother will return to avenge his father. When grown up, Orestes, in
response to frequent messages from his sister, secretly repairs with
Pylades to Argos, where he pretends to be a messenger from Strophius
bringing the news of the death of Orestes. Being admitted to the palace,
he slays both Aegisthus and Clytaemnestra. According to another story
(Hyginus, _Fab._ 122), Electra, having received a false report that
Orestes and Pylades had been sacrificed to Artemis in Tauris, went to
consult the oracle at Delphi. In the meantime Aletes, the son of
Aegisthus, seized the throne of Mycenae. Her arrival at Delphi coincided
with that of Orestes and Iphigeneia. The same messenger, who had already
communicated the false report of the death of Orestes, informed her that
he had been slain by Iphigeneia. Electra in her rage seized a burning
brand from the altar, intending to blind her sister; but at the critical
moment Orestes appeared, recognition took place, and the brother and
sister returned to Mycenae. Aletes was slain by Orestes, and Electra
became the wife of Pylades. The story of Electra is the subject of the
_Choephori_ of Aeschylus, the _Electra_ of Sophocles and the _Electra_
of Euripides. It is in the Sophoclean play that Electra is most
prominent.
There are many variations in the treatment of the legend, for which,
as also for a discussion of the modern plays on the subject by
Voltaire and Alfieri, see Jebb's Introduction to his edition of the
_Electra_ of Sophocles.
ELECTRICAL (or ELECTROSTATIC) MACHINE, a machine operating by manual or
other power for transforming mechanical work into electric energy in the
form of electrostatic charges of opposite sign delivered to separate
conductors. Electrostatic machines are of two kinds: (1) Frictional, and
(2) Influence machines.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Ramsden's electrical machine.]
_Frictional Machines._--A primitive form of frictional electrical
machine was constructed about 1663 by Otto von Guericke (1602-1686). It
consisted of a globe of sulphur fixed on an axis and rotated by a winch,
and it was electrically excited by the friction of warm hands held
against it. Sir Isaac Newton appears to have been the first to use a
glass globe instead of sulphur (_Optics_, 8th Query). F. Hawksbee in
1709 also used a revolving glass globe. A metal chain resting on the
globe served to collect the charge. Later G.M. Bose (1710-1761), of
Wittenberg, added the prime conductor, an insulated tube or cylinder
supported on silk strings, and J.H. Winkler (1703-1770), professor of
physics at Leipzig, substituted a leather cushion for the hand. Andreas
Gordon (1712-1751) of Erfurt, a Scotch Benedictine monk, first used a
glass cylinder in place of a sphere. Jesse Ramsden (1735-1800) in 1768
constructed his well-known form of plate electrical machine (fig. 1). A
glass plate fixed to a wooden or metal shaft is rotated by a winch. It
passes between two rubbers made of leather, and is partly covered with
two silk aprons which extend over quadrants of its surface. Just below
the places where the aprons terminate, the glass is embraced by two
insulated metal forks having the sharp points projecting towards the
glass, but not quite touching it. The glass is excited positively by
friction with the rubbers, and the charge is drawn off by the action of
the points which, when acted upon inductively, discharge negative
electricity against it. The insulated conductor to which the points are
connected therefore becomes positively electrified. The cushions must be
connected to earth to remove the negative electricity which accumulates
on them. It was found that the machine acted better if the rubbers were
covered with bisulphide of tin or with F. von Kienmayer's amalgam,
consisting of one part of zinc, one of tin and two of mercury. The
cushions were greased and the amalgam in a state of powder spread over
them. Edward Nairne's electrical machine (1787) consisted of a glass
cylinder with two insulated conductors, called prime conductors, on
glass legs placed near it. One of these carried the leather exacting
cushions and the other the collecting metal points, a silk apron
extending over the cylinder from the cushion almost to the points. The
rubber was smeared with amalgam. The function of the apron is to prevent
the escape of electrification from the glass during its passage from the
rubber to the collecting points. Nairne's machine could give either
positive or negative electricity, the first named being collected from
the prime conductor carrying the collecting points and the second from
the prime conductor carrying the cushion.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
_Influence Machines._--Frictional machines are, however, now quite
superseded by the second class of instrument mentioned above, namely,
influence machines. These operate by electrostatic induction and convert
mechanical work into electrostatic energy by the aid of a small initial
charge which is continually being replenished or reinforced. The general
principle of all the machines described below will be best understood by
considering a simple ideal case. Imagine two Leyden jars with large
brass knobs, A and B, to stand on the ground (fig. 2). Let one jar be
initially charged with positive electricity on its inner coating and the
other with negative, and let both have their outsides connected to
earth. Imagine two insulated balls A' and B' so held that A' is near A
and B' is near B. Then the positive charge on A induces two charges on
A', viz.: a negative on the side nearest and a positive on the side most
removed. Likewise the negative charge on B induces a positive charge on
the side of B' nearest to it and repels negative electricity to the far
side. Next let the balls A' and B' be connected together for a moment by
a wire N called a neutralizing conductor which is subsequently removed.
Then A' will be left negatively electrified and B' will be left
positively electrified. Suppose that A' and B' are then made to change
places. To do this we shall have to exert energy to remove A' against
the attraction of A and B' against the attraction of B. Finally let A'
be brought in contact with B and B' with A. The ball A' will give up its
charge of negative electricity to the Leyden jar B, and the ball B' will
give up its positive charge to the Leyden jar A. This transfer will take
place because the inner coatings of the Leyden jars have greater
capacity with respect to the earth than the balls. Hence the charges of
the jars will be increased. The balls A' and B' are then practically
discharged, and the above cycle of operations may be repeated. Hence,
however small may be the initial charges of the Leyden jars, by a
principle of accumulation resembling that of compound interest, they can
be increased as above shown to any degree. If this series of operations
be made to depend upon the continuous rotation of a winch or handle, the
arrangement constitutes an electrostatic influence machine. The
principle therefore somewhat resembles that of the self-exciting dynamo.
Bennet's Doubler.
The first suggestion for a machine of the above kind seems to have grown
out of the invention of Volta's electrophorus. Abraham Bennet, the
inventor of the gold leaf electroscope, described a doubler or machine
for multiplying electric charges (_Phil. Trans._, 1787).
The principle of this apparatus may be explained thus. Let A and C be
two fixed disks, and B a disk which can be brought at will within a
very short distance of either A or C. Let us suppose all the plates to
be equal, and let the capacities of A and C in presence of B be each
equal to p, and the coefficient of induction between A and B, or C and
B, be q. Let us also suppose that the plates A and C are so distant
from each other that there is no mutual influence, and that p' is the
capacity of one of the disks when it stands alone. A small charge Q is
communicated to A, and A is insulated, and B, uninsulated, is brought
up to it; the charge on B will be--(q/p)Q. B is now uninsulated and
brought to face C, which is uninsulated; the charge on C will be
(q/p)^2Q. C is now insulated and connected with A, which is always
insulated. B is then brought to face A and uninsulated, so that the
charge on A becomes rQ, where
p / q^2\
r = -------- ( 1 + --- ).
(p + p') \ p^2/
A is now disconnected from C, and here the first operation ends. It is
obvious that at the end of n such operations the charge on A will be
r^_(n)Q, so that the charge goes on increasing in geometrical
progression. If the distance between the disks could be made
infinitely small each time, then the multiplier r would be 2, and the
charge would be doubled each time. Hence the name of the apparatus.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Nicholson's Revolving Doubler.]
Nicholson's doubler.
Erasmus Darwin, B. Wilson, G.C. Bohnenberger and J.C.E. Peclet devised
various modifications of Bennet's instrument (see S.P. Thompson, "The
Influence Machine from 1788 to 1888," _Journ. Soc. Tel. Eng._, 1888, 17,
p. 569). Bennet's doubler appears to have given a suggestion to William
Nicholson (_Phil. Trans._, 1788, p. 403) of "an instrument which by
turning a winch produced the two states of electricity without friction
or communication with the earth." This "revolving doubler," according to
the description of Professor S.P. Thompson (_loc. cit._), consists of
two fixed plates of brass A and C (fig. 3), each two inches in diameter
and separately supported on insulating arms in the same plane, so that a
third revolving plate B may pass very near them without touching. A
brass ball D two inches in diameter is fixed on the end of the axis that
carries the plate B, and is loaded within at one side, so as to act as a
counterpoise to the revolving plate B. The axis P N is made of varnished
glass, and so are the axes that join the three plates with the brass
axis N O. The axis N O passes through the brass piece M, which stands on
an insulating pillar of glass, and supports the plates A and C. At one
extremity of this axis is the ball D, and the other is connected with a
rod of glass, N P, upon which is fixed the handle L, and also the piece
G H, which is separately insulated. The pins E, F rise out of the back
of the fixed plates A and C, at unequal distances from the axis. The
piece K is parallel to G H, and both of them are furnished at their ends
with small pieces of flexible wire that they may touch the pins E, F in
certain points of their revolution. From the brass piece M there stands
out a pin I, to touch against a small flexible wire or spring which
projects sideways from the rotating plate B when it comes opposite A.
The wires are so adjusted by bending that B, at the moment when it is
opposite A, communicates with the ball D, and A communicates with C
through GH; and half a revolution later C, when B comes opposite to it,
communicates with the ball D through the contact of K with F. In all
other positions A, B, C and D are completely disconnected from each
other. Nicholson thus described the operation of his machine:--
"When the plates A and B are opposite each other, the two fixed plates
A and C may be considered as one mass, and the revolving plate B,
together with the ball D, will constitute another mass. All the
experiments yet made concur to prove that these two masses will not
possess the same electric state.... The redundant electricities in the
masses under consideration will be unequally distributed; the plate A
will have about ninety-nine parts, and the plate C one; and, for the
same reason, the revolving plate B will have ninety-nine parts of the
opposite electricity, and the ball D one. The rotation, by destroying
the contacts, preserves this unequal distribution, and carries B from
A to C at the same time that the tail K connects the ball with the
plate C. In this situation, the electricity in B acts upon that in C,
and produces the contrary state, by virtue of the communication
between C and the ball; which last must therefore acquire an
electricity of the same kind with that of the revolving plate. But the
rotation again destroys the contact and restores B to its first
situation opposite A. Here, if we attend to the effect of the whole
revolution, we shall find that the electric states of the respective
masses have been greatly increased; for the ninety-nine parts in A and
B remain, and the one part of electricity in C has been increased so
as nearly to compensate ninety-nine parts of the opposite electricity
in the revolving plate B, while the communication produced an opposite
mutation in the electricity of the ball. A second rotation will, of
course, produce a proportional augmentation of these increased
quantities; and a continuance of turning will soon bring the
intensities to their maximum, which is limited by an explosion between
the plates" (_Phil. Trans._, 1788, p. 405).
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Belli's Doubler.]
Belli's doubler.
Nicholson described also another apparatus, the "spinning condenser,"
which worked on the same principle. Bennet and Nicholson were followed
by T. Cavallo, John Read, Bohnenberger, C.B. Desormes and J.N.P.
Hachette and others in the invention of various forms of rotating
doubler. A simple and typical form of doubler, devised in 1831 by G.
Belli (fig. 4), consisted of two curved metal plates between which
revolved a pair of balls carried on an insulating stem. Following the
nomenclature usual in connexion with dynamos we may speak of the
conductors which carry the initial charges as the field plates, and of
the moving conductors on which are induced the charges which are
subsequently added to those on the field plates, as the carriers. The
wire which connects two armature plates for a moment is the neutralizing
conductor. The two curved metal plates constitute the field plates and
must have original charges imparted to them of opposite sign. The
rotating balls are the carriers, and are connected together for a moment
by a wire when in a position to be acted upon inductively by the field
plates, thus acquiring charges of opposite sign. The moment after they
are separated again. The rotation continuing the ball thus negatively
charged is made to give up this charge to that negatively electrified
field plate, and the ball positively charged its charge to the
positively electrified field plate, by touching little contact springs.
In this manner the field plates accumulate charges of opposite sign.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Varley's Machine.]
Varley's machine.
Modern types of influence machine may be said to date from 1860 when
C.F. Varley patented a type of influence machine which has been the
parent of numerous subsequent forms (_Brit. Pat. Spec._ No. 206 of
1860). In it the field plates were sheets of tin-foil attached to a
glass plate (fig. 5). In front of them a disk of ebonite or glass,
having carriers of metal fixed to its edge, was rotated by a winch. In
the course of their rotation two diametrically opposite carriers touched
against the ends of a neutralizing conductor so as to form for a moment
one conductor, and the moment afterwards these two carriers were
insulated, one carrying away a positive charge and the other a negative.
Continuing their rotation, the positively charged carrier gave up its
positive charge by touching a little knob attached to the positive field
plate, and similarly for the negative charge carrier. In this way the
charges on the field plates were continually replenished and reinforced.
Varley also constructed a multiple form of influence machine having six
rotating disks, each having a number of carriers and rotating between
field plates. With this apparatus he obtained sparks 6 in. long, the
initial source of electrification being a single Daniell cell.
Toepler machine.
Varley was followed by A.J.I. Toepler, who in 1865 constructed an
influence machine consisting of two disks fixed on the same shaft and
rotating in the same direction. Each disk carried two strips of tin-foil
extending nearly over a semi-circle, and there were two field plates,
one behind each disk; one of the plates was positively and the other
negatively electrified. The carriers which were touched under the
influence of the positive field plate passed on and gave up a portion of
their negative charge to increase that of the negative field plate; in
the same way the carriers which were touched under the influence of the
negative field plate sent a part of their charge to augment that of the
positive field plate. In this apparatus one of the charging rods
communicated with one of the field plates, but the other with the
neutralizing brush opposite to the other field plate. Hence one of the
field plates would always remain charged when a spark was taken at the
transmitting terminals.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Holtz's Machine.]
Holtz machine.
Between 1864 and 1880, W.T.B. Holtz constructed and described a large
number of influence machines which were for a long time considered the
most advanced development of this type of electrostatic machine. In one
form the Holtz machine consisted of a glass disk mounted on a horizontal
axis F (fig. 6) which could be made to rotate at a considerable speed by
a multiplying gear, part of which is seen at X. Close behind this disk
was fixed another vertical disk of glass in which were cut two windows
B, B. On the side of the fixed disk next the rotating disk were pasted
two sectors of paper A, A, with short blunt points attached to them
which projected out into the windows on the side away from the rotating
disk. On the other side of the rotating disk were placed two metal combs
C, C, which consisted of sharp points set in metal rods and were each
connected to one of a pair of discharge balls E, D, the distance between
which could be varied. To start the machine the balls were brought in
contact, one of the paper armatures electrified, say, with positive
electricity, and the disk set in motion. Thereupon very shortly a
hissing sound was heard and the machine became harder to turn as if the
disk were moving through a resisting medium. After that the discharge
balls might be separated a little and a continuous series of sparks or
brush discharges would take place between them. If two Leyden jars L, L
were hung upon the conductors which supported the combs, with their
outer coatings put in connexion with one another by M, a series of
strong spark discharges passed between the discharge balls. The action
of the machine is as follows: Suppose one paper armature to be charged
positively, it acts by induction on the right hand comb, causing
negative electricity to issue from the comb points upon the glass
revolving disk; at the same time the positive electricity passes through
the closed discharge circuit to the left comb and issues from its teeth
upon the part of the glass disk at the opposite end of the diameter.
This positive electricity electrifies the left paper armature by
induction, positive electricity issuing from the blunt point upon the
side farthest from the rotating disk. The charges thus deposited on the
glass disk are carried round so that the upper half is electrified
negatively on both sides and the lower half positively on both sides,
the sign of the electrification being reversed as the disk passes
between the combs and the armature by discharges issuing from them
respectively. If it were not for leakage in various ways, the
electrification would go on everywhere increasing, but in practice a
stationary state is soon attained. Holtz's machine is very uncertain in
its action in a moist climate, and has generally to be enclosed in a
chamber in which the air is kept artificially dry.
Voss's machine.
Robert Voss, a Berlin instrument maker, in 1880 devised a form of
machine in which he claimed that the principles of Toepler and Holtz
were combined. On a rotating glass or ebonite disk were placed carriers
of tin-foil or metal buttons against which neutralizing brushes touched.
This armature plate revolved in front of a field plate carrying two
pieces of tin-foil backed up by larger pieces of varnished paper. The
studs on the armature plate were charged inductively by being connected
for a moment by a neutralizing wire as they passed in front of the field
plates, and then gave up their charges partly to renew the field charges
and partly to collecting combs connected to discharge balls. In general
design and construction, the manner of moving the rotating plate and in
the use of the two Leyden jars in connexion with the discharge balls,
Voss borrowed his ideas from Holtz.
Wimshurst machine.
All the above described machines, however, have been thrown into the
shade by the invention of a greatly improved type of influence machine
first constructed by James Wimshurst about 1878. Two glass disks are
mounted on two shafts in such a manner that, by means of two belts and
pulleys worked from a winch shaft, the disks can be rotated rapidly in
opposite directions close to each other (fig. 7). These glass disks
carry on them a certain number (not less than 16 or 20) tin-foil
carriers which may or may not have brass buttons upon them. The glass
plates are well varnished, and the carriers are placed on the outer
sides of the two glass plates. As therefore the disks revolve, these
carriers travel in opposite directions, coming at intervals in
opposition to each other. Each upright bearing carrying the shafts of
the revolving disks also carries a neutralizing conductor or wire ending
in a little brush of gilt thread. The neutralizing conductors for each
disk are placed at right angles to each other. In addition there are
collecting combs which occupy an intermediate position and have sharp
points projecting inwards, and coming near to but not touching the
carriers. These combs on opposite sides are connected respectively to
the inner coatings of two Leyden jars whose outer coatings are in
connexion with one another.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Wimshurst's Machine.]
The operation of the machine is as follows: Let us suppose that one of
the studs on the back plate is positively electrified and one at the
opposite end of a diameter is negatively electrified, and that at that
moment two corresponding studs on the front plate passing opposite to
these back studs are momentarily connected together by the neutralizing
wire belonging to the front plate. The positive stud on the back plate
will act inductively on the front stud and charge it negatively, and
similarly for the other stud, and as the rotation continues these
charged studs will pass round and give up most of their charge through
the combs to the Leyden jars. The moment, however, a pair of studs on
the front plate are charged, they act as field plates to studs on the
back plate which are passing at the moment, provided these last are
connected by the back neutralizing wire. After a few revolutions of the
disks half the studs on the front plate at any moment are charged
negatively and half positively and the same on the back plate, the
neutralizing wires forming the boundary between the positively and
negatively charged studs. The diagram in fig. 8, taken by permission
from S.P. Thompson's paper (_loc. cit._), represents a view of the
distribution of these charges on the front and back plates respectively.
It will be seen that each stud is in turn both a field plate and a
carrier having a charge induced on it, and then passing on in turn
induces further charges on other studs. Wimshurst constructed numerous
very powerful machines of this type, some of them with multiple plates,
which operate in almost any climate, and rarely fail to charge
themselves and deliver a torrent of sparks between the discharge balls
whenever the winch is turned. He also devised an alternating current
electrical machine in which the discharge balls were alternately
positive and negative. Large Wimshurst multiple plate influence machines
are often used instead of induction coils for exciting Rontgen ray tubes
in medical work. They give very steady illumination on fluorescent
screens.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Action of the Wimshurst Machine.]
In 1900 it was found by F. Tudsbury that if an influence machine is
enclosed in a metallic chamber containing compressed air, or better,
carbon dioxide, the insulating properties of compressed gases enable a
greatly improved effect to be obtained owing to the diminution of the
leakage across the plates and from the supports. Hence sparks can be
obtained of more than double the length at ordinary atmospheric
pressure. In one case a machine with plates 8 in. in diameter which
could give sparks 2.5 in. at ordinary pressure gave sparks of 5, 7, and
8 in. as the pressure was raised to 15, 30 and 45 lb. above the normal
atmosphere.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Lord Kelvin's Replenisher.
C, C, Metal carriers fixed to ebonite cross-arm.
F, F, Brass field-plates or conductors.
a, a, Receiving springs.
n, n, Connecting springs or neutralizing brushes.]
The action of Lord Kelvin's replenisher (fig. 9) used by him in
connexion with his electrometers for maintaining their charge, closely
resembles that of Belli's doubler and will be understood from fig. 9.
Lord Kelvin also devised an influence machine, commonly called a "mouse
mill," for electrifying the ink in connexion with his siphon recorder.
It was an electrostatic and electromagnetic machine combined, driven by
an electric current and producing in turn electrostatic charges of
electricity. In connexion with this subject mention must also be made of
the water dropping influence machine of the same inventor.[1]
The action and efficiency of influence machines have been investigated
by F. Rossetti, A. Righi and F.W.G. Kohlrausch. The electromotive force
is practically constant no matter what the velocity of the disks, but
according to some observers the internal resistance decreases as the
velocity increases. Kohlrausch, using a Holtz machine with a plate 16
in. in diameter, found that the current given by it could only
electrolyse acidulated water in 40 hours sufficient to liberate one
cubic centimetre of mixed gases. E.E.N. Mascart, A. Roiti, and E.
Bouchotte have also examined the efficiency and current producing power
of influence machines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to S.P. Thompson's valuable paper on
influence machines (to which this article is much indebted) and other
references given, see J. Clerk Maxwell, _Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1881), vol. i. p. 294; J.D. Everett,
_Electricity_ (expansion of part iii. of Deschanel's _Natural
Philosophy_) (London, 1901), ch. iv. p. 20; A. Winkelmann, _Handbuch
der Physik_ (Breslau, 1905), vol. iv. pp. 50-58 (contains a large
number of references to original papers); J. Gray, _Electrical
Influence Machines, their Development and Modern Forms_ (London,
1903). (J. A. F.)