[1] According to the Welsh Triads and other historical records, the
_Gorsedd_ or assembly (an essential part of the modern Eisteddfod,
from which indeed the latter sprung) is as old at least as the time
of Prydain the son of Aedd the Great, who lived many centuries before
the Christian era. Upon the destruction of the political ascendancy
of the Druids, the Gorsedd lost its political importance, though it
seems to have long afterwards retained its institutional character as
the medium for preserving the laws, doctrines and traditions of
bardism.
[2] According to Jones's _Bardic Remains_, "To sing 'Pennillion' with
a Welsh harp is not so easily accomplished as may be imagined. The
singer is obliged to follow the harper, who may change the tune, or
perform variations _ad libitum_, whilst the vocalist must keep time,
and end precisely with the strain. The singer does not commence with
the harper, but takes the strain up at the second, third or fourth
bar, as best suits the 'pennill' he intends to sing.... Those are
considered the best singers who can adapt stanzas of various metres
to one melody, and who are acquainted with the twenty-four measures
according to the bardic laws and rules of composition."
EJECTMENT (Lat. e, out, and _jacere_, to throw), in English law, an
action for the recovery of the possession of land, together with damages
for the wrongful withholding thereof. In the old classifications of
actions, as real or personal, this was known as a mixed action, because
its object was twofold, viz. to recover both the realty and personal
damages. It should be noted that the term "ejectment" applies in law to
distinct classes of proceedings--ejectments as between rival claimants
to land, and ejectments as between those who hold, or have held, the
relation of landlord and tenant. Under the Rules of the Supreme Court,
actions in England for the recovery of land are commenced and proceed in
the same manner as ordinary actions. But the historical interest
attaching to the action of ejectment is so great as to render some
account of it necessary.
The form of the action as it prevailed in the English courts down to the
Common Law Procedure Act 1852 was a series of fictions, among the most
remarkable to be found in the entire body of English law. A, the person
claiming title to land, delivered to B, the person in possession, a
declaration in ejectment in which C and D, fictitious persons, were
plaintiff and defendant. C stated that A had devised the land to him for
a term of years, and that he had been ousted by D. A notice signed by D
informed B of the proceedings, and advised him to apply to be made
defendant in D's place, as he, D, having no title, did not intend to
defend the suit. If B did not so apply, judgment was given against D,
and possession of the lands was given to A. But if B did apply, the
Court allowed him to defend the action only on condition that he
admitted the three fictitious averments--the lease, the entry and the
ouster--which, together with title, were the four things necessary to
maintain an action of ejectment. This having been arranged the action
proceeded, B being made defendant instead of D. The names used for the
fictitious parties were John Doe, plaintiff, and Richard Roe, defendant,
who was called "the casual ejector." The explanation of these mysterious
fictions is this. The writ _de ejectione firmae_ was invented about the
beginning of the reign of Edward III. as a remedy to a lessee for years
who had been ousted of his term. It was a writ of trespass, and carried
damages, but in the time of Henry VII., if not before that date, the
courts of common law added thereto a species of remedy neither warranted
by the original writ nor demanded by the declaration, viz. a judgment to
recover so much of the term as was still to run, and a writ of
possession thereupon. The next step was to extend the remedy--limited
originally to leaseholds--to cases of disputed title to freeholds. This
was done indirectly by the claimant entering on the land and there
making a lease for a term of years to another person; for it was only a
term that could be recovered by the action, and to create a term
required actual possession in the granter. The lessee remained on the
land, and the next person who entered even by chance was accounted an
ejector of the lessee, who then served upon him a writ of trespass and
ejectment. The case then went to trial as on a common action of
trespass; and the claimant's title, being the real foundation of the
lessee's right, was thus indirectly determined. These proceedings might
take place without the knowledge of the person really in possession; and
to prevent the abuse of the action a rule was laid down that the
plaintiff in ejectment must give notice to the party in possession, who
might then come in and defend the action. When the action came into
general use as a mode of trying the title to freeholds, the actual
entry, lease and ouster which were necessary to found the action were
attended with much inconvenience, and accordingly Lord Chief Justice
Rolle during the Protectorate (c. 1657) substituted for them the
fictitious averments already described. The action of ejectment is now
only a curiosity of legal history. Its fictitious suitors were swept
away by the Common Law Procedure Act of 1852. A form of writ was
prescribed, in which the person in possession of the disputed premises
by name and all persons entitled to defend the possession were informed
that the plaintiff claimed to be entitled to possession, and required to
appear in court to defend the possession of the property or such part of
it as they should think fit. In the form of the writ and in some other
respects ejectment still differed from other actions. But, as already
mentioned, it has now been assimilated (under the name of action for the
recovery of lands) to ordinary actions by the Rules of the Supreme
Court. It is commenced by writ of summons, and--subject to the rules as
to summary judgments (_v. inf._)--proceeds along the usual course of
pleadings and trial to judgment; but is subject to one special rule,
viz: that except by leave of the Court or a judge the only claims which
may be joined with one for recovery of land are claims in respect of
arrears of rent or double value for holding over, or mesne profits (i.e.
the value of the land during the period of illegal possession), or
damages for breach of a contract under which the premises are held or
for any wrong or injury to the premises claimed (R.S.C., O. xviii. r.
2). These claims were formerly recoverable by an independent action.
With regard to actions for the recovery of land--apart from the
relationship of landlord and tenant--the only point that need be noted
is the presumption of law in favour of the actual possessor of the land
in dispute. Where the action is brought by a landlord against his
tenant, there is of course no presumption against the landlord's title
arising from the tenant's possession. By the Common Law Procedure Act
1852 (ss. 210-212) special provision was made for the prompt recovery of
demised premises where half a year's rent was in arrear and the landlord
was entitled to re-enter for non-payment. These provisions are still in
force, but advantage is now more generally taken of the summary judgment
procedure introduced by the Rules of the Supreme Court (Order 3, r. 6.).
This procedure may be adopted when (a) the tenant's term has expired,
(b) or has been duly determined by notice to quit, or (c) has become
liable to forfeiture for non-payment of rent, and applies not only to
the tenant but to persons claiming under him. The writ is specially
endorsed with the plaintiff's claim to recover the land with or without
rent or mesne profits, and summary judgment obtained if no substantial
defence is disclosed. Where an action to recover land is brought against
the tenant by a person claiming adversely to the landlord, the tenant is
bound, under penalty of forfeiting the value of three years' improved or
rack rent of the premises, to give notice to the landlord in order that
he may appear and defend his title. Actions for the recovery of land,
other than land belonging to spiritual corporations and to the crown,
are barred in 12 years (Real Property Limitation Acts 1833 (s. 29) and
1874 (s. 1). A landlord can recover possession in the county court (i.)
by an action for the recovery of possession, where neither the value of
the premises nor the rent exceeds L100 a year, and the tenant is holding
over (County Courts Acts of 1888, s. 138, and 1903, s. 3); (ii.) by "an
action of ejectment," where (a) the value or rent of the premises does
not exceed L100, (b) half a year's rent is in arrear, and (c) no
sufficient distress (see RENT) is to be found on the premises (Act of
1888, s. 139; Act of 1903, s. 3; County Court Rules 1903, Ord. v. rule
3). Where a tenant at a rent not exceeding L20 a year of premises at
will, or for a term not exceeding 7 years, refuses nor neglects, on the
determination or expiration of his interest, to deliver up possession,
such possession may be recovered by proceedings before justices under
the Small Tenements Recovery Act 1838, an enactment which has been
extended to the recovery of allotments. Under the Distress for Rent Act
1737, and the Deserted Tenements Act 1817, a landlord can have himself
put by the order of two justices into premises deserted by the tenant
where half a year's rent is owing and no sufficient distress can be
found.
In _Ireland_, the practice with regard to the recovery of land is
regulated by the Rules of the Supreme Court 1891, made under the
Judicature (Ireland) Act 1877; and resembles that of England. Possession
may be recovered summarily by a special indorsement of the writ, as in
England; and there are analogous provisions with regard to the recovery
of small tenements (see Land Act, 1860 ss. 84 and 89). The law with
regard to the ejectment or eviction of tenants is consolidated by the
Land Act 1860. (See ss. 52-66, 68-71, and further under LANDLORD AND
TENANT.)
In _Scotland_, the recovery of land is effected by an action of
"removing" or summary ejection. In the case of a tenant "warning" is
necessary unless he is bound by his lease to remove without warning. In
the case of possessors without title, or a title merely precarious, no
warning is needed. A summary process of removing from small holdings is
provided for by Sheriff Courts (Scotland) Acts of 1838 and 1851.
In the United States, the old English action of ejectment was adopted to
a very limited extent, and where it was so adopted has often been
superseded, as in Connecticut, by a single action for all cases of
ouster, disseisin or ejectment. In this action, known as an action of
disseisin or ejectment, both possession of the land and damages may be
recovered. In some of the states a tenant against whom an action of
ejectment is brought by a stranger is bound under a penalty, as in
England, to give notice of the claim to the landlord in order that he
may appear and defend his title.
In _French law_ the landlord's claim for rent is fairly secured by the
hypothec, and by summary powers which exist for the seizure of the
effects of defaulting tenants. Eviction or annulment of a lease can only
be obtained through the judicial tribunals. The Civil Code deals with
the position of a tenant in case of the sale of the property leased. If
the lease is by authentic act (_acte authentique_) or has an ascertained
date, the purchaser cannot evict the tenant unless a right to do so was
reserved on the lease (art. 1743), and then only on payment of an
indemnity (arts. 1744-1747). If the lease is not by authentic act, or
has not an ascertained date, the purchaser is not liable for indemnity
(art. 1750). The tenant of rural lands is bound to give the landlord
notice of acts of usurpation (art. 1768). There are analogous provisions
in the Civil Codes of Belgium (arts. 1743 et seq.), Holland (arts. 1613,
1614), Portugal (art. 1572); and see the German Civil Code (arts. 535 et
seq.). In many of the colonies there are statutory provisions for the
recovery of land or premises on the lines of English law (cf. Ontario,
Rev. Stats. 1897, c. 170. ss. 19 et seq.; Manitoba, Rev. Stats. 1902, c.
1903). In others (e.g. New Zealand, Act. No. 55 of 1893, ss. 175-187;
British Columbia, Revised Statutes, 1897, c. 182: Cyprus, Ord. 15 of
1895) there has been legislation similar to the Small Tenements Recovery
Act 1838.
AUTHORITIES.--_English Law_: Cole on _Ejectment_; Digby, _History of
Real Property_ (3rd ed., London, 1884); Pollock and Maitland, _History
of English Law_ (Cambridge, 1895); Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (4th
ed., London, 1907); Fawcett, _Landlord and Tenant_ (London, 1905).
_Irish Law_: Nolan and Kane's _Statutes relating to the Law of
Landlord and Tenant_ (5th ed., Dublin, 1898); Wylie's _Judicature
Acts_ (Dublin, 1900). _Scots Law_: Hunter on _Landlord and Tenant_
(4th ed., Edin., 1878); Erskine's _Principles_ (20th ed., Edin.,
1903). _American Law: Two Centuries' Growth of American Law_ (New York
and London, 1901); Bouvier's _Law Dictionary_ (Boston and London,
1897); Stimson, _American Statute Law_ (Boston, 1886). (A. W. R.)
EKATERINBURG, a town of Russia, in the government of Perm, 311 m. by
rail S.E. of the town of Perm, on the Iset river, near the E. foot of
the Ural Mountains, in 56 deg. 49' N. and 60 deg. 35' E., at an
altitude of 870 ft. above sea-level. It is the most important town of
the Urals. Pop. (1860) 19,830; (1897) 55,488. The streets are broad and
regular, and several of the houses of palatial proportions. In 1834
Ekaterinburg was made the see of a suffragan bishop of the Orthodox
Greek Church. There are two cathedrals--St Catherine's, founded in 1758,
and that of the Epiphany, in 1774--and a museum of natural history,
opened in 1853. Ekaterinburg is the seat of the central mining
administration of the Ural region, and has a chemical laboratory for the
assay of gold, a mining school, the Ural Society of Naturalists, and a
magnetic and meteorological observatory. Besides the government mint for
copper coinage, which dates from 1735, the government engineering works,
and the imperial factory for the cutting and polishing of malachite,
jasper, marble, porphyry and other ornamental stones, the industrial
establishments comprise candle, paper, soap and machinery works, flour
and woollen mills, and tanneries. There is a lively trade in cattle,
cereals, iron, woollen and silk goods, and colonial products; and two
important fairs are held annually. Nearly forty gold and platinum mines,
over thirty iron-works, and numerous other factories are scattered over
the district, while wheels, travelling boxes, hardware, boots and so
forth are extensively made in the villages. Ekaterinburg took its origin
from the mining establishments founded by Peter the Great in 1721, and
received its name in honour of his wife, Catherine I. Its development
was greatly promoted in 1763 by the diversion of the Siberian highway
from Verkhoturye to this place.
EKATERINODAR, a town of South Russia, chief town of the province of
Kuban, on the right bank of the river Kuban, 85 m. E.N.E. of
Novo-rossiysk on the railway to Rostov-on-Don, and in 45 deg. 3' N. and
38 deg. 50' E. It is badly built, on a swampy site exposed to the
inundations of the river; and its houses, with few exceptions, are
slight structures of wood and plaster. Founded by Catherine II. in 1794
on the site of an old town called Tmutarakan, as a small fort and
Cossack settlement, its population grew from 9620 in 1860 to 65,697 in
1897. It has various technical schools, an experimental fruit-farm, a
military hospital, and a natural history museum. A considerable trade is
carried on, especially in cereals.
EKATERINOSLAV, a government of south Russia, having the governments of
Poltava and Kharkov on the N., the territory of the Don Cossacks on the
E., the Sea of Azov and Taurida on the S., and Kherson on the W. Area,
24,478 sq. m. Its surface is undulating steppe, sloping gently south and
north, with a few hills reaching 1200 ft. in the N.E., where a slight
swelling (the Don Hills) compels the Don to make a great curve
eastwards. Another chain of hills, to which the eastward bend of the
Dnieper is due, rises in the west. These hills have a crystalline core
(granites, syenites and diorites), while the surface strata belong to
the Carboniferous, Permian, Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. The
government is rich in minerals, especially in coal--the mines lie in the
middle of the Donets coalfield--iron ores, fireclay and rock-salt, and
every year the mining output increases in quantity, especially of coal
and iron. Granite, limestone, grindstone, slate, with graphite,
manganese and mercury are found. The government is drained by the
Dnieper, the Don and their tributaries (e.g. the Donets and Volchya) and
by several affluents (e.g. the Kalmius) of the Sea of Azov. The soil is
the fertile black earth, but the crops occasionally suffer from drought,
the average annual rainfall being only 15 in. Forests are scarce. Pop.
(1860) 1,138,750; (1897) 2,118,946, chiefly Little Russians, with Great
Russians, Greeks (48,740), Germans (80,979), Rumanians and a few
gypsies. Jews constitute 4.7% of the population. The estimated
population in 1906 was 2,708,700.
Wheat and other cereals are extensively grown; other noteworthy crops
are potatoes, tobacco and grapes. Nearly 40,000 persons find occupation
in factories, the most important being iron-works and agricultural
machinery works, though there are also tobacco, glass, soap and candle
factories, potteries, tanneries and breweries. In the districts of
Mariupol the making of agricultural implements and machinery is carried
on extensively as a domestic industry in the villages. Bees are kept in
very considerable numbers. Fishing employs many persons in the Don and
the Dnieper. Cereals are exported in large quantities via the Dnieper,
the Sevastopol railway, and the port of Mariupol. The chief towns of the
eight districts, with their populations in 1897, are Ekaterinoslav
(135,552 inhabitants in 1900), Alexandrovsk (28,434), Bakhmut (30,585),
Mariupol (31,772), Novomoskovsk (12,862), Pavlograd (17,188),
Slavyanoserbsk (3120), and Verkhne-dnyeprovsk (11,607).
EKATERINOSLAV, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same
name, on the right bank of the Dnieper above the rapids, 673 m. by rail
S.S.W. of Moscow, in 48 deg. 21' N. and 35 deg. 4' E., at an altitude of
210 ft. Pop. (1861) 18,881, without suburbs; (1900) 135,552. If the
suburb of Novyikoindak be included, the town extends for upwards of 4 m.
along the river. The oldest part lies very low and is much exposed to
floods. Contiguous to the towns on the N.W. is the royal village of
Novyimaidani or the New Factories. The bishop's palace, mining academy,
archaeological museum and library are the principal public buildings.
The house now occupied by the Nobles Club was formerly inhabited by the
author and statesman Potemkin. Ekaterinoslav is a rapidly growing city,
with a number of technical schools, and is an important depot for timber
floated down the Dnieper, and also for cereals. Its iron-works,
flour-mills and agricultural machinery works give occupation to over
5000 persons. In fact since 1895 the city has become the centre of
numerous Franco-Belgian industrial undertakings. In addition to the
branches just mentioned, there are tobacco factories and breweries.
Considerable trade is carried on in cattle, cereals, horses and wool,
there being three annual fairs. On the site of the city there formerly
stood the Polish castle of Koindak, built in 1635, and destroyed by the
Cossacks. The existing city was founded by Potemkin in 1786, and in the
following year Catherine II. laid the foundation-stone of the cathedral,
though it was not actually built until 1830-1835. On the south side of
it is a bronze statue of the empress, put up in 1846. Paul I. changed
the name of the city to Novo-rossiysk, but the original name was
restored in 1802.
EKHOF, KONRAD (1720-1778), German actor, was born in Hamburg on the 12th
of August 1720. In 1739 he became a member of Johann Friedrich
Schonemann's (1704-1782) company in Luneburg, and made his first
appearance there on the 15th of January 1740 as Xiphares in Racine's
_Mithridate_. From 1751 the Schonemann company performed mainly in
Hamburg and at Schwerin, where Duke Christian Louis II. of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin made them comedians to the court. During this
period Ekhof founded a theatrical academy, which, though short-lived,
was of great importance in helping to raise the standard of German
acting and the status of German actors. In 1757 Ekhof left Schonemann to
join Franz Schuch's company at Danzig; but he soon returned to Hamburg,
where, in conjunction with two other actors, he succeeded Schonemann in
the direction of the company. He resigned this position, however, in
favour of H.G. Koch, with whom he acted until 1764, when he joined K.E.
Ackermann's company. In 1767 was founded the National Theatre at
Hamburg, made famous by Lessing's _Hamburgische Dramaturgie_, and Ekhof
was the leading member of the company. After the failure of the
enterprise Ekhof was for a time in Weimar, and ultimately became
co-director of the new court theatre at Gotha. This, the first
permanently established theatre in Germany, was opened on the 2nd of
October 1775. Ekhof's reputation was now at its height; Goethe called
him the only German tragic actor; and in 1777 he acted with Goethe and
Duke Charles Augustus at a private performance at Weimar, dining
afterwards with the poet at the ducal table. He died on the 16th of June
1778. His versatility may be judged from the fact that in the comedies
of Goldoni and Moliere he was no less successful than in the tragedies
of Lessing and Shakespeare. He was regarded by his contemporaries as an
unsurpassed exponent of naturalness on the stage; and in this respect he
has been not unfairly compared with Garrick. His fame, however, was
rapidly eclipsed by that of Friedrich U.L. Schroder. His literary
efforts were chiefly confined to translations from French authors.
See H. Uhde, biography of Ekhof in vol. iv. of _Der neue Plutarch_
(1876), and J. Ruschner, _K. Ekhofs Leben und Wirken_ (1872). Also H.
Devrient, _J.F. Schonemann und seine Schauspielergesellschaft_ (1895).
EKRON (better, as in the Septuagint and Josephus, ACCARON, [Greek:
Akkaron]), a royal city of the Philistines commonly identified with the
modern Syrian village of `Akir, 5 m. from Ramleh, on the southern slope
of a low ridge separating the plain of Philistia from Sharon. It lay
inland and off the main line of traffic. Though included by the
Israelites within the limits of the tribe of Judah, and mentioned in
Judges xix. as one of the cities of Dan, it was in Philistine possession
in the days of Samuel, and apparently maintained its independence.
According to the narrative of the Hebrew text, here differing from the
Greek text and Josephus (which read Askelon), it was the last town to
which the ark was transferred before its restoration to the Israelites.
Its maintenance of a sanctuary of Baal Zebub is mentioned in 2 Kings i.
From Assyrian inscriptions it has been gathered that Padi, king of
Ekron, was for a time the vassal of Hezekiah of Judah, but regained his
independence when the latter was hard pressed by Sennacherib. A notice
of its history in 147 B.C. is found in 1 Macc. x. 89; after the fall of
Jerusalem A.D. 70 it was settled by Jews. At the time of the crusades it
was still a large village. Recently a Jewish agricultural colony has
been settled there. The houses are built of mud, and in the absence of
visible remains of antiquity, the identification of the site is
questionable. The neighbourhood is fertile. (R. A. S. M.)
ELABUGA, a town of Russia, in the government of Vyatka, on the Kama
river, 201 m. by steamboat down the Volga from Kazan and then up the
Kama. It has flour-mills, and carries on a brisk trade in exporting
corn. Pop. (1897) 9776.
The famous _Ananiynskiy Mogilnik_ (burial-place) is on the right bank of
the Kama, 3 m. above the town. It was discovered in 1858, was excavated
by Alabin, Lerch and Nevostruyev, and has since supplied extremely
valuable collections belonging to the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. It
consisted of a mound, about 500 ft. in circumference, adorned with
decorated stones (which have disappeared), and contained an inner wall,
65 ft. in circumference, made of uncemented stone flags. Nearly fifty
skeletons were discovered, mostly lying upon charred logs, surrounded
with cinerary urns filled with partially burned bones. A great variety
of bronze decorations and glazed clay pearls were strewn round the
skeletons. The knives, daggers and arrowpoints are of slate, bronze and
iron, the last two being very rough imitations of stone implements. One
of the flags bore the image of a man, without moustaches or beard,
dressed in a costume and helmet recalling those of the Circassians.
ELAM, the name given in the Bible to the province of Persia called
Susiana by the classical geographers, from Susa or Shushan its capital.
In one passage, however (Ezra iv. 9), it is confined to Elymais, the
north-western part of the province, and its inhabitants distinguished
from those of Shushan, which elsewhere (Dan. viii. 2) is placed in Elam.
Strabo (xv. 3. 12, &c.) makes Susiana a part of Persia proper, but a
comparison of his account with those of Ptolemy (vi. 3. 1, &c.) and
other writers would limit it to the mountainous district to the east of
Babylonia, lying between the Oroatis and the Tigris, and stretching from
India to the Persian Gulf. Along with this mountainous district went a
fertile low tract of country on the western side, which also included
the marshes at the mouths of the Euphrates and Tigris and the
north-eastern coast land of the Gulf. This low tract, though producing
large quantities of grain, was intensely hot in summer; the high
regions, however, were cool and well watered.
The whole country was occupied by a variety of tribes, speaking
agglutinative dialects for the most part, though the western districts
were occupied by Semites. Strabo (xi. 13. 3, 6), quoting from Nearchus,
seems to include the Susians under the Elymaeans, whom he associates
with the Uxii, and places on the frontiers of Persia and Susa; but
Pliny more correctly makes the Eulaeus the boundary between Susiana and
Elymais (_N.H._ vi. 29-31). The Uxii are described as a robber tribe in
the mountains adjacent to Media, and their name is apparently to be
identified with the title given to the whole of Susiana in the Persian
cuneiform inscriptions, _Uwaja_, i.e. "Aborigines." Uwaja is probably
the origin of the modern Khuzistan, though Mordtmann would derive the
latter from [Arab script] "a sugar-reed." Immediately bordering on the
Persians were the Amardians or Mardians, as well as the people of
Khapirti (Khatamti, according to Scheil), the name given to Susiana in
the Neo-Susian texts. Khapirti appears as Apir in the inscriptions of
Mal-Amir, which fix the locality of the district. Passing over the
Messabatae, who inhabited a valley which may perhaps be the modern
Mah-Sabadan, as well as the level district of Yamutbal or Yatbur which
separated Elam from Babylonia, and the smaller districts of Characene,
Cabandene, Corbiana and Gabiene mentioned by classical authors, we come
to the fourth principal tribe of Susiana, the Cissii (Aesch. _Pers._ 16;
Strabo xv. 3. 2) or Cossaei (Strabo xi. 5. 6, xvi. 11. 17; Arr. _Ind._
40; Polyb. v. 54, &c.), the Kassi of the cuneiform inscriptions. So
important were they, that the whole of Susiana was sometimes called
Cissia after them, as by Herodotus (iii. 91, v. 49, &c.). In fact
Susiana was only a late name for the country, dating from the time when
Susa had been made a capital of the Persian empire. In the Sumerian
texts of Babylonia it was called Numma, "the Highlands," of which Elamtu
or Elamu, "Elam," was the Semitic translation. Apart from Susa, the most
important part of the country was Anzan (Anshan, contracted Assan),
where the native population maintained itself unaffected by Semitic
intrusion. The exact position of Anzan is still disputed, but it
probably included originally the site of Susa and was distinguished from
it only when Susa became the seat of a Semitic government. In the
lexical tablets Anzan is given as the equivalent of Elamtu, and the
native kings entitle themselves kings of "Anzan and Susa," as well as
"princes of the Khapirti."
The principal mountains of Elam were on the north, called Charbanus and
Cambalidus by Pliny (vi. 27, 31), and belonging to the Parachoathras
chain. There were numerous rivers flowing into either the Tigris or the
Persian Gulf. The most important were the Ulai or Eulaeus (_Kuran_) with
its tributary the Pasitigris, the Choaspes (_Kerkhah_), the Coprates
(river of _Diz_ called Itite in the inscriptions), the Hedyphon or
Hedypnus (_Jerrahi_), and the Croatis (_Hindyan_), besides the
monumental Surappi and Ukni, perhaps to be identified with the Hedyphon
and Oroatis, which fell into the sea in the marshy region at the mouth
of the Tigris. Shushan or Susa, the capital now marked by the mounds of
_Shush_, stood near the junction of the Choaspes and Eulaeus (see SUSA);
and Badaca, Madaktu in the inscriptions, lay between the _Shapur_ and
the river of _Diz_. Among the other chief cities mentioned in the
inscriptions may be named Naditu, Khaltemas, Din-sar, Bubilu, Bit-imbi,
Khidalu and Nagitu on the sea-coast. Here, in fact, lay some of the
oldest and wealthiest towns, the sites of which have, however, been
removed inland by the silting up of the shore. J. de Morgan's
excavations at Susa have thrown a flood of light on the early history of
Elam and its relations to Babylon. The earliest settlement there goes
back to neolithic times, but it was already a fortified city when Elam
was conquered by Sargon of Akkad (3800 B.C.) and Susa became the seat of
a Babylonian viceroy. From this time onward for many centuries it
continued under Semitic suzerainty, its high-priests, also called "Chief
Envoys of Elam, Sippara and Susa," bearing sometimes Semitic, sometimes
native "Anzanite" names. One of the kings of the dynasty of Ur built at
Susa. Before the rise of the First Dynasty of Babylon, however, Elam had
recovered its independence, and in 2280 B.C. the Elamite king
Kutur-Nakhkhunte made a raid in Babylonia and carried away from Erech
the image of the goddess Nana. The monuments of many of his successors
have been discovered by de Morgan and their inscriptions deciphered by
v. Scheil. One of them was defeated by Ammi-zadoq of Babylonia (c. 2100
B.C.); another would have been the Chedor-laomer (Kutur-Lagamar) of
Genesis xiv. One of the greatest builders among them was Untas-GAL (the
pronunciation of the second element in the name is uncertain). About
1330 B.C. Khurba-tila was captured by Kuri-galzu III., the Kassite king
of Babylonia, but a later prince Kidin-Khutrutas avenged his defeat, and
Sutruk-Nakhkhunte (1220 B.C.) carried fire and sword through Babylonia,
slew its king Zamama-sum-iddin and carried away a stela of Naram-Sin and
the famous code of laws of Khammurabi from Sippara, as well as a stela
of Manistusu from Akkuttum or Akkad. He also conquered the land of
Asnunnak and carried off from Padan a stela belonging to a refugee from
Malatia. He was succeeded by his son who was followed on the throne by
his brother, one of the great builders of Elam. In 750 B.C. Umbadara was
king of Elam; Khumban-igas was his successor in 742 B.C. In 720 B.C. the
latter prince met the Assyrians under Sargon at Dur-ili in Yamutbal, and
though Sargon claims a victory the result was that Babylonia recovered
its independence under Merodach-baladan and the Assyrian forces were
driven north. From this time forward it was against Assyria instead of
Babylonia that Elam found itself compelled to exert its strength, and
Elamite policy was directed towards fomenting revolt in Babylonia and
assisting the Babylonians in their struggle with Assyria. In 716 B.C.
Khumban-igas died and was followed by his nephew, Sutruk-Nakhkhunte. He
failed to make head against the Assyrians; the frontier cities were
taken by Sargon and Merodach-baladan was left to his fate. A few years
later (704 B.C.) the combined forces of Elam and Babylonia were
overthrown at Kis, and in the following year the Kassites were reduced
to subjection. The Elamite king was dethroned and imprisoned in 700 B.C.
by his brother Khallusu, who six years later marched into Babylonia,
captured the son of Sennacherib, whom his father had placed there as
king, and raised a nominee of his own, Nergal-yusezib, to the throne.
Khallusu was murdered in 694 B.C., after seeing the maritime part of his
dominions invaded by the Assyrians. His successor Kudur-Nakhkhunte
invaded Babylonia; he was repulsed, however, by Sennacherib, 34 of his
cities were destroyed, and he himself fled from Madaktu to Khidalu. The
result was a revolt in which he was killed after a reign of ten months.
His brother Umman-menan at once collected allies and prepared for
resistance to the Assyrians. But the terrible defeat at Khalule broke
his power; he was attacked by paralysis shortly afterwards, and
Khumba-Khaldas II. followed him on the throne (689 B.C.). The new king
endeavoured to gain Assyrian favour by putting to death the son of
Merodach-baladan, but was himself murdered by his brothers Urtaki and
Teumman (681 B.C.), the first of whom seized the crown. On his death
Teumman succeeded and almost immediately provoked a quarrel with
Assur-bani-pal by demanding the surrender of his nephews who had taken
refuge at the Assyrian court. The Assyrians pursued the Elamite army to
Susa, where a battle was fought on the banks of the Eulaeus, in which
the Elamites were defeated, Teumman captured and slain, and Umman-igas,
the son of Urtaki, made king, his younger brother Tammaritu being given
the district of Khidalu. Umman-igas afterwards assisted in the revolt of
Babylonia under Samas-sum-yukin, but his nephew, a second Tammaritu,
raised a rebellion against him, defeated him in battle, cut off his head
and seized the crown. Tammaritu marched to Babylonia; while there, his
officer Inda-bigas made himself master of Susa and drove Tammaritu to
the coast whence he fled to Assur-bani-pal. Inda-bigas was himself
overthrown and slain by a new pretender, Khumba-Khaldas III., who was
opposed, however, by three other rivals, two of whom maintained
themselves in the mountains until the Assyrian conquest of the country,
when Tammaritu was first restored and then imprisoned, Elam being
utterly devastated. The return of Khumba-Khaldas led to a fresh Assyrian
invasion; the Elamite king fled from Madaktu to Dur-undasi; Susa and
other cities were taken, and the Elamite army almost exterminated on the
banks of the Itite. The whole country was reduced to a desert, Susa was
plundered and razed to the ground, the royal sepulchres were desecrated,
and the images of the gods and of 32 kings "in silver, gold, bronze and
alabaster," were carried away. All this must have happened about 640
B.C. After the fall of the Assyrian empire Elam was occupied by the
Persian Teispes, the forefather of Cyrus, who, accordingly, like his
immediate successors, is called in the inscriptions "king of Anzan."
Susa once more became a capital, and on the establishment of the Persian
empire remained one of the three seats of government, its language, the
Neo-Susian, ranking with the Persian of Persepolis and the Semitic of
Babylon as an official tongue. In the reign of Darius, however, the
Susianians attempted to revolt, first under Assina or Atrina, the son of
Umbadara, and later under Martiya, the son of Issainsakria, who called
himself Immanes; but they gradually became completely Aryanized, and
their agglutinative dialects were supplanted by the Aryan Persian from
the south-east.
Elam, "the land of the cedar-forest," with its enchanted trees, figured
largely in Babylonian mythology, and one of the adventures of the hero
Gilgamesh was the destruction of the tyrant Khumbaba who dwelt in the
midst of it. A list of the Elamite deities is given by Assur-bani-pal;
at the head of them was In-Susinak, "the lord of the Susians,"--a title
which went back to the age of Babylonian suzerainty,--whose image and
oracle were hidden from the eyes of the profane. Nakhkhunte, according
to Scheil, was the Sun-goddess, and Lagamar, whose name enters into that
of Chedor-laomer, was borrowed from Semitic Babylonia.
See W.K. Loftus, _Chaldaea and Susiana_ (1857); A. Billerbeck, _Susa_
(1893); J. de Morgan, _Memoires de la Delegation en Perse_ (9 vols.,
1899-1906). (A. H. S.)
ELAND (= elk), the Dutch name for the largest of the South African
antelopes (_Taurotragus oryx_), a species near akin to the kudu, but
with horns present in both sexes, and their spiral much closer, being in
fact screw-like instead of corkscrew-like. There is also a large dewlap,
while old bulls have a thick forelock. In the typical southern form the
body-colour is wholly pale fawn, but north of the Orange river the body
is marked by narrow vertical white lines, this race being known as _T.
oryx livingstonei_. In Senegambia the genus is represented by _T.
derbianus_, a much larger animal, with a dark neck; while in the
Bahr-el-Ghazal district there is a gigantic local race of this species
(_T. derbianus giganteus_). (R. L.*)
ELASTICITY. 1. Elasticity is the property of recovery of an original
size or shape. A body of which the size, or shape, or both size and
shape, have been altered by the application of forces may, and generally
does, tend to return to its previous size and shape when the forces
cease to act. Bodies which exhibit this tendency are said to be
_elastic_ (from Greek, [Greek: elaunein], to drive). All bodies are more
or less elastic as regards size; and all solid bodies are more or less
elastic as regards shape. For example: gas contained in a vessel, which
is closed by a piston, can be compressed by additional pressure applied
to the piston; but, when the additional pressure is removed, the gas
expands and drives the piston outwards. For a second example: a steel
bar hanging vertically, and loaded with one ton for each square inch of
its sectional area, will have its length increased by about seven
one-hundred-thousandths of itself, and its sectional area diminished by
about half as much; and it will spring back to its original length and
sectional area when the load is gradually removed. Such changes of size
and shape in bodies subjected to forces, and the recovery of the
original size and shape when the forces cease to act, become conspicuous
when the bodies have the forms of thin wires or planks; and these
properties of bodies in such forms are utilized in the construction of
spring balances, carriage springs, buffers and so on.
It is a familiar fact that the hair-spring of a watch can be coiled and
uncoiled millions of times a year for several years without losing its
elasticity; yet the same spring can have its shape permanently altered
by forces which are much greater than those to which it is subjected in
the motion of the watch. The incompleteness of the recovery from the
effects of great forces is as important a fact as the practical
completeness of the recovery from the effects of comparatively small
forces. The fact is referred to in the distinction between "perfect"
and "imperfect" elasticity; and the limitation which must be imposed
upon the forces in order that the elasticity may be perfect leads to the
investigation of "limits of elasticity" (see SS 31, 32 below). Steel
pianoforte wire is perfectly elastic within rather wide limits, glass
within rather narrow limits; building stone, cement and cast iron appear
not to be perfectly elastic within any limits, however narrow. When the
limits of elasticity are not exceeded no injury is done to a material or
structure by the action of the forces. The strength or weakness of a
material, and the safety or insecurity of a structure, are thus closely
related to the elasticity of the material and to the change of size or
shape of the structure when subjected to forces. The "science of
elasticity" is occupied with the more abstract side of this relation,
viz. with the effects that are produced in a body of definite size,
shape and constitution by definite forces; the "science of the strength
of materials" is occupied with the more concrete side, viz. with the
application of the results obtained in the science of elasticity to
practical questions of strength and safety (see STRENGTH OF MATERIALS).
2. _Stress._--Every body that we know anything about is always under the
action of forces. Every body upon which we can experiment is subject to
the force of gravity, and must, for the purpose of experiment, be
supported by other forces. Such forces are usually applied by way of
pressure upon a portion of the surface of the body; and such pressure is
exerted by another body in contact with the first. The supported body
exerts an equal and opposite pressure upon the supporting body across
the portion of surface which is common to the two. The same thing is
true of two portions of the same body. If, for example, we consider the
two portions into which a body is divided by a (geometrical) horizontal
plane, we conclude that the lower portion supports the upper portion by
pressure across the plane, and the upper portion presses downwards upon
the lower portion with an equal pressure. The pressure is still exerted
when the plane is not horizontal, and its direction may be obliquely
inclined to, or tangential to, the plane. A more precise meaning is
given to "pressure" below. It is important to distinguish between the
two classes of forces: forces such as the force of gravity, which act
all through a body, and forces such as pressure applied over a surface.
The former are named "body forces" or "volume forces," and the latter
"surface tractions." The action between two portions of a body separated
by a geometrical surface is of the nature of surface traction. Body
forces are ultimately, when the volumes upon which they act are small
enough, proportional to the volumes; surface tractions, on the other
hand, are ultimately, when the surfaces across which they act are small
enough, proportional to these surfaces. Surface tractions are always
exerted by one body upon another, or by one part of a body upon another
part, across a surface of contact; and a surface traction is always to
be regarded as one aspect of a "stress," that is to say of a pair of
equal and opposite forces; for an equal traction is always exerted by
the second body, or part, upon the first across the surface.
3. The proper method of estimating and specifying stress is a matter of
importance, and its character is necessarily mathematical. The
magnitudes of the surface tractions which compose a stress are estimated
as so much force (in dynes or tons) per unit of area (per sq. cm. or per
sq. in.). The traction across an assigned plane at an assigned point is
measured by the mathematical limit of the fraction F/S, where F denotes
the numerical measure of the force exerted across a small portion of the
plane containing the point, and S denotes the numerical measure of the
area of this portion, and the limit is taken by diminishing S
indefinitely. The traction may act as "tension," as it does in the case
of a horizontal section of a bar supported at its upper end and hanging
vertically, or as "pressure," as it does in the case of a horizontal
section of a block resting on a horizontal plane, or again it may act
obliquely or even tangentially to the separating plane. Normal tractions
are reckoned as positive when they are tensions, negative when they are
pressures. Tangential tractions are often called "shears" (see S 7
below). Oblique tractions can always be resolved, by the vector law,
into normal and tangential tractions. In a fluid at rest the traction
across any plane at any point is normal to the plane, and acts as
pressure. For the complete specification of the "state of stress" at any
point of a body, we should require to know the normal and tangential
components of the traction across every plane drawn through the point.
Fortunately this requirement can be very much simplified (see SS 6, 7
below).
4. In general let [nu] denote the direction of the normal drawn in a
specified sense to a plane drawn through a point O of a body; and let
T_[nu] denote the traction exerted across the plane, at the point O,
by the portion of the body towards which [nu] is drawn upon the
remaining portion. Then T{[nu]} is a vector quantity, which has a
definite magnitude (estimated as above by the limit of a fraction of
the form F/S) and a definite direction. It can be specified completely
by its components X_[nu], Y_[nu], Z_[nu], referred to fixed
rectangular axes of x, y, z. When the direction of [nu] is that of the
axis of x, in the positive sense, the components are denoted by X_x,
Y_x, Z_x; and a similar notation is used when the direction of [nu] is
that of y or z, the suffix x being replaced by y or z.
5. Every body about which we know anything is always in a state of
stress, that is to say there are always internal forces acting between
the parts of the body, and these forces are exerted as surface tractions
across geometrical surfaces drawn in the body. The body, and each part
of the body, moves under the action of all the forces (body forces and
surface tractions) which are exerted upon it; or remains at rest if
these forces are in equilibrium. This result is expressed analytically
by means of certain equations--the "equations of motion" or "equations
of equilibrium" of the body.
Let [rho] denote the density of the body at any point, X, Y, Z, the
components parallel to the axes of x, y, z of the body forces,
estimated as so much force per unit of mass; further let f_x, f_y, f_z
denote the components, parallel to the same axes, of the acceleration
of the particle which is momentarily at the point (x, y, z). The
equations of motion express the result that the rates of change of the
momentum, and of the moment of momentum, of any portion of the body
are those due to the action of all the forces exerted upon the portion
by other bodies, or by other portions of the same body. For the
changes of momentum, we have three equations of the type
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
/ / / / / / / /
| | |[rho]Xdx dy dz + | |X_[nu] dS = | | |[rho]f_x dx dy dz, (1)
_/_/_/ _/_/ _/_/_/
in which the volume integrations are taken through the volume of the
portion of the body, the surface integration is taken over its
surface, and the notation X_[nu] is that of S 4, the direction of [nu]
being that of the normal to this surface drawn outwards. For the
changes of moment of momentum, we have three equations of the type
_ _ _ _ _
/ / / / /
| | |[rho](yZ - zY)dx dy dz + | |(yZ_[nu] - zY_[nu])dS =
_/_/_/ _/_/
_ _ _
/ / /
| | |[rho](yf_z - zf_y)dx dy dz. (2)
_/_/_/
The equations (1) and (2) are the equations of motion of any kind of
body. The equations of equilibrium are obtained by replacing the
right-hand members of these equations by zero.
6. These equations can be used to obtain relations between the values
of X_[nu], Y_[nu], ... for different directions [nu]. When the
equations are applied to a very small volume, it appears that the
terms expressed by surface integrals would, unless they tend to zero
limits in a higher order than the areas of the surfaces, be very great
compared with the terms expressed by volume integrals. We conclude
that the surface tractions on the portion of the body which is bounded
by any very small closed surface, are ultimately in equilibrium. When
this result is interpreted for a small portion in the shape of a
tetrahedron, having three of its faces at right angles to the
co-ordinate axes, it leads to three equations of the type