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[Illustration: Book's cover, CURZON'S MONASTERIES]
[Illustration: From a Drawing made on the spot by Viscount Eastnor.
VIEW OF THE GREAT MONASTERY OF METEORA, FROM THE MONASTERY OF BARLAAM,
WITH THE RIVER PENEUS IN THE DISTANCE.]
VISITS TO MONASTERIES
IN
THE LEVANT.
BY THE
HONBLE. ROBERT CURZON, JUN.
[Illustration: From a Sketch by R. Curzon.
Interior of the Court of a Greek Monastery. A monk is calling the
congregation to prayer, by beating a board called the simandro
(σιμανδρο) which is generally used instead of bells.]
WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1849.
PREFACE.
In presenting to the public another book of travels in the East, when it
is already overwhelmed with little volumes about palm-trees and camels,
and reflections on the Pyramids, I am aware that I am committing an act
which requires some better excuse for so unwarrantable an intrusion on
the patience of the reader than any that I am able to offer.
The origin of these pages is as follows:--I was staying by myself in an
old country-house belonging to my family, but not often inhabited by
them, and, having nothing to do in the evening, I looked about for some
occupation to amuse the passing hours. In the room where I was sitting
there was a large book-case full of ancient manuscripts, many of which
had been collected by myself, in various out-of-the-way places, in
different parts of the world. Taking some of these ponderous volumes
from their shelves, I turned over their wide vellum leaves, and admired
the antiquity of one, and the gold and azure which gleamed upon the
pages of another. The sight of these books brought before my mind many
scenes and recollections of the countries from which they came, and I
said to myself, I know what I will do; I will write down some account of
the most curious of these manuscripts, and the places in which they were
found, as well as some of the adventures which I encountered in the
pursuit of my venerable game.
I sat down accordingly, and in a short time accumulated a heap of papers
connected more or less with the history of the ancient manuscripts; at
the desire of some of my friends I selected the following pages, and it
is with great diffidence that I present them to the public. If they have
any merits whatever, these must consist in their containing descriptions
of localities but seldom visited in modern times; or if they refer to
places better known to the general reader, I hope that the peculiar
circumstances which occurred during my stay there, or on my journeys
through the neighbouring countries, may be found sufficiently
interesting to afford some excuse for my presumption in sending them to
the press.
I have no further apology to offer. These slight sketches were written
for my own diversion when I had nothing better to do, and if they afford
any pleasure to the reader under the same circumstances, they will
answer as much purpose as was intended in their composition.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER Page xix
PART I.
EGYPT IN 1833.
CHAPTER I.
Navarino--The Wrecks of the Turkish and Egyptian Fleets--Alexandria--An
Arab Pilot--Intense Heat--Scene from the Hotel
Windows--The Water-Carriers--A Procession--A Bridal Party--Violent
mode of clearing the Road--Submissive Behaviour of
the People--Astonishing Number of Donkeys--Bedouin Arabs;
their wild and savage appearance--Early Hours--Visit to the
Pasha's Prime Minister, Boghos Bey; hospitable reception--Kawasses
and Chaoushes; their functions and powers--The Yassakjis--The
Minister's Audience Chamber--Walmas; anecdote
of his saving the life of Boghos Bey 1
CHAPTER II.
Rapacity of the Dragomans--The Mahmoudieh Canal--The Nile
at Atfeh--The muddy Waters of the Nile--Richness of the Soil--Accident
to the Boatmen--Night Sailing--A Collision--A
Vessel run down--Escape of the Crew--Solemn Investigation--Final
Judgment--Curious Mode of Fishing--Tameness of the
Birds--Jewish Malefactors--Moving Pillar of Sand--Arrival
at Cairo--Hospitable Reception by the Consul-General 14
CHAPTER III.
National Topics of Conversation--The Rising of the Nile; evil
effects of its rising too high; still worse consequences of a deficiency
of its waters--The Nilometer--Universal Alarm in August, 1833--The
Nile at length rises to the desired Height--Ceremony of
cutting the Embankment--The Canal of the Khalidj--Immense
Assemblage of People--The State Tent--Arrival of Habeeb
Effendi--Splendid Dresses of the Officers--Exertions of the Arab
Workmen--Their Scramble for Paras--Admission of the Water--Its
sudden Irruption--Excitement of the Ladies--Picturesque
Effect of large Assemblies in the East 27
CHAPTER IV.
Early Hours in the Levant--Compulsory Use of Lanterns in Cairo--Separation
of the different Quarters of the City--Custom of sleeping
in the open air--The Mahomedan Times of Prayer--Impressive
Effect of the Morning Call to Prayer from the Minarets--The
last Prayer-time, Al Assr--Bedouin Mode of ascertaining this
Hour--Ancient Form of the Mosques--The Mosque of Sultan
Hassan--Egyptian Mode of "raising the Supplies"--Sultan
Hassan's Mosque the Scene of frequent Conflicts--The Slaughter
of the Mameluke Beys in the Place of Roumayli--Escape of one
Mameluke, and his subsequent Friendship with Mohammed Ali--The
Talisman of Cairo--Joseph's Well and Hall--Mohammed
Ali's Mosque--His Residence in the Citadel--The Harem--Degraded
State of the Women in the East 35
CHAPTER V.
Interview with Mohammed Ali Pasha--Mode of lighting a Room in
Egypt--Personal Appearance of the Pasha--His Diamond-mounted
Pipe--The lost Handkerchief--An unceremonious
Attendant--View of Cairo from the Citadel--Site of Memphis;
its immense extent--The Tombs of the Caliphs--The Pasha's
Mausoleum--Costume of Egyptian Ladies--The Cobcob, or
Wooden Clog--Mode of dressing the Hair--The Veil--Mistaken
Idea that the Egyptian Ladies are Prisoners in the Harem;
their power of doing as they like--The Veil a complete Disguise--Laws
of the Harem--A Levantine Beauty--Eastern Manners--The
Abyssinian Slaves--Arab Girls--Ugliness of the Arab
Women when old--Venerable Appearance of the old Men--An
Arab Sheick 47
CHAPTER VI.
Mohammed Bey, Defterdar--His Expedition to Senaar--His Barbarity
and Rapacity--His Defiance of the Pasha--Stories of his
Cruelty and Tyranny--The Horse-shoe--The Fight of the
Mamelukes--His cruel Treachery--His Mode of administering
Justice--The stolen Milk--The Widow's Cow--Sale and Distribution
of the Thief--The Turkish Character--Pleasures of a
Journey on the Nile--The Copts--Their Patriarchs--The Patriarch
of Abyssinia--Basileos Bey--His Boat--An American's
choice of a Sleeping-place 64
NATRON LAKES.
CHAPTER VII.
Visit to the Coptic Monasteries near the Natron Lakes--The Desert
of Nitria--Early Christian Anchorites--St. Macarius of Alexandria--His
Abstinence and Penance--Order of Monks founded
by him--Great increase of the Number of ascetic Monks in the
Fourth Century--Their subsequent decrease, and the present
ruined state of the Monasteries--Legends of the Desert--Capture
of a Lizard--Its alarming escape--The Convent of Baramous--Night
attacks--Invasion of Sanctuary--Ancient Glass Lamps--Monastery
of Souriani--Its Library and Coptic MSS.--The Blind
Abbot and his Oil-cellar--The persuasive powers of Rosoglio--Discovery
of Syriac MSS.--The Abbot's supposed treasure 75
CHAPTER VIII.
View from the Convent Wall--Appearance of the Desert--Its
grandeur and freedom--Its contrast to the Convent Garden--Beauty
and luxuriance of Eastern Vegetation--Picturesque Group
of the Monks and their Visitors--The Abyssinian Monks--Their
appearance--Their austere mode of Life--The Abyssinian
College--Description of the Library--The mode of Writing in
Abyssinia--Immense Labour required to write an Abyssinian
book--Paintings and Illuminations--Disappointment of the
Abbot at finding the supposed Treasure-box only an old Book--Purchase
of the MSS. and Books--The most precious left behind--Since
acquired for the British Museum 90
THE CONVENT OF THE PULLEY.
CHAPTER IX.
The Convent of the Pulley--Its inaccessible position--Difficult
landing on the bank of the Nile--Approach to the Convent
through the Rocks--Description of the Convent and its Inhabitants--Plan
of the Church--Books and MSS.--Ancient
excavations--Stone Quarries and ancient Tombs--Alarm of the
Copts--Their ideas of a Sketch-book 105
RUINED MONASTERY AT THEBES.
CHAPTER X.
Ruined Monastery in the Necropolis of Thebes--"Mr. Hay's Tomb"--The
Coptic Carpenter--His acquirements and troubles--He
agrees to show the MSS. belonging to the ruined Monastery, which
are under his charge--Night visit to the Tomb in which they are
concealed--Perils of the way--Description of the Tomb--Probably
in former times a Christian Church--Examination of the
Coptic MSS.--Alarming interruption--Hurried flight from the
Evil Spirits--Fortunate escape--Appearance of the Evil Spirit--Observations
on Ghost Stories--The Legend of the Old Woman
of Berkeley considered 117
THE WHITE MONASTERY.
CHAPTER XI.
The White Monastery--Abou Shenood--Devastations of the
Mamelukes--Description of the Monastery--Different styles of its
exterior and interior Architecture--Its ruinous condition--Description
of the Church--The Baptistery--Ancient Rites of Baptism--The
Library--Modern Architecture--The Church of San Francesco at Rimini--The
Red Monastery--Alarming rencontre with an armed party--Feuds between the
native Tribes--Faction fights--Eastern Story Tellers--Legends of the
Desert--Abraham and Sarah--Legendary Life of Moses--Arabian
Story-tellers--Attention of their Audience 130
THE ISLAND OF PHILŒ, &c.
CHAPTER XII.
The Island of Philœ--The Cataract of Assouan--The Burial Place
of Osiris--The Great Temple of Philœ--The Bed of Pharaoh--Shooting
in Egypt--Turtle Doves--Story of the Prince Anas el
Ajoud--Egyptian Songs--Vow of the Turtle Dove--Curious
fact in Natural History--The Crocodile and its Guardian Bird--Arab
notions regarding Animals--Legend of King Solomon and
the Hoopoes--Natives of the country round the Cataracts of the
Nile--Their appearance and Costume--The beautiful Mouna--Solitary
Visit to the Island of Philœ--Quarrel between two native
Boys--Singular instance of retributive Justice 141
PART II.
JERUSALEM AND THE MONASTERY OF
ST. SABBA.
CHAPTER XIII.
Journey to Jerusalem--First View of the Holy City--The Valley
of Gihon--Appearance of the City--The Latin Convent of St.
Salvador--Inhospitable Reception by the Monks--Visit to the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre--Description of the Interior--The
Chapel of the Sepulchre--The Chapel of the Cross on Mount
Calvary--The Tomb and Sword of Godfrey de Bouillon--Arguments
in favour of the Authenticity of the Holy Sepulchre--The
Invention of the Cross by the Empress Helena--Legend of the
Cross 165
CHAPTER XIV.
The Via Dolorosa--The Houses of Dives and of Lazarus--The Prison of St
Peter--The Site of the Temple of Solomon--The Mosque of Omar--The Hadjr
el Sakhara--The Greek Monastery--Its Library--Valuable
Manuscripts--Splendid MS. of the Book of Job--Arabic spoken at
Jerusalem--Mussulman Theory regarding the Crucifixion--State of the
Jews--Richness of their Dress in their own Houses--Beauty of their
Women--Their literal Interpretation of Scripture--The Service in the
Synagogue--Description of the House of a Rabbi--The Samaritans--Their
Roll of the Pentateuch--Arrival of Ibrahim Pasha at Jerusalem 181
CHAPTER XV.
Expedition to the Monastery of St. Sabba--Reports of Arab Robbers--The
Valley of Jehoshaphat--The Bridge of Al Sirat--Rugged
Scenery--An Arab Ambuscade--A successful Parley--The
Monastery of St. Sabba--History of the Saint--The Greek
Hermits--The Church--The Iconostasis--The Library--Numerous
MSS.--The Dead Sea--The Scene of the Temptation--Discovery--The
Apple of the Dead Sea--The Statements of
Strabo and Pliny confirmed 192
CHAPTER XVI.
Church of the Holy Sepulchre--Processions of the Copts--The
Syrian Maronites and the Greeks--Riotous Behaviour of the Pilgrims--Their
immense numbers--The Chant of the Latin Monks--Ibrahim
Pasha--The Exhibition of the Sacred Fire--Excitement
of the Pilgrims--The Patriarch obtains the Sacred Fire from the
Holy Sepulchre--Contest for the Holy Light--Immense sum paid
for the privilege of receiving it first--Fatal Effects of the Heat
and Smoke--Departure of Ibrahim Pasha--Horrible Catastrophe--Dreadful
Loss of Life among the Pilgrims in their endeavours
to leave the Church--Battle with the Soldiers--Our Narrow
Escape--Shocking Scene in the Court of the Church--Humane
Conduct of Ibrahim Pasha--Superstition of the Pilgrims regarding
Shrouds--Scallop Shells and Palm Branches--The Dead
Muleteer--Moonlight View of the Dead Bodies--The Curse on
Jerusalem--Departure from the Holy City 208
PART III.
THE MONASTERIES OF METEORA.
CHAPTER XVII.
Albania--Ignorance at Corfu concerning that Country--Its reported
abundance of Game and Robbers--The Disturbed State of the
Country--The Albanians--Richness of their Arms--Their free
use of them--Comparative Safety of Foreigners--Tragic Fate of
a German Botanist--Arrival at Gominitza--Ride to Paramathia--A
Night's Bivouac--Reception at Paramathia--Albanian Ladies--Yanina--Albanian
Mode of settling a Quarrel--Expected
Attack from Robbers--A Body-Guard mounted--Audience with
the Vizir--His Views of Criminal Jurisprudence--Retinue of the
Vizir--His Troops--Adoption of the European Exercises--Expedition
to Berat--Calmness and Self-possession of the Turks--Active
Preparations for Warfare--Scene at the Bazaar--Valiant
Promises of the Soldiers 235
CHAPTER XVIII.
Start for Meteora--Rencontre with a Wounded Traveller--Barbarity
of the Robbers--Albanian Innkeeper--Effect of the
Turkish Language upon the Greeks--Mezzovo--Interview with
the chief Person in the Village--Mount Pindus--Capture by
Robbers--Salutary effects of Swaggering--Arrival under Escort
at the Robbers' Head-Quarters--Affairs take a favourable turn--An
unexpected Friendship with the Robber Chief--The Khan of
Malacash--Beauty of the Scenery--Activity of our Guards--Loss
of Character--Arrival at Meteora 257
CHAPTER XIX.
Meteora--The extraordinary Character of its Scenery--Its Caves formerly
the Resort of Ascetics--Barbarous Persecution of the Hermits--Their
extraordinary Religious Observances--Singular Position of the
Monasteries--The Monastery of Barlaam--The difficulty of reaching
it--Ascent by a Windlass and Net, or by Ladders--Narrow
Escape--Hospitable Reception by the Monks--The Agoumenos, or Abbot--His
strict Fast--Description of the Monastery--The Church--Symbolism in the
Greek Church--Respect for Antiquity--The Library--Determination of the
Abbot not to sell any of the MSS.--The Refectory--Its
Decorations--Aërial Descent--The Monastery of Hagios Stephanos--Its
Carved Iconostasis--Beautiful View from the Monastery--Monastery of Agia
Triada--Summary Justice at Triada--Monastery of Agia Roserea--Its Lady
Occupants--Admission refused 279
CHAPTER XX.
The great Monastery of Meteora--The Church--Ugliness of the
Portraits of Greek Saints--Greek Mode of Washing the Hands--A
Monastic Supper--Morning View from the Monastery--The
Library--Beautiful MSS.--Their Purchase--The Kitchen--Discussion
among the Monks as to the Purchase Money for the
MSS.--The MSS. reclaimed--A last look at their Beauties--Proposed
Assault of the Monastery by the Robber Escort 298
CHAPTER XXI.
Return Journey--Narrow Escape--Consequences of Singing--Arrival
at the Khan of Malacash--Agreeable Anecdote--Parting
from the Robbers at Messovo--A Pilau--Wet Ride to
Paramathia--Accident to the Baggage-Mule--Its wonderful
Escape--Novel Costume--A Deputation--Return to Corfu 312
PART IV.
THE MONASTERIES OF MOUNT ATHOS.
CHAPTER XXII.
Constantinople--The Patriarch's Palace--The Plague, Anecdotes,
Superstitions--The Two Jews--Interview with the Patriarch--Ceremonies
of Reception--The Patriarch's Misconception as to
the Archbishop of Canterbury--He addresses a Firman to the
Monks of Mount Athos--Preparations for Departure--The Ugly
Greek Interpreter--Mode of securing his Fidelity 327
CHAPTER XXIII.
Coom Calessi--Uncomfortable Quarters--A Turkish Boat and its
Crew--Grandeur of the Scenery--Legend of Jason and the
Golden Fleece--The Island of Imbros--Heavy Rain Storm--A
Rough Sea--Lemnos--Bad Accommodation--The Old
Woman's Mattress and its Contents--Striking View of Mount
Athos from the Sea--The Hermit of the Tower 342
CHAPTER XXIV.
Monastery of St. Laura--Kind Reception by the Abbot--Astonishment
of the Monks--History of the Monastery--Rules of
the Order of St. Basil--Description of the Buildings--Curious
Pictures of the Last Judgment--Early Greek Paintings; Richness
of their Frames and Decorations--Ancient Church Plate--Beautiful
Reliquary--The Refectory--The Abbot's Savoury
Dish--The Library--The MSS.--Ride to the Monastery of
Caracalla--Magnificent Scenery 356
CHAPTER XXV.
The Monastery of Caracalla--Its beautiful Situation--Hospitable
Reception--Description of the Monastery--Legend of its Foundation--The
Church--Fine Specimens of Ancient Jewellery--The
Library--The Value attached to the Books by the Abbot--He
agrees to sell some of the MSS.--Monastery of Philotheo--The
Great Monastery of Iveron--History of its Foundation--Its
magnificent Library--Ignorance of the Monks--Superb MSS.--The
Monks refuse to part with any of the MSS.--Beauty of the
Scenery of Mount Athos 377
CHAPTER XXVI.
The Monastery of Stavroniketa--The Library--Splendid MS. of
St. Chrysostom--The Monastery of Pantocratoras--Ruinous Condition
of the Library--Complete Destruction of the Books--Disappointment--Oration
to the Monks--The Great Monastery
of Vatopede--Its History--Ancient Pictures in the Church--Legend
of the Girdle of the Blessed Virgin--The Library--Wealth
and Luxury of the Monks--The Monastery of Sphigmenou--Beautiful
Jewelled Cross--The Monastery of Kiliantari--Magnificent
MS. in Gold Letters on White Vellum--The Monasteries
of Zographou, Castamoneta, Docheirou, and Xenophou--The
Exiled Bishops--The Library--Very fine MSS.--Proposals
for their Purchase--Lengthened Negotiations--Their successful
Issue 391
CHAPTER XXVII.
The Monastery of Russico--Its Courteous Abbot--The Monastery
of Xeropotamo--Its History--High Character of its Abbot--Excursion
to the Monasteries of St. Nicholas and St. Dionisius--Interesting
Relics--Magnificent Shrine--The Library--The
Monastery of St. Paul--Respect shown by the Monks--Beautiful
MS.--Extraordinary Liberality and Kindness of the Abbot and
Monks--A valuable Acquisition at little Cost--The Monastery
of Simopetra--Purchase of MS.--The Monk of Xeropotamo--His
Ideas about Women--Excursion to Cariez--The Monastery
of Coutloumoussi--The Russian Book-Stealer--History of the
Monastery--Its reputed Destruction by the Pope of Rome--The
Aga of Cariez--Interview in a Kiosk--The She Cat of Mount
Athos 413
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Caracalla--The Agoumenos--Curious Cross--The Nuts of Caracalla--Singular
Mode of preparing a Dinner Table--Departure
from Mount Athos--Packing of the MSS.--Difficulties of the
Way--Voyage to the Dardanelles--Apprehended Attack from
Pirates--Return to Constantinople 436
FOOTNOTES
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
The costumes are from drawings made at Constantinople by a Maltese
artist. They are all portraits, and represent the costumes worn at
the present day in different parts of the Turkish Empire. The
others are from drawings and sketches by the Author, except one
from a beautiful drawing by Lord Eastnor, for which the Author begs
to express his thanks and obligations.
THE MONASTERY OF METEORA, FROM THE MONASTERY
OF BARLAAM. FROM A DRAWING BY
VISCOUNT EASTNOR _FRONTISPIECE_
INTERIOR OF THE COURT OF A GREEK MONASTER _Title Vignette_
KOORD, OR NATIVE OF KOORDISTAN _To face page_ xxix.
NEGRESS WAITING TO BE SOLD " 5
BEDOUIN ARAB " 7
EGYPTIAN IN THE NIZAM DRESS " 49
INTERIOR OF AN ABYSSINIAN LIBRARY " 97
MENDICANT DERVISH " 139
PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE,
JERUSALEM " 165
THE MONASTERY OF ST. BARLAAM " 235
TATAR, OR GOVERNMENT MESSENGER " 237
TURKISH COMMON SOLDIER " 251
THE N.W. VIEW OF THE PROMONTORY OF MOUNT ATHOS _To face Part IV., p._ 327
GREEK SAILOR _To face p._ 351
THE MONASTERY OF SIMOPETRA " 426
CIRCASSIAN LADY " 429
TURKISH LADY IN THE YASHMAK OR VEIL " 434
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
A more enlarged account of the Monasteries of the Levant would, I think,
be interesting for many reasons if the task was undertaken by some one
much more competent than myself to do justice to so curious a subject.
In these monasteries resided the early fathers of the Church, and within
the precincts of their time-hallowed walls were composed those writings
which have since been looked up to as the rules of Christian life: from
thence also were promulgated the doctrines of the Heresiarchs, which, in
the early ages of the Church, were the causes of so much dissension and
confusion, rancour and persecution, in the disastrous days of the
decline and fall of the Roman empire.
The monasteries of the East are besides particularly interesting to the
lovers of the picturesque, from the beautiful situations in which they
are almost invariably placed. The monastery of Megaspelion, on the coast
of the Gulf of Corinth, is built in the mouth of an enormous cave. The
monasteries of Meteora, and some of those on Mount Athos, are remarkable
for their positions on the tops of inaccessible rocks; many of the
convents in Syria, the islands of Cyprus, Candia, the Archipelago, and
the Prince's Islands in the Sea of Marmora, are unrivalled for the
beauty of the positions in which they stand; many others in Bulgaria,
Asia Minor, Sinope, and other places on the shores of the Black Sea, are
most curious monuments of ancient and romantic times. There is one on
the road to Persia, about one day's journey inland from Trebizond, which
is built half way up the side of a perpendicular precipice; it is
ensconced in several fissures of the rock, and various little gardens
adjoining the buildings display the industry of the monks; these are
laid out on shelves or terraces wherever the nature of the spot affords
a ledge of sufficient width to support the soil; the different parts of
the monastery are approached by stairs and flights of steps cut in the
face of the precipice, leading from one cranny to another; the whole has
the appearance of a bas-relief stuck against a wall; this monastery
partakes of the nature of a large swallow's nest. But it is for their
architecture that the monasteries of the Levant are more particularly
deserving of study; for, after the remains of the private houses of the
Romans at Pompeii, they are the most ancient specimens extant of
domestic architecture. The refectories, kitchens, and the cells of the
monks exceed in point of antiquity anything of the kind in Europe. The
monastery of St. Katherine at Mount Sinai has hardly been altered since
the sixth century, and still contains ornaments presented to it by the
Emperor Justinian. The White Monastery and the monastery at Old Cairo,
both in Egypt, are still more ancient. The monastery of Kuzzul Vank,
near the sources of the Euphrates, is, I believe, as old as the fifth
century. The greater number in all the countries where the Greek faith
prevails, were built before the year 1000. Most monasteries possess
crosses, candlesticks, and reliquaries, many of splendid workmanship,
and of the era of the foundation of the buildings which contain them,
while their mosaics and fresco paintings display the state of the arts
from the most early periods.
It has struck me as remarkable that the architecture of the churches in
these most ancient monasteries is hardly ever fine; they are usually
small, being calculated only for the monks, and not for the reception of
any other congregation. The Greek churches, even those which are not
monastic, are far inferior both in size and interest to the Latin
basilicas of Rome. With the single exception of the church (now mosque)
of St. Sophia, there is no Byzantine church of any magnitude. The
student of ecclesiastical antiquities need not extend his architectural
researches beyond the shores of Italy: there is nothing in the East so
curious as the church of St. Clemente at Rome, which contains all the
original fittings of the choir. The churches of St. Ambrogio at Milan,
of Sta. Maria Trastevere at Rome, the first church dedicated to the
Blessed Virgin; the church of St. Agnese near Rome, the first in which
galleries were built over the side aisles for the accommodation of
women, who, neither in the Eastern nor Western churches, ever mixed with
the men for many centuries; all these and several others in Italy afford
more instruction than those of the East--they are larger, more
magnificent, and in every respect superior to the ecclesiastical
buildings of the Levant. But the poverty of the Eastern church, and its
early subjection to Mahometan rulers, while it has kept down the size
and splendour of the churches, has at the same time been the means of
preserving the monastic establishments in all the rude originality of
their ancient forms. In ordinary situations these buildings are of the
same character: they resemble small villages, built mostly without much
regard to any symmetrical plan, around a church which is constructed in
the form of a Greek cross; the roof is covered either with one or five
domes; all these buildings are surrounded by a high, strong wall, built
as a fortification to protect the brotherhood within, not without
reason, even in the present day. I have been quietly dining in a
monastery, when shouts have been heard, and shots have been fired
against the stout bulwarks of the outer walls, which, thanks to their
protection, had but little effect in delaying the transit of the morsel
between my fingers into the ready gulf provided by nature for its
reception. The monks of the Greek Church have diminished in number and
wealth of late years, their monasteries are no longer the schools of
learning which they used to be; few can read the Hellenic or ancient
Greek; and the following anecdote will suffice to show the estimation in
which a conventual library has not unusually been held. A Russian, or I
do not know whether he was not a French traveller, in the pursuit, as I
was, of ancient literary treasures, found himself in a great monastery
in Bulgaria to the north of the town of Cavalla; he had heard that the
books preserved in this remote building were remarkable for their
antiquity, and for the subjects on which they treated. His dismay and
disappointment may be imagined when he was assured by the agoumenos or
superior of the monastery, that it contained no library whatever, that
they had nothing but the liturgies and church books, and no palaia
pragmata or antiquities at all. The poor man had bumped upon a
pack-saddle over villainous roads for many days for no other object, and
the library of which he was in search had vanished as the visions of a
dream. The agoumenos begged his guest to enter with the monks into the
choir, where the almost continual church service was going on, and there
he saw the double row of long-bearded holy fathers, shouting away at the
chorus of κυριε ελεισον, χριστε ελεισον (pronounced Kyre eleizon,
Christe eleizon), which occurs almost every minute, in the ritual of
the Greek Church. Each of the monks was standing, to save his bare legs
from the damp of the marble floor, upon a great folio volume, which had
been removed from the conventual library and applied to purposes of
practical utility in the way which I have described. The traveller on
examining these ponderous tomes found them to be of the greatest value;
one was in uncial letters, and others were full of illuminations of the
earliest date; all these he was allowed to carry away in exchange for
some footstools or hassocks, which he presented in their stead to the
old monks; they were comfortably covered with ketché or felt, and were
in many respects more convenient to the inhabitants of the monastery
than the manuscripts had been, for many of their antique bindings were
ornamented with bosses and nail heads, which inconvenienced the toes of
the unsophisticated congregation who stood upon them without shoes for
so many hours in the day. I must add that the lower halves of the
manuscripts were imperfect, from the damp of the floor of the church
having corroded and eat away their vellum leaves, and also that, as the
story is not my own, I cannot vouch for the truth of it, though, whether
it is true or not, it elucidates the present state of the literary
attainments of the Oriental monks. Ignorance and superstition walk hand
in hand, and the monks of the Eastern churches seem to retain in these
days all the love for the marvellous which distinguished their Western
brethren in the middle ages. Miraculous pictures abound, as well as holy
springs and wells. Relics still perform wonderful cures. I will only as
an illustration to this statement mention one of the standing objects of
veneration which may be witnessed any day in the vicinity of the castle
of the Seven Towers, outside of the walls of Constantinople: there a
rich monastery stands in a lovely grove of trees, under whose shade
numerous parties of merry Greeks often pass the day, dividing their time
between drinking, dancing, and devotion.
The unfortunate Emperor Constantine Paleologus rode out of the city
alone to reconnoitre the outposts of the Turkish army, which was
encamped in the immediate vicinity. In passing through a wood he found
an old man seated by the side of a spring cooking some fish on a
gridiron for his dinner; the emperor dismounted from his white horse and
entered into conversation with the other; the old man looked up at the
stranger in silence, when the emperor inquired whether he had heard
anything of the movements of the Turkish forces--"Yes," said he, "they
have this moment entered the city of Constantinople." "I would believe
what you say," replied the emperor, "if the fish which you are broiling
would jump off the gridiron into the spring." This, to his amazement,
the fish immediately did, and, on his turning round, the figure of the
old man had disappeared. The emperor mounted his horse and rode towards
the gate of Silivria, where he was encountered by a band of the enemy
and slain, after a brave resistance, by the hand of an Arab or a Negro.
The broiled fishes still swim about in the water of the spring, the
sides of which have been lined with white marble, in which are certain
recesses where they can retire when they do not wish to receive company.
The only way of turning the attention of these holy fish to the
respectful presence of their adorers is accomplished by throwing
something glittering into the water, such as a handful of gold or silver
coin; gold is the best, copper produces no effect; he that sees one fish
is lucky, he that sees two or three goes home a happy man; but the
custom of throwing coins into the spring has become, from its constant
practice, very troublesome to the good monks, who kindly depute one of
their community to rake out the money six or seven times a day with a
scraper at the end of a long pole. The emperor of Russia has sent
presents to the shrine of Baloukli, so called from the Turkish word
Balouk, a fish. Some wicked heretics have said that these fishes are
common perch: either they or the monks must be mistaken, but of whatever
kind they are, they are looked upon with reverence by the Greeks, and
have been continually held in the highest honour from the time of the
siege of Constantinople to the present day.
I have hitherto noticed those monasteries only which are under the
spiritual jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople, but those of
the Copts of Egypt and the Maronites of Syria resemble them in almost
every particular. As it has never been the custom of the Oriental
Christians to bury the dead within the precincts of the church, they
none of them contain sepulchral monuments. The bodies of the Byzantine
emperors were enclosed in sarcophagi of precious marbles, which were
usually deposited in chapels erected for the purpose--a custom which has
been imitated by the sultans of Turkey. Of all these magnificent
sarcophagi and chapels or mausoleums where the remains of the imperial
families were deposited, only one remains intact; every one but this has
been violated, destroyed, or carried away; the ashes of the Cæsars have
been scattered to the winds. This is now known by the name of the chapel
of St. Nazario e Celso, at Ravenna: it was built by Galla Placidia, the
daughter of Theodosius; she died at Rome in 440, but her body was
removed to Ravenna and deposited in a sarcophagus in this chapel; in the
same place are two other sarcophagi, one containing the remains of
Constantius, the second husband of Galla Placidia, and the other holding
the body of her son Valentinian III. These tombs have never been
disturbed, and are the only ones which remain intact of the entire line
of the Cæsars, either of the Eastern or Western empires.
The tombstones or monuments of the Armenians deserve to be mentioned on
account of their singularity. They are usually oblong pieces of marble
lying flat upon the ground; on these are sculptured representations of
the implements of the trade at which the deceased had worked during his
lifetime; some display the manner in which the Armenian met his death.
In the Petit Champ des Morts at Pera I counted, I think, five tombstones
with bas-reliefs of men whose heads had been cut off. In Armenia the
traveller is often startled by the appearance of a gigantic stone figure
of a ram, far away from any present habitation: this is the tomb of some
ancient possessor of flocks and herds whose house and village have
disappeared, and nothing but his tomb remains to mark the site which
once was the abode of men.
[Illustration: KOORD, OR NATIVE OF KOORDISTAUN.]
The Armenian monasteries, with the exception of that of Etchmiazin and
one or two others, are much smaller buildings than those of the Greeks;
they are constructed after the same model, however, being surrounded
with a high blank wall. Their churches are seldom surmounted by a dome,
but are usually in the form of a small barn, with a high pitched roof,
built like the walls of large squared stones. At one end of the church
is a small door, and at the other end a semicircular apsis; the windows
are small apertures like loop-holes. These buildings, though of
very small size, have an imposing appearance from their air of
massive strength. The cells of the Armenian monks look into the
courtyard, which is a remarkable fact in that country, where the rest of
the inhabitants dwell in burrows underground like rabbits, and keep
themselves alive during the long winters of their rigorous climate by
the warmth proceeding from the cattle with whom they live, for fire is
dear in a land too cold for trees to grow. The monasteries of the
various sects of Christians who inhabit the mountains of Koordistaun are
very numerous, and all more or less alike. Perched on the tops of crags,
in these wild regions are to be seen the monastic fastnesses of the
Chaldeans, who of late have been known by the name of Nestorians, the
seat of whose patriarchate is at Julamerk. They have now been almost
exterminated by Beder Khan Bey, a Koordish chief, in revenge for the
cattle which they were alleged to have stolen from the Koordish villages
in their vicinity. The Jacobites, the Sabæans, and the Christians of St.
John, who inhabit the banks of the Euphrates in the districts of the
ancient Susiana, all have fortified monasteries which are mostly of
great antiquity. From Mount Ararat to Bagdat, the different sects of
Christians still retain the faith of the Redeemer, whom they have
worshipped according to their various forms, some of them for more than
fifteen hundred years; the plague, the famine, and the sword have
passed over them and left them still unscathed, and there is little
doubt but that they will maintain the position which they have held so
long till the now not far distant period arrives when the conquered
empire of the Greeks will again be brought under the dominion of a
Christian emperor.
MONASTERIES OF THE LEVANT.
PART I.
EGYPT IN 1833.
CHAPTER I.
Navarino--The Wrecks of the Turkish and Egyptian
Fleets--Alexandria--An Arab Pilot--Intense Heat--Scene from the
Hotel Windows--The Water-Carriers--A Procession--A Bridal
Party--Violent mode of clearing the Road--Submissive Behaviour of
the People--Astonishing Number of Donkeys--Bedouin Arabs; their
wild and savage appearance--Early Hours--Visit to the Pasha's Prime
Minister, Boghos Bey; hospitable reception--Kawasses and Chaoushes;
their functions and powers--The Yassakjis--The Minister's Audience
Chamber--Walmas; anecdote of his saving the life of Boghos Bey.
It was towards the end of July, 1833, that I took a passage from Malta
to Alexandria in a merchant-vessel called the _Fortuna_; for in those
days there were no steam-packets traversing every sea, with almost the
same rapidity and accuracy as railway carriages on shore. We touched on
our way at Navarino to sell some potatoes to the splendidly-dressed, and
half-starved population of the Morea, numbers of whom we found lounging
about in a temporary wooden bazaar, where there was nothing to sell. In
various parts of the harbour the wrecks of the Turkish and Egyptian
ships of war, stripped of their outer coverings, and looking like the
gigantic skeletons of antediluvian animals, gave awful evidence of the
destruction which had taken place not very long before in the battle
between the Christian and Mahomedan fleets in this calm, land-locked
harbour.
On the 31st we found ourselves approaching the castle of Alexandria, and
were soon hailed by some people in a curious-looking pilot-boat with a
lateen sail. The pilot was an old man with a turban and a long grey
beard, and sat cross-legged in the stern of his boat. We looked at him
with vast interest, as the first live specimen we had seen of an Arab
sailor. He was just the sort of man that I imagine Sindbad the Sailor
must have been.
Having by his directions been steered safely into the harbour, we cast
anchor not far from the shore, a naked, dusty plain, which the blazing
sun seemed to dare any one to cross, on pain of being shrivelled up
immediately. The intensity of the heat was tremendous: the tar melted in
the seams of the deck: we could scarcely bear it even when we were under
the awning. Malta was hot enough, but the temperature there was cool in
comparison to the fiery furnace in which we were at present grilling.
However, there was no help for it; so, having got our luggage on shore,
we sweltered through the streets to an inn called the Tre Anchore--the
only hotel in Africa, I believe, in those days. It was a dismal little
place, frequented by the captains of merchant-vessels, who, not being
hot enough already, raised the temperature of their blood by drinking
brandy-and-water, arrack, and other combustibles, in a dark, oven-like
room below stairs.
We took possession of all the rooms upstairs, of which the principal one
was long and narrow, with two windows at the end, opening on to a
covered balcony or verandah: this overlooked the principal street and
the bazaar. Here my companion and I soon stationed ourselves and watched
the novel and curious scene below; and strange indeed to the eye of an
European, when for the first time he enters an Oriental city, is all he
sees around him. The picturesque dresses, the buildings, the palm-trees,
the camels, the people of various nations, with their long beards, their
arms, and turbans, all unite to form a picture which is indelibly fixed
in the memory. Things which have since become perfectly familiar to us
were then utterly incomprehensible, and we had no one to explain them to
us, for the one waiter of the poor inn, who was darting about in his
shirt-sleeves after the manner of all waiters, never extended his
answers to our questions beyond "Si, Signore," so we got but little
information from him; however, we did not make use of our eyes the less
for that.
[Illustration: NEGRESS WAITING TO BE SOLD IN THE SLAVE BAZAAR, CAIRO]
Among the first things we noticed, was the number of half-naked men who
went running about, each with something like a dead pig under his arm,
shouting out "Mother! mother!"[1] with a doleful voice. These were the
sakis or water-carriers, with their goat-skins of the precious element,
a bright brass cupful of which they sell for a small coin to the thirsty
passengers. An old man with a fan in his hand made of a palm-branch, who
was crumpled up in the corner of a sort of booth among a heap of dried
figs, raisins, and dates, just opposite our window, was an object of
much speculation to us how he got in, and how he would ever manage to
get out of the niche into which he was so closely wedged. He was the
merchant, as the Arabian Nights would call him, or the shopkeeper as we
should say, who sat there cross-legged among his wares waiting patiently
for a customer, and keeping off the flies in the meanwhile, as in due
time we discovered that all merchants did in all countries of the East.
Soon there came slowly by, a long procession of men on horseback with
golden bridles and velvet trappings, and women muffled up in black silk
wrappers; how they could bear them, hot as it was, astonished us. These
ladies sat upon a pile of cushions placed so high above the backs of the
donkeys on which they rode that their feet rested on the animal's
shoulders. Each donkey was led by one man, while another walked by its
side with his hand upon the crupper. With the ladies were two little
boys covered with diamonds, mounted on huge fat horses, and
ensconced in high-backed Mameluke saddles made of silver gilt. These
boys we afterwards found out were being conducted in state to a house of
their relations, where the rite of circumcision was to be performed. Our
attention was next called to something like a four-post bed, with pink
gauze curtains, which advanced with dignified slowness, preceded by a
band of musicians, who raised a dire and fearful discord by the aid of
various windy engines. This was a canopy, the four poles of which were
supported by men, who held it over the heads of a bride and her two
bridesmaids or friends, who walked on each side of her. The bride was
not veiled in the usual way, as her friends were, but was muffled up in
Cashmere shawls from head to foot. Something there was on the top of her
head which gleamed like gold or jewels, but the rest of her person was
so effectually wrapped up and concealed that no one could tell whether
she was pretty or ugly, fat or thin, old or young; and although we gave
her credit for all the charms which should adorn a bride, we rejoiced
when the villainous band of music which accompanied her turned round a
corner and went out of hearing.
Some miserable-looking black slaves caught our attention, clothed each
in a piece of Isabel-coloured canvas and led by a well-dressed man, who
had probably just bought them. Then a great personage came by on
horseback with a number of mounted attendants and some men on foot, who
cleared the way before him, and struck everybody on the head with their
sticks who did not get out of the way fast enough. These blows were
dealt all round in the most unceremonious manner; but what appeared to
us extraordinary was, that all these beaten people did not seem to care
for being beat. They looked neither angry nor affronted, but only
grinned and rubbed their shoulders, and moved on one side to let the
train of the great man pass by. Now if this were done in London, what a
ferment would it create! what speeches would be made about tyranny and
oppression! what a capital thing some high-minded and independent
patriot would make of it! how he would call a meeting to defend the
rights of the subject! and how he would get his admirers to vote him a
piece of plate for his noble and glorious exertions! Here nobody minded
the thing; they took no heed of the indignity; and I verily believe my
friend and I, who were safe up at the window, were the only persons in
the place who felt any annoyance.
The prodigious multitude of donkeys formed another strange feature in
the scene. There were hundreds of them, carrying all sorts of things in
panniers; and some of the smallest were ridden by men so tall that they
were obliged to hold up their legs that their feet might not touch the
ground. Donkeys, in short, are the carts of Egypt and the
hackney-coaches of Alexandria.
[Illustration: BEDOUIN ARAB.]
In addition to the donkeys long strings of ungainly-looking camels were
continually passing, generally preceded by a donkey, and accompanied by
swarthy men clad in a short shirt with a red and yellow handkerchief
tied in a peculiar way over their heads, and wearing sandals; these
savage-looking people were Bedouins, or Arabs of the desert. A very
truculent set they seemed to be, and all of them were armed with a long
crooked knife and a pistol or two, stuck in a red leathern girdle. They
were thin, gaunt, and dirty, and strode along looking fierce and
independent. There was something very striking in the appearance of
these untamed Arabs: I had never pictured to myself that anything so
like a wild beast could exist in human form. The motions of their
half-naked bodies were singularly free and light, and they looked as if
they could climb, and run, and leap over anything. The appearance of
many of the older Arabs, with their long white beard and their ample
cloak of camel's hair, called an abba, is majestic and venerable. It was
the first time that I had seen these "Children of the Desert," and the
quickness of their eyes, their apparent freedom from all restraint, and
their disregard of any conventional manners, struck me forcibly. An
English gentleman in a round hat and a tight neck-handkerchief and
boots, with white gloves and a little cane in his hand, was a style of
man so utterly and entirely unlike a Bedouin Arab that I could hardly
conceive the possibility of their being only different species of the
same animal.
After we had dined, being tired with the heat and the trouble we had had
in getting our luggage out of the ship, I resolved to retire to bed at
an early hour, and on going to the window to have another look at the
crowd, I was surprised to find that there was scarcely anybody left in
the streets, for these primitive people all go to bed when it gets dark,
as the birds do; and except a few persons walking home with paper
lanterns in their hands, the place seemed almost entirely deserted.
The next morning, mounted on donkeys, we shambled across half the city
to the residence of Boghos Bey, the Armenian prime minister of Mohammed
Ali Pasha; we were received with great kindness and civility, and as at
this time there had been but very few European travellers in Egypt, we
were treated with distinguished hospitality. The Bey said that although
the Pasha was then in Upper Egypt, he would take care that we should
have every facility in seeing all the objects of interest, and that he
would write to Habeeb Effendi, the Governor of Cairo, to acquaint him of
our arrival, and direct him to let us have the use of the Pasha's
horses, that kawasses should attend us, and that the Pasha would give us
a firman, which would ensure our being well treated throughout the whole
of his dominions.
As a kawass is a person mentioned by all Oriental travellers, it may be
as well to state that he is a sort of armed servant or body-guard
belonging to the government; he bears as his badge of office a thick
cane about four feet long, with a large silver head, with which
instrument he occasionally enforces his commands and supports his
authority as well as his person. Ambassadors, consuls, and occasionally
travellers, are attended by kawasses. Their presence shows that the
person they accompany is protected by the State, and their number
indicates his dignity and rank. Formerly these kawasses were splendidly
attired in embroidered dresses, and their arms and the accoutrements of
their horses were of silver gilt: the ambassador at Constantinople has,
I think, six of these attendants. Of late years their picturesque
costume has been changed to a uniform frock-coat of European make, of a
whity-brown colour.
[Illustration: Silver head of staff.]
There is a higher grade of officer of the same description, who is only
to be met with at Court, and whose functions are nearly the same as
those of a chamberlain with us. He is called a chaoush. His official
staff is surmounted by a silver head, formed like a Greek bishop's
staff, from the two horns of which several little round bells are
suspended by a silver chain. The chaoush is a personage of great
authority in certain things; he is a kind of living firman, before whom
every one makes way. As I was desirous of seeing the shrine of the heads
of Hassan and Hussein in the mosque of Hassan En, a place of peculiar
sanctity at Cairo, into which no Christian had been admitted, the Pasha
sent a chaoush with me, who concealed the head of his staff in his
clothes, to be ready, in case it had been discovered that I was not a
Mahomedan, to protect me from the fury of the devotees, who would
probably have torn to pieces any unbeliever who intruded into the temple
of the sons of Ali.
Besides these two officers, the chaoush and kawass, there is another
attendant upon public men, who is of inferior rank, and is called a
yassakji, or forbidder; he looks like a dirty kawass, and has a stick,
but without the silver knob. He is generally employed to carry messages,
and push people out of the way, to make a passage for you through a
crowd; but this kind of functionary is more frequently seen at
Constantinople and the northern parts of Turkey than in Egypt.
We found Boghos Bey in a large upper room, seated on a divan with two or
three persons to whom he was speaking, while the lower end of the room
was occupied by a crowd of chaoushes, kawasses, and hangers-on of all
descriptions. We were served with coffee, pipes, and sherbet, and were
entertained during the pauses of the conversation by the ticking and
chiming of half a dozen clocks which stood about the room, some on the
floor, some on the side-tables, and some stuck on brackets against the
wall.
One of the persons seated near the prime minister was a shrewd-looking
man with one eye, of whom I was afterwards told the following anecdote.
His name was Walmas; he had been an Armenian merchant, and was an old
acquaintance of Mohammed Ali and of Boghos, before they had either of
them risen to their present importance. Soon after the massacre of the
Mamelukes, Mohammed Ali desired Boghos to procure him a large sum of
money by a certain day, which Boghos declared was impossible at so short
a notice. The Pasha, angry at being thwarted, swore that if he had not
the money by the day he had named, he would have Boghos drowned in the
Nile. The affrighted minister made every effort to collect the requisite
sum, but when the day arrived much was wanting to complete it. Boghos
stood before the Pasha, who immediately exclaimed, "Well! where is the
money?" "Sir," replied Boghos, "I have not been able to get it all! I
have procured all this, but, though I strained every nerve, and took
every measure in my power, it was impossible to obtain the remainder."
"What," exclaimed the Pasha, "you dog, have you not obeyed my commands?
What is the use of a minister who cannot produce all the money wanted by
his sovereign, at however short a notice? Here, put this unbeliever in
a sack, and fling him into the Nile." This scene occurred in the citadel
at Cairo; and an officer and some men immediately put him into a sack,
threw it across a donkey, and proceeded to the Nile. As they were
passing through the city, they were met by Walmas, who was attended by
several servants, and who, seeing something moving in the sack which was
laid across the donkey, asked the guards what they had got there. "Oh!"
said the officer, "we have got Boghos, the Armenian, and we are going to
throw him into the Nile, by his Highness the Pasha's order." "What has
he done?" asked Walmas. "What do we know?" replied the officer;
"something about money, I believe: no great thing, but his Highness has
been in a bad humour lately. He will be sorry for it afterwards.
However, we have our orders, and, therefore, please God, we are going to
pitch him into the Nile." Walmas determined to rescue his old friend,
and, assisted by his servants, immediately attacked the guard, who made
little more than a show of resistance. Boghos was carried off, and
concealed in a safe place, and the guards returned to the citadel and
reported that they had pitched Boghos into the Nile, where he had sunk,
as all should do who disobeyed the commands of his Highness. Some time
afterwards, the Pasha, overcome by financial difficulties, was heard to
say that he wished Boghos was still alive. Walmas, who was present,
after some preliminary conversation (for the ground was rather
dangerous), said that if his own pardon was insured, he could mention
something respecting Boghos which he was sure would be agreeable to his
Highness: and at last he owned that he had rescued him from the guards
and had kept him concealed in his house in hopes of being allowed to
restore so valuable a servant to his master. The Pasha was delighted at
the news, instantly reinstated Boghos in all his former honours, and
Walmas himself stood higher than ever in his favour; but the guards were
executed for disobedience. Ever since that time Boghos Bey has continued
to be the principal minister and most confidential adviser of Mohammed
Ali Pasha.