PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_

TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 32

WORD STUDY

AND

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT

WORDS THEIR RELATIONS

AND THEIR USES

BY

FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D.

EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR

UNITED TYPOTHETÆ OF AMERICA

PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION

UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA

1918

COPYRIGHT, 1918

UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA

CHICAGO, ILL.

PREFACE

This volume, and those which follow it in Part VI of this series, is a

compilation from various sources. The occasion does not call for an

original treatise, but it does call for something somewhat different

from existing text-books. The books prepared for school use are too

academic and too little related to the specific needs of the apprentice

to serve the turn of those for whom this book is intended. On the other

hand the books for writers and printers are as a rule too advanced for

the best service to the beginner. The authors of this Part, therefore,

have tried to compile from a wide range of authorities such material as

would be suited to the needs and the experience of the young apprentice.

The "Rules for the Use and Arrangement of Words" are taken with some

modifications from "How to Write Clearly," Edwin A. Abbott, Boston;

Roberts Bros. This is a very excellent little book but is now, I

believe, out of print. The tables of irregular verbs are the same as

those used in "English Grammar for Common Schools," Robert C. and Thomas

Metcalf, New York; American Book Co.

The student is recommended to study some good grammar with great care.

There are many good grammars. The one used in the schools in the

apprentice's locality will probably do as well as any.

The student should learn to use the dictionary intelligently and should

accustom himself to using it freely and frequently.

The student should also learn to use words correctly and freely. There

are many good books devoted to the study of words, some of which ought

to be easily available. One of the latest and one of the best is

"Putnam's Word Book" published by Putnams, New York. It costs about a

dollar and a half.

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION: IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT 1

THE WORD FAMILIES 1

NOUNS 2

ADJECTIVES 5

ARTICLES 8

VERBS 8

PRONOUNS 15

ADVERBS 16

PREPOSITIONS 17

CONJUNCTIONS 17

INTERJECTIONS 18

GENERAL NOTES 18

RULES FOR CORRECT WRITING 20

THE SENTENCE 21

THE PARAGRAPH 21

RULES FOR THE USE AND ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 22

COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF WORDS 24

TABLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS 40

SUPPLEMENTARY READING 47

REVIEW QUESTIONS 48

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 52

WORD STUDY AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR

_Importance of the Subject_

Word study and English grammar are important to the young printer for

several reasons. In the first place, disregard of the correct use and

combination of words is a distinct mark of inferiority and a serious bar

to business and social advancement. A man's use of words is commonly

taken as a measure of his knowledge and even of his intelligence.

Carelessness in this regard often causes a man to be held in much less

esteem than he really deserves.

In the second place, it is quite as important that the printer should

know something about the words and sentences which he puts on paper as

it is that he should know something about the paper on which he puts

them, or the type, ink, and press by means of which he puts them there.

In the third place, knowledge of words and their uses is indispensable

to correct proofreading which is itself a branch of the printer's craft.

A working knowledge of words and their relations, that is, of rhetoric

and grammar is therefore a tool and a very important tool of the

printer.

This little book is not intended to be either a rhetoric or a grammar.

It is only intended to review some of the simplest principles of both

subjects, to point out a few of the commonest mistakes, and to show the

importance to the apprentice of the careful study and constant use of

some of the many books on words, their combinations, and their uses.

_The Word Families_

All the words in the English language belong to one or another of nine

families, each of which family has a special duty. If you will always

remember to which family a word belongs and just what that family does,

you will be saved from many very common errors. These nine families

are: 1, nouns; 2, adjectives; 3, articles; 4, verbs; 5, pronouns; 6,

adverbs; 7, prepositions; 8, conjunctions; 9, interjections. This order

of enumeration is not exactly the same as will be found in the grammars.

It is used here because it indicates roughly the order of the appearance

of the nine families in the logical development of language. Some forms

of interjections, however, may very probably have preceded any language

properly so called.

_Nouns_

A noun is a word used as the name of anything that can be thought of,

_John_, _boy_, _paper_, _cold_, _fear_, _crowd_. There are three things

about a noun which indicate its relation to other words, its number, its

gender, and its case. There are two numbers, singular meaning one, and

plural meaning more than one.

The plural is generally formed by adding _s_ to the singular. There are

a small number of nouns which form their plurals differently, _mouse_,

_mice_; _child_, _children_; _foot_, _feet_. These must be learned

individually from a dictionary or spelling book. There are some nouns

which undergo changes in the final syllable when the _s_ is added,

_torch_, _torches_; _staff_, _staves_; _fly_, _flies_. These also must

be learned individually. There are some nouns which have no singular,

such as _cattle_, _clothes_, some which have no plural, such as

_physics_, _honesty_, _news_, and some which are the same in both

singular and plural, such as _deer_, _trout_, _series_. Care must be

taken in the use of these nouns, as in some cases their appearance is

misleading, e. g., _mathematics_, _physics_, and the like are singular

nouns having no plural, but owing to their form they are often mistaken

for plurals.

Compound nouns, that is to say, nouns formed by the combination of two

or three words which jointly express a single idea, generally change the

principal word in the forming of the plural, _hangers-on_, _ink

rollers_, but in a few cases both words change, for example,

_men-servants_. These forms must be learned by observation and practice.

It is very important, however, that they be thoroughly learned and

correctly used. Do not make such mistakes as _brother-in-laws_,

_man-servants_.

Perhaps the most important use of number is in the relation between the

noun and the verb. The verb as well as the noun has number forms and the

number of the noun used as subject should always agree with that of the

verb with which it is connected. Such expressions as "pigs is pigs,"

"how be you?" and the like, are among the most marked evidences of

ignorance to be found in common speech. When this paragraph was

originally written a group of high school boys were playing football

under the writer's window. Scraps of their talk forced themselves upon

his attention. Almost invariably such expressions as "you was," "they

was," "he don't," "it aint," and the like took the place of the

corresponding correct forms of speech.

Collective nouns, that is the nouns which indicate a considerable number

of units considered as a whole, such as _herd_, _crowd_, _congress_,

present some difficulties because the idea of the individuals in the

collection interferes with the idea of the collection itself. The

collective nouns call for the singular form of the verb except where the

thought applies to the individual parts of the collection rather than to

the collection as a whole, for instance, we say,

The crowd looks large.

but we say,

The crowd look happy.

because in one case we are thinking of the crowd and in the other of the

persons who compose the crowd. So in speaking of a committee, we may say

The Committee thinks that a certain thing should be done.

or that

The Committee think that a certain thing should be done.

The first phrase would indicate that the committee had considered and

acted on the subject and the statement represented a formal decision.

The second phrase would indicate the individual opinions of the members

of the committee which might be in agreement but had not been expressed

in formal action. In doubtful cases it is safer to use the plural.

Entire accuracy in these cases is not altogether easy. As in the case

with all the nice points of usage it requires practice and continual

self-observation. By these means a sort of language sense is developed

which makes the use of the right word instinctive. It is somewhat

analogous to that sense which will enable an experienced bank teller to

throw out a counterfeit bill instinctively when running over a large

pile of currency even though he may be at some pains to prove its

badness when challenged to show the reason for its rejection.

The young student should not permit himself to be discouraged by the

apparent difficulty of the task of forming the habit of correct speech.

It is habit and rapidly becomes easier after the first efforts.

The relation of a noun to a verb, to another noun, or to a preposition

is called its case. There are three cases called the nominative,

objective, and possessive. When the noun does something it is in the

nominative case and is called the subject of the verb.

The man cuts.

When the noun has something done to it it is in the objective case and

is called the object of the verb.

The man cuts paper.

When a noun depends on a preposition, it is also in the objective case

and is called the object of the preposition.

The paper is cut by machinery.

The preposition on which a noun depends is often omitted when not needed

for clearness.

The foreman gave (to) the men a holiday.

He came (on) Sunday.

Near (to) the press.

He was ten minutes late (late by ten minutes).

He is 18 years old (old by or to the extent of 18 years).

The nominative and objective cases of nouns do not differ in form. They

are distinguished by their positions in the sentence and their relations

to other words.

When one noun owns another the one owning is in the possessive case.

The man's paper is cut.

The possessive case is shown by the form of the noun. It is formed by

adding _s_ preceded by an apostrophe to the nominative case, thus,

John's hat.

There is a considerable difference of usage regarding the formation of

the possessives of nouns ending in _s_ in the singular. The general rule

is to proceed as in other nouns by adding the apostrophe and the other

_s_ as _James's hat_. DeVinne advises following the pronunciation. Where

the second _s_ is not pronounced, as often happens to avoid the

prolonged hissing sound of another _s_, he recommends omitting it in

print.

Moses' hat, for Moses's hat.

For conscience' sake.

Plural nouns ending in _s_ add the apostrophe only; ending in other

letters they add the apostrophe and _s_ like singular nouns, _the Jones'

house_, _the children's toys_.

The possessive pronouns never take the apostrophe. We say _hers_,

_theirs_, _its_. _It's_ is an abbreviation for _it is_.

Care should be taken in forming the possessives of phrases containing

nouns in apposition, or similar compound phrases. We should say "I

called at Brown the printer's" or "since William the Conqueror's time."

_Adjectives_

An adjective is a word used to qualify, limit, or define a noun, or a

word or phrase which has the value of a noun. Nouns are ordinarily very

general and indefinite in meaning, for example, _man_ conveys only a

very general idea. To make that idea definite we need the help of one or

more descriptive words such as _black_, _tall_, _stout_, _good_.

I saw a man.

gives no definite idea of the person seen.

I saw a tall, thin, dark, old man.

presents a very definite picture. It will be noted that these

descriptive words have a way of forming combinations among themselves.

It must be remembered, however, that all the words thus used describe

the noun. Adjectives are sometimes used as substitutes for nouns. This

is one of the many verbal short cuts in which the English language

abounds.

The good die young

means good people die young.

We should seek the good and beautiful

means we should seek good or beautiful things, or persons, or qualities,

or perhaps everything good and beautiful.

When adjectives indicate a quality they have three forms called degrees

indicating the extent or amount of the quality possessed by the noun

especially as compared with other objects of the same sort, _a big man_,

_a bigger man_, _the biggest man_. These degrees are called positive,

indicating possession of bigness; comparative, indicating possession of

more bigness than some other man; superlative, indicating possession of

more bigness than any other man. When we wish to tell the amount of the

quality without comparing the possessor with any other object or group

of objects we use a modifying word later to be described called an

adverb.

I saw a very big man,

indicates that the man possessed much bigness, but makes no comparison

with any other man or group of men. Comparison is generally indicated in

two ways, first, by adding to the adjectives the terminations _er_ and

_est_ as _high_, _higher_, _highest_, or, second, by using the words

_more_ and _most_, as _splendid_, _more splendid_, _most splendid_. The

question which of the two methods should be used is not always easy to

decide. It depends somewhat on usage and on euphony or agreeableness of

sound.

Adjectives of three or more syllables use the long form, that is, the

additional word. We should not say _beautifuler_ or _beautifulest_.

Adjectives of two syllables may often be compared either way; for

example, it would be equally correct to say _nobler_ and _noblest_ or

_more noble_ and _most noble_. An example of the influence of euphony

may be found in the adjective _honest_. We might say _honester_ without

hesitation but we should be less likely to say _honestest_ on account of

the awkward combination of syllables involved. Adjectives of one

syllable usually take the short form but not invariably. The exceptions,

however, are more common in poetry than in prose. When any question

rises it is usually safer to use the long form of comparison in the case

of two-syllable adjectives and to use the short form in the case of

one-syllable adjectives. The proper use of the long form is one of those

niceties of diction which come only with careful observation and with

training of the ear and of the literary sense.

The word _most_ should never be used, as it often is, in the place of

_almost_. Careless people say "I am most ready" meaning "I am almost, or

nearly ready." The phrase "I am most ready," really means "I am in the

greatest possible readiness." Such use of _most_ is common in old

English but much less so in modern speech.

Two very common adjectives are irregularly compared. They are _good_,

_better_, _best_, and _bad_, _worse_, _worst_. In spite of the fact that

these adjectives are among the most common in use and their comparison

may be supposed to be known by everybody, one often hears the

expressions _gooder_, _goodest_, _more better_, _bestest_, _bader_,

_badest_, _worser_, and _worsest_. Needless to say, these expressions

are without excuse except that _worser_ is sometimes found in old

English.

Illiterate people sometimes try to make their speech more forceful by

combining the two methods of comparison in such expressions as _more

prettier_, _most splendidest_. Such compounds should never be used.

Some adjectives are not compared. They are easily identified by their

meaning. They indicate some quality which is of such a nature that it

must be possessed fully or not at all, _yearly_, _double_, _all_. Some

adjectives have a precise meaning in which they cannot be compared and a

loose or popular one in which they can be; for example, a thing either

is or is not _round_ or _square_. Nevertheless we use these words in

such a loose general way that it is not absolutely incorrect to say

_rounder_ and _roundest_ or _squarer_ and _squarest_. Such expressions

should be used with great care and avoided as far as possible. None but

the very ignorant would say _onliest_, but one often sees the

expressions _more_ and _most unique_. This is particularly bad English.

Unique does not mean _rare_, _unusual_; it means one of a kind,

absolutely unlike anything else. Clearly this is a quality which cannot

be possessed in degrees. An object either does or does not have it.

_Articles_

An article is a little adjective which individualizes the noun, _a_ boy,

_an_ apple, _the_ crowd.

_A_ which is used before consonantal sounds and _an_ which is used

before vowel sounds are called indefinite articles because they

individualize without specializing. _The_ is called the definite article

because it both individualizes and specializes.

_A_ may be used before _o_ and _u_ if the sound is really consonantal as

in _such a one_, _a use_, _a utility_. _An_ may be used before _h_ if

the _h_ is not sounded, for example, _an hour_ but _a horror_.

_Verbs_

A verb is a word which asserts or declares. In other words, it makes a

noun or pronoun tell something. _John paper_ tells nothing. _John wastes

paper_ tells something. Verbs are the most difficult of all the parts of

speech to understand and to use properly. As a rule, an English verb has

something more than fifty parts which, with their uses, should be

thoroughly learned from a grammar. This is not so difficult a matter as

it might appear, except to those whose native speech is not English.

Nevertheless you should be on the guard against such blunders as _I

seen_, _I seed_, for _I saw_, _I runned_ for _I ran_, _I et_ for _I

ate_, _I throwed_ for _I threw_, and the like. In most verbs these parts

are regular. In some they are irregular. A list of irregular verbs will

be found at the end of this volume.

While the plan of this book does not call for a systematic study of

verbs any more than of any other words, it is desirable to call

attention to some points as being the occasions of frequent mistakes.

A simple sentence consists of a verb, its subject, and its object. The

verb indicates the action, the subject is the noun (name of a person or

thing) which does the act, the object is the noun to which the thing is

done. Verbs have forms denoting person and number, for example:

Singular Plural

1st I love 1st We love

2nd You love (thou lovest) 2nd You love

formal and archaic.

3rd He loves 3rd They love

Singular Plural

1st I was 1st We were

2nd You were (thou wast) 2nd You were

3rd He was 3rd They were

Verbs agree with their subjects in person and number. We all know this

but we do not always remember it. Unless you are very careful, you will

find yourself using a singular subject with a plural verb or the

reverse. Mistakes of this sort are particularly liable to happen in the

case of collective nouns, in the use of personal pronouns as subjects,

and in cases where the subject and the verb are far separated in the

sentence.

Those forms of the verb which tell whether the subject is acting or is

acted upon are called voices. When the subject is acting the verb is

said to be in the active voice. When the subject is acted upon the verb

is said to be in the passive voice. Verbs in the passive voice have no

objects because the subject, being acted upon, is itself in the place of

an object.

Those forms of the verb which tell whether the time of the action is

past, present, or future, are called tenses. They are six, viz.

Present, I _print_ (_am printing_) the book.

Past or imperfect, I _printed_ the book.

Future, I _shall print_ the book.

Perfect, or present perfect, I _have printed_ the book.

Pluperfect or past perfect, I _had printed_ the book before you

wrote.

Future perfect, I will notify you when I _shall have printed_ the

book.

When adverbs denoting time are indicated care should be taken to see

that the verb is consistent with the adverb. "I _printed_ it yesterday,"

not "I _have printed_ it yesterday;" "I _have not_ yet _printed_ it,"

not "I _did_ not _print_ it yet;" "I _have printed_ it already," not "I

_printed_ it already."

Trouble is sometimes found in choosing the right forms of the verb to be

used in subordinate clauses. The rule is:

Verbs in subordinate sentences and clauses must be governed by the tense

of the principal verb.

This rule rests on the exact meaning of the forms and words used and its

application can be checked by careful examination of these meanings. "He

_said_ he _did_ it." "He _said_ he _would do_ it." "He _says_ he _will_

do it."

Note that when the statement in the subordinate clause is of universal

application the present tense is always used whatever the tense of the

principal verb. "The lecturer said that warm weather always softens

rollers."

Those forms of the verb which tell whether the action is an actual fact,

a possibility, a condition, or a command are called moods.

There are three moods, the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative.

The indicative mood indicates that the action is a fact. It is also used

in asking questions.

The subjunctive mood is less used in modern than in old English. It is

most commonly found in clauses beginning with _if_, though _if_ is not

to be regarded as the sign of the subjunctive in any such sense as _to_

is the sign of the infinitive.

The subjunctive _were_ should be used in purely hypothetical clauses

such as "If I were in your place."

The subjunctive _be_ should be used in the hypothesis or supposition of

a scientific demonstration,

If the triangle A be placed on the triangle B.

The subjunctive without _if_ is often used in wishes or prayers,

God forgive him.

O, that my brother were here.

The subjunctive is sometimes used to express condition,

Had you not been a coward, you would not have run away.

The imperative mood indicates a command,

Put that on the press.

The subject of the imperative mood is only expressed when it is

emphatic,

Go thou and do likewise.

Older grammarians speak of a fourth mood called potential. The present

tendency among grammarians is to treat these forms separately. They are

verb phrases which express ability, possibility, obligation, or

necessity. They are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs _may_,

_can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and _should_, with the

infinitive without _to_.

_May_ is used (a) to show that the subject is permitted to do something,

"You may go out," or (b) to indicate possibility or doubtful intention,

"I may not go to work tomorrow."

_Can_ is used to show that the subject is able to do something, "I can

feed a press." These two forms are often confused, with results which

would be ridiculous if they were not too common to attract attention.

The confusion perhaps arises from the fact that the ability to do a

thing often appears to depend on permission to do it. "May I see a

proof?" means "Have I permission, or will you allow me, to see a proof?"

and is the proper way to put the question. The common question, "Can I

see a proof?" is absurd. Of course you can, if you have normal eyesight.

_Must_ shows necessity or obligation.

You must obey the rules of the office.

_Ought_ which is sometimes confounded with _must_ in phrases of this

sort expresses moral obligation as distinguished from necessity.

You ought to obey the rules of the office,

indicates that it is your duty to obey because it is the right thing to

do even though no penalty is attached.

You must obey the rules of the office,

indicates that you will be punished if you do not obey.

Those forms of the verb which express the time of the action are called

tenses. No particular difficulty attends the use of the tenses except in

the case of _shall_ and _will_ and _should_ and _would_.

_Shall_ and _will_ are used as follows: In simple statements to express

mere futurity, use _shall_ in the first person, _will_ in the second and

third; to express volition, promise, purpose, determination, or action

which the speaker means to control use _will_ in the first person,

_shall_ in the second and third.

The following tables should be learned and practiced in a large variety

of combinations.

Futurity Volition, etc.

I shall We shall I will We will

You will You will You shall You shall

He will They will He shall They shall

A good example of the misuse of the words is found in the old story of

the foreigner who fell into the water and cried out in terror and

despair "I _will_ drown, nobody _shall_ help me."

In asking questions, for the first person always use _shall_, for the

second and third use the auxiliary expected in the answer.

Futurity

Shall I (I shall) Shall we (We shall)

Shall you (I shall) Shall you (We shall)

Will he (He will) Will they (They will)

Volition, etc.

---- ---- ---- ----

Will you (I will) Will you (We will)

Shall he (He shall) Shall he (He shall)

In all other cases, as in subordinate clauses _shall_ is used in all

persons to express mere futurity, _will_ to express volition, etc.

In indirect discourse, when the subject of the principal clause is

different from the noun clause, the usage is like that in direct

statement, for example,

The teacher says that James will win the medal. (futurity),

but when the subject of the principal clause is the same as that of the

noun clause, the usage is like that in subordinate clauses,

The teacher says that he shall soon resign. (futurity).

Exceptions. _Will_ is often used in the second person to express an

official command.

You will report to the superintendent at once.

_Shall_ is sometimes used in the second and third persons in a prophetic

sense.

Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free.

The use of _should_ and _would_ is in general the same as that of

_shall_ and _will_ in indirect statement.

Futurity.

I should We would

You would You should

He would They should

In asking questions use _should_ in the first person to express mere

futurity and _would_ to express volition, etc; in the second and third

persons use the form that is expected in the answer.

Futurity

Should I (I should) Should we (We should)

Should You (I should) Should You (We should)

Would he (He would) Would they (They would)

Volition, etc.

Would I (I would) Would we (We would)

Would You (You would) Would You (We would)

Should he (He should) Should they (They should)

In subordinate clauses _should_ is used in all persons to express

futurity, _would_ to express volition, etc.

In indirect discourse the usage is similar to that in direct statement.

The teacher said that John would win the medal.

Exceptions. _Should_ is often used to express moral obligation.

You should be honest under all conditions.

_Would_ is sometimes used to express frequentive action.

He would walk the floor night after night.

Mistakes are often made in the use of compound tenses on account of

failure to grasp the meaning of the words used.

I should have liked to have seen you,

is correct grammar but probably not correct statement of fact, as it

states a past desire to have done something at a period still further

remote, that is to say, "I should have liked (yesterday) to have seen

you (day before yesterday)." What is generally meant is either "I should

have liked to see you," that is "I (then) wished to see you," or "I

should like to have seen you," that is "I (now) wish I had seen you

(then)."

Every word has its own value and nearly all our mistakes arise from lack

of regard for the exact value of the words to be used.

Where a participial construction is used as the object of a verb, the

noun or pronoun in the object should be in the possessive case and not

in the objective. You should not say, "I object to him watching me," but

"I object to his watching me."

Care should be taken not to give objects to passive verbs. The very

common expression "The man was given a chance" is incorrect. It should

be "A chance was given to the man."

Care should also be taken to avoid the omission of the prepositions

which are needed with certain verbs, for example, "beware the dog,"

"What happened him" should be "beware _of_ the dog," "What happened _to_

him."

On the other hand superfluous prepositions are sometimes used in such

phrases as _consider of_, _accept of_ and the like.

Such errors are to be avoided by careful study of the meaning of words

and careful observation of the best written and spoken speech.

_Pronouns_

Pronouns are substitutes for nouns. They are labor saving devices. We

could say everything which we need to say without them, but at the

expense of much repetition of longer words. A child often says "John

wants Henry's ball" instead of "I want your ball." Constant remembrance

of this simple fact, that a pronoun is only a substitute for a noun, is

really about all that is needed to secure correct usage after the

pronouns themselves have once become familiar. A construction which

appears doubtful can often be decided by substituting nouns for pronouns

and vice versa.

A very common error is the use of the plural possessive pronouns with

the words _any_, _every_, _each_, _somebody_, _everybody_, and _nobody_,

all of which are always singular.

We could accomplish this if every one would do their part.

is wrong. It should be

We could accomplish this if every one would do his part.

Another common mistake is the confusion of the nominative and objective

cases in objective clauses where two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun

occur.

All this was done for you and I.

is a very common but entirely inexcusable mistake. One would hardly

think of saying

"All this was done for I."

I saw John and he leaving the shop.

is almost equally common and quite equally bad. Do not allow yourself to

be confused by a double object.

In general great care should be taken to avoid ambiguity in the use of

pronouns. It is very easy to multiply and combine pronouns in such a way

that while grammatical rules may not be broken the reader may be left

hopelessly confused. Such ambiguous sentences should be cleared up,

either by a rearrangement of the words or by substitution of nouns for

some of the pronouns.

_Adverbs_

An adverb is a helper to a verb, "I fear greatly," "that press works

badly." Adverbs modify or help verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs just

as adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. The use of adverbs presents

some difficulties, mainly arising from the adverbial use of many other

parts of speech and from the close relation between adverbs and

adjectives.

It should never be forgotten that while adverbs never modify nouns or

pronouns, adjectives never modify anything but nouns or pronouns.

Remembrance of this simple fact will settle most questions as to the use

of adverbs or adjectives. Careful observation and care in forming

correct habits of expression will do the rest.

Do not multiply negatives. They cancel each other like the factors in an

arithmetical problem. "He never did wrong" is correct in statement and

clear in meaning. "He never did nothing wrong" does not add force, it

reverses the meaning. The negatives have cancelled each other and you

are saying "He did wrong." "He never did nothing wrong to nobody" leaves

us with an odd negative and brings us back to the first statement, very

badly expressed.

_Prepositions_

A preposition is a hook for a noun or pronoun to hang on. It usually

precedes the noun or pronoun which hangs, or depends upon it, as

indicated by its name which is derived from the Latin _pre_-before and

_pono_-I place.

John is behind the press.

I shall work until Sunday.

A preposition shows the relation of a noun or pronoun used as its object

to some other word or words in the sentence or, as it has been otherwise

stated, makes the noun or pronoun to which it is joined equivalent to an

adjective or an adverb. The expression "John is behind the press" is

equivalent to an adjective describing John. That is, he is "John

behind-the-press." Prepositions are governing words and the words

governed by or depending on them are always in the objective case.

_Conjunctions_

A conjunction is the coupling link between the parts of a train of

thought. It is of no purpose whatever except to connect.

I am cold and hungry and tired and I am going home.

Care should be taken to avoid confusing _and_ and _but_ and _and_ and

_or_.

He sees the right and does the wrong.

should be

He sees the right but does the wrong.

The ideas are contrasted, not associated.

I did not see Thomas and John.

should be

I did not see Thomas or John.

The first phrase means that I did not see them together, it says nothing

about seeing them separately.

_Either_--_or_ and _neither_--_nor_ are called correlative conjunctions.

They should always be paired in this way. _Neither_ should never be

paired with _or_ nor _either_ with _nor_. Each member of the pair

should be placed in the same relative position, that is before the same

part of speech.

I could neither see him nor his father.

is wrong. It should be

I could see neither him nor his father.

This rule applies to all other correlatives, that is since they are

correlatives in form they should be correlatives in position also. It is

correct to say

It belongs both to you and to me.

or

It belongs to both you and me.

but not

It belongs both to you and me.

_Interjections_

An interjection is a word or sound expressing emotion only such as a

shout, a groan, a hiss, a sob, or the like, such as _Oh_, _alas_,

_hush_.

_General Notes_

The position of words in a sentence is often very important.

Misplacement will frequently cause ambiguities and absurdities which

punctuation will not remove. What does the phrase "I only saw him" mean?

A newspaper advertisement describing a certain dog which was offered for

sale says "He is thoroughly house-broken, will eat anything, is very

fond of children." As a rule modifiers should be kept close to the

words, clauses, or phrases which they modify, but due regard should be

given to sense and to ease of expression.

A word or phrase which can be easily supplied from the context may often

be omitted. Care must be used in making these omissions or the result

will be either ambiguous or slovenly.

Washington is nearer New York than Chicago.

What exactly does this mean? One might get into serious trouble over the

interpretation of the phrase "He likes me better than you."

_All day_ and _all night_ are recognized as good expressions sanctioned

by long usage. _All morning_ and _all afternoon_ are not yet sanctioned

by good usage and give a decided impression of slovenliness.

Another objectionable omission is that of _to_ before _place_ and

similar words in such expressions as "Let's go some place" and the like.

It should be _to some place_ or, generally better, _somewhere_.

A decidedly offensive abbreviation is the phrase _Rev. Smith_. It should

be _Rev. John Smith_ or _Rev. Mr. Smith_. _Rev._ is not a title, or a

noun in apposition, but an adjective. It would be entirely correct to

say _Pastor Smith_ or _Bishop Smith_. The same error sometimes occurs in

using the prefix _Hon._

A knowledge of the correct use and combination of words is fully as

important as a knowledge of their grammatical forms and their relations.

This knowledge should be acquired by the use of books on rhetoric and by

careful study of words themselves. The materials for such study may be

found in the books named in the "Supplementary Reading" or in other

books of a similar character.

The task of the writer or speaker is to say what he has to say

correctly, clearly, and simply. He must say just what he means. He must

say it definitely and distinctly. He must say it, so far as the subject

matter will permit, in words that people of ordinary intelligence and

ordinary education cannot misunderstand. "The right word in the right

place" should be the motto of every man who speaks or writes, and this

rule should apply to his everyday talk as well as to more formal

utterances.

Three abuses are to be avoided.

Do not use slang as a means of expression. There are occasions when a

slang phrase may light up what you are saying or may carry it home to

intellects of a certain type. Use it sparingly if at all, as you would

use cayenne pepper or tabasco sauce. Do not use it in writing at all.

Slang is the counterfeit coin of speech. It is a substitute, and a very

poor substitute, for language. It is the refuge of those who neither

understand real language nor know how to express themselves in it.

Do not use long, unusual words. Use short and simple words whenever they

will serve your turn. It is a mistake to suppose that a fluent use of

long words is a mark either of depth of thought or of extent of

information. The following bit of nonsense is taken from the news

columns of a newspaper of good standing: "The topography about Puebla

avails itself easily to a force which can utilize the heights above the

city with cannon." What was meant was probably something like this, "The

situation of Puebla is such as to give a great advantage to a force

which can plant cannon on the high ground overlooking the city."

Do not use inflated or exaggerated words.

A _heavy shower_ is not a _cloud burst_; a _gale_ is not a _blizzard_; a

_fire_ is not a _conflagration_; an _accident_ or a _defeat_ is not a

_disaster_; a _fatal accident_ is not a _holocaust_; a _sharp criticism_

is not an _excoriation_ or _flaying_, and so on.

_Rules for Correct Writing_

More than a century ago the great Scotch rhetorician Campbell framed

five canons or rules for correct writing. They have never been improved.

They should be learned by heart, thoroughly mastered, and constantly

practiced by every writer and speaker. They are as follows:

Canon 1.--When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is

susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference

should be given to the latter: e. g., _admittance_ is better than

_admission_, as the latter word also means _confession_; _relative_ is

to be preferred to _relation_, as the latter also means the telling of a

story.

Canon 2.--In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the

language; _might better_ should be preferred to _had better_, and _would

rather_ is better than _had rather_.

Canon 3.--The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things

being equal, e. g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as,

_open_ (_up_), _meet_ (_together_), _follow_ (_after_), _examine_

(_into_), _trace_ (_out_), _bridge_ (_over_), _crave_ (_for_), etc.

Canon 4.--Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer

the one which is more euphonious: e. g., _most beautiful_ is better than

_beautifullest_, and _more free_ is to be preferred to _freer_.

Canon 5.--In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that

which conforms to the older usage: e. g., _begin_ is better than

_commence_.

_The Sentence_

The proper construction of sentences is very important to good writing.

The following simple rules will be of great assistance in sentence

formation. They should be carefully learned and the pupil should be

drilled in them.

1. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of

thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.

2. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by adverbs

used as conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the

beginning of the sentence.

3. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes

requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of thought.

_The Paragraph_

The proper construction of paragraphs is also of great importance. The

following rules will serve as guides for paragraphing. They should be

learned and the pupil should be drilled in their application.

1. A sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes

it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph.

2. Each paragraph should possess a single central topic to which all the

statements in the paragraph should relate. The introduction of a single

statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity.

3. A sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph to

which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to emphasize

it.

4. For ease in reading, a passage which exceeds three hundred words in

length may be broken into two paragraphs, even though no new topic has

been developed.

5. Any digression from the central topic, or any change in the viewpoint

in considering the central topic, demands a new paragraph.

6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of

development.

7. Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of

proper connective words between closely related sentences. A common

fault, however, is the incorrect use of such words as _and_ or _but_

between sentences which are not closely related.

8. In developing the paragraph, emphasis is secured by a careful

consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed, giving to

each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole. This

secures the proper climax.

9. The paragraph, like the composition itself, should possess clearness,

unity, coherence, and emphasis. It is a group of related sentences

developing a central topic. Its length depends upon the length of the

composition and upon the number of topics to be discussed.

_Rules for the Use and Arrangement of Words_

The following rules for the use and arrangement of words will be found

helpful in securing clearness and force.

1. Use words in their proper sense.

2. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."

3. Avoid exaggerations.

4. Be careful in the use of _not_ ... _and_, _any_, _but_, _only_, _not_

... _or_, _that_.

5. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e. g., _certain_.

6. Be careful in the use of _he_, _it_, _they_, _these_, etc.

7. Report a speech in the first person where necessary to avoid

ambiguity.

8. Use the third person where the exact words of the speaker are not

intended to be given.

9. When you use a participle implying _when_, _while_, _though_, or

_that_, show clearly by the context what is implied.

10. When using the relative pronoun, use _who_ or _which_, if the

meaning is _and he_ or _and it_, _for he_ or _for it_.

11. Do not use _and which_ for _which_.

12. Repeat the antecedent before the relative where the non-repetition

causes any ambiguity.

13. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract nouns.

14. Avoid verbal nouns where verbs can be used.

15. Use particular persons instead of a class.

16. Do not confuse metaphor.

17. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.

18. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.

19. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i. e., for the most

part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence.

20. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end.

21. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred from

the beginning of the sentence.

22. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis.

23. Where several words are emphatic make it clear which is the most

emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an

intensifying word.

24. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are

grammatically connected.

25. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to

qualify.

26. _Only_; the strict rule is that _only_ should be placed before the

word it affects.

27. When _not only_ precedes _but also_ see that each is followed by the

same part of speech.

28. _At least_, _always_, and other adverbial adjuncts sometimes produce

ambiguity.

29. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define.

30. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the

intervention of any other noun.

31. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close

together as possible. Avoid parentheses.

32. In conditional sentences the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be kept

distinct from the consequent clauses.

33. Dependent clauses preceded by _that_ should be kept distinct from

those that are independent.

34. Where there are several infinitives those that are dependent on the

same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.

35. In a sentence with _if_, _when_, _though_, etc. put the "if-clause"

first.

36. Repeat the subject where its omission would cause obscurity or

ambiguity.

37. Repeat a preposition after an intervening conjunction especially if

a verb and an object also intervene.

38. Repeat conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and pronominal adjectives.

39. Repeat verbs after the conjunctions _than_, _as_, etc.

40. Repeat the subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of

what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to

keep the thread of meaning unbroken.

41. Clearness is increased when the beginning of the sentence prepares

the way for the middle and the middle for the end, the whole forming a

kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."

42. When the thought is expected to ascend but descends, feebleness, and

sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called "bathos."

43. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly.

_Common Errors in the Use of Words_

The following pages contain a short list of the more common errors in

the use of words. Such a list might be extended almost indefinitely. It

is only attempted to call attention to such mistakes as are, for

various reasons, most liable to occur.

_A_ should be repeated for every individual. "A red and black book"

means one book, "a red and a black book" means two.

_Abbreviate_, and _abridge_; _abbreviation_ is the shortening of a piece

of writing no matter how accomplished. An _abridgement_ is a

condensation.

_Ability_, power to do something, should be distinguished from

_capacity_, power to receive something.

_Above_ should not be used as an adjective, e. g., "The statement made

in _above_ paragraph." Substitute _preceding_, _foregoing_, or some

similar adjective.

_Accept_, not _accept of_.

_Accredit_, to give one credentials should be distinguished from

_credit_, to believe what one says.

_Administer_ is often misused. One _administers_ a dose of medicine, the

laws, an oath, or the government; one does not _administer_ a blow.

_Administer to_ is often incorrectly used for _minister to_, e. g., "The

red cross nurse _administers to_ the wounded."

_Admire_ should not be used to express delight, as in the phrase "I

should _admire_ to do so."

_Admit_ should be distinguished from _confess_.

_Advent_ should be distinguished from _arrival_, _advent_ meaning an

epoch-making _arrival_.

_Affable_ means "easy to speak to" and should not be confused with

_agreeable_.

_Affect_ should be distinguished from _effect_. To _affect_ is to

influence; to _effect_ is to cause or bring about.

_Aggravate_ should not be used for _annoy_ or _vex_ or _provoke_. It

means "to make worse."

_Ain't_ is a corruption of _am not_. It is inelegant though grammatical

to say I _ain't_ but absolutely incorrect in other persons and numbers.

_Alike_ should not be accompanied by _both_ as in the phrase "They are

_both alike_ in this respect."

_All_, _All right_ should never be written _alright_. _All_ and

_universally_ should never be used together. _All_ should not be

accompanied by _of_, e. g., "He received _all of_ the votes." Be careful

about the use of _all_ in negative statements. Do not say "All present

are not printers" when you mean "Not all present are printers." The

first statement means there are no printers present, the second means

there are some printers present.

_Allege_ is a common error for _say_, _state_, and the like. It means

"to declare," "to affirm," or "to assert with the idea of positiveness"

and is not applicable to ordinary statements not needing emphasis.

_Allow_ means _permit_, never _think_ or _admit_.

_Allude to_ is not the same as _mention_. A person or thing alluded to

is not mentioned but indirectly implied.

_Alone_ which means _unaccompanied_ should be distinguished from _only_

which means _no other_.

_Alternative_ should never be used in speaking of more than two things.

_Altogether_ is not the same as _all together_.

_Among_ should not be used with _one another_, e. g., "They divided the

spoil _among one another_." It should be "among themselves."

_And_ should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position

as to interfere with the construction. It should not be substituted for

_to_ in such cases as "Try _and_ take more exercise."

_And which_ should not be used for _which_.

_Another_ should be followed by _than_ not _from_, e. g., "Men of

another temper _from_ (_than_) the Greeks."

_Answer_ is that which is given to a question; _reply_ to an assertion.

_Anticipate_ should not be used in the sense of _expect_. It means "to

forestall."

_Anxious_ should not be confused with _desirous_. It means "feeling

anxiety."

_Any_ is liable to ambiguity unless it is used with care. "Any of them"

may be either singular or plural. "It is not intended for _any_ machine"

may mean "There is no machine for which it is intended," or "It is not

intended for every machine, but only for a special type."

_Anybody else's_, idiomatic and correct.

_Anyhow_, bad, do not use it.

_Apparently_ is used of what seems to be real but may not be so. It

should not be confused with _evidently_ which is used of what both seems

to be and is real.

_Appear_ is physical in its meaning and should be distinguished from

_seem_ which expresses a mental experience. "The forest _appears_ to be

impenetrable," "This does not _seem_ to me to be right."

_Apt_ means "skilful" and should never be used in place of _likely_ or

_liable_. It also means "having a natural tendency."

_As_ should not be used as a causal conjunction, e. g., "Do not expect

me _as_ I am too uncertain of my time." The word _as_ stands here as a

contraction of inasmuch. Substitute a semicolon, or make two sentences.

_As to_ is redundant in such expressions as "_As to_ how far we can

trust him I cannot say."

_At_ is often incorrectly used for _in_, e. g., "He lives _at_ Chicago."

It is also improperly used in such expressions as "Where is he _at_?"

_As that_ should not be used for _that_ alone. Do not say "So _as that_

such and such a thing may happen."

_Audience_ is not the same as _spectators_. An _audience_ listens;

_spectators_ merely see. A concert has an _audience_; a moving picture

show has _spectators_.

_Aught_ means "anything" and should not be confused with _naught_ or the

symbol _0_ which means "nothing."

_Avenge_ means to redress wrongs done to others; _revenge_ wrong done to

ourselves. _Avenge_ usually implies just retribution. _Revenge_ may be

used of malicious retaliation.

_Avocation_ should not be confused with _vocation_. A man's _vocation_

is his principal occupation. His _avocation_ is his secondary

occupation.

_Aware_ is not the same as _conscious_. We are _aware_ of things outside

of ourselves; we are _conscious_ of sensations or things within

ourselves.

_Awful_ and _awfully_ are two very much abused words. They mean "awe

inspiring" and should never be used in any other sense.

_Badly_ should not be used for _very much_. It should not be confused

with the adjective _bad_. "He looks badly" means he makes a bad use of

his eyes, say "He looks bad."

_Bank on_ is slang. Say _rely on_ or _trust in_.

_Beg_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _beg leave_, not "I

_beg_ to say" but "I _beg leave_ to say."

_Beside_, meaning "by the side of" should not be confused with _besides_

meaning "in addition to."

_Between_ applies only to two persons or things.

_Blame on_ as a verb should never be used.

_Both_, when _both--and_ are used be sure they connect the right words,

"He can both spell and punctuate" not "He both can spell and punctuate."

Do not use such expressions as "They both resemble each other." Be

careful to avoid confusion in the use of negative statements. Do not say

"Both cannot go" when you mean that one can go.

_Bound_ in the sense of _determined_ is an Americanism and is better

avoided. We say "he is _bound_ to do it" meaning "he is _determined_ to

do it," but the phrase really means "He is under bonds, or obligation to

do it."

_Bring_ should be carefully distinguished from _fetch_, _carry_ and

_take_. _Bring_ means to transfer toward the speaker. _Fetch_ means to

go and bring back. _Carry_ and _take_ mean to transfer from the speaker,

e. g., "_Bring_ a book home from the library." "_Fetch_ me a glass of

water." "_Carry_ this proof to the proofreader." "_Take_ this book

home."

_But_ is sometimes used as a preposition and when so used takes the

objective case. "The boy stood on the burning deck whence all _but_ him

had fled." _But_ should not be used in connection with _that_ unless

intended to express the opposite of what the meaning would be without

it, e. g., "I have no doubt _but that_ he will die" is incorrect because

his death is expected. "I have no fear _but that_ he will come" is

correct, as the meaning intended is "I am sure he will come."

_But what_ is often incorrectly used for _but that_. "I cannot believe

_but what_ he is guilty" probably means "I can but believe that he is

guilty." "I _cannot but_ believe" means "I must believe."

_Calculate_ does not mean _think_ or _suppose_.

_Calculated_ does not mean _likely_. It means "intended or planned for

the purpose."

_Can_ which indicates ability is to be distinguished from _may_ which

indicates permission.

_Cannot but_ should be carefully distinguished from _can but_, e. g., "I

_can but_ try" means "All I can do is try." "I _cannot but try_" means

"I cannot help trying."

_Can't seem_ should not be used for _seem unable_, e. g., "I _can't

seem_ to see it."

_Childlike_ should be carefully distinguished from _childish_.

_Childish_ refers particularly to the weakness of the child.

_Come_ should not be confused with _Go_. _Come_ denotes motion toward

the speaker; _go_ motion from the speaker, "If you will come to see me,

I will go to see you."

_Common_ should be distinguished from _mutual_. _Common_ means "shared

in common." _Mutual_ means "reciprocal" and can refer to but two persons

or things. A _common_ friend is a friend two or more friends have in

common. _Mutual_ friendship is the friendship of two persons for each

other.

_Compare to_, _liken to_, _compare with_, means "measure by" or "point

out similarities and differences."

_Condign_ means "suitable" or "deserved," not necessarily _severe_.

_Condone_ means "to forgive" or "nullify by word or act," not "make

amends for."

_Consider_ in the sense of _regard as_ should not usually be followed by

_as_, e. g., "I consider him a wise man," not "_as_ a wise man."

_Contemptible_ is used of an object of contempt and it should be

distinguished from _contemptuous_ which is used of what is directed at

such an object, e. g., "He is a _contemptible_ fellow." "I gave him a

_contemptuous_ look."

_Continual_ should not be confused with _continuous_. _Continual_ means

"frequently repeated." _Continuous_ means "uninterrupted."

_Convene_, which means "to come together," should not be confused with

_convoke_ which means "to bring or call together." A legislature

_convenes_. It cannot be _convened_ by another, but it can be

_convoked_.

_Crime_ is often used for offenses against the speaker's sense of right.

Properly _crime_ is a technical word meaning "offenses against law." A

most innocent action may be a _crime_ if it is contrary to a statute.

The most sinful, cruel, or dishonest action is no _crime_ unless

prohibited by a statute.

_Dangerous_ should not be used for _dangerously ill_.

_Data_ is plural.

_Deadly_, "that which inflicts death" should not be confused with

_deathly_, "that which resembles death."

_Decided_ must not be confused with _decisive_. A _decided_ victory is a

clear and unmistakable victory. A _decisive_ victory is one which

decides the outcome of a war or of a campaign.

_Decimate_ means to take away one-tenth. It is not properly used in a

general way of the infliction of severe losses.

_Definite_ which means "well defined" should not be confused with

_definitive_ which means "final."

_Demean_ is related to _demeanor_ and means "behave." It should be

carefully distinguished from _degrade_ or _lower_.

_Die._ We die _of_ a certain disease, not _with_ or _from_ it.

_Differ_ in the sense of disagree is followed by _with_. "I _differ

with_ you." _Differ_ as indicating unlikeness is followed by _from_.

_Different_ should be followed by _from_ never by _with_, _than_, or

_to_.

_Directly_ should not be used for _as soon as_.

_Discover_, "to find something which previously existed" should be

distinguished from _invent_ something for the first time.

_Disinterested_ means "having no financial or material interest in a

thing." It should be carefully distinguished from _uninterested_ which

means "taking no interest in" a thing.

_Dispense_, "to distribute" should not be confused with _dispense with_,

"to do without."

_Disposition_ is not the same as _disposal_.

_Distinguish_ which means "to perceive differences" should not be

confused with _differentiate_ which means "to make or constitute a

difference."

_Divide_ should be carefully distinguished from _distribute_.

_Don't_ is a contraction of do not. _Doesn't_ is the contraction for

does not. _I don't_, _they don't_, _he doesn't_.

_Due_ should not be used for _owing to_ or _because of_.

_Each_ is distributive and is always singular. _Each other_ which is

applicable to two only should not be confused with _one another_ which

is applicable to more than two.

_Egotist_, a man with a high or conceited opinion of himself, should not

be confused with _egoist_ which is the name for a believer in a certain

philosophical doctrine.

_Either_ is distributive and therefore singular and should never be used

of more than two.

_Elegant_ denotes delicacy and refinement and should not be used as a

term of general approval.

_Else_ should be followed by _than_, not by _but_. "No one else _than_

(not _but_) he could have done so much."

_Emigrant_, one who goes out of a country should not be confused with

_immigrant_, one who comes into a country.

_Enormity_ is used of wickedness, cruelty, or horror, not of great size,

for which _enormousness_ should be used. We speak of the _enormity_ of

an offence but of the _enormousness_ of a crowd.

_Enthuse_ should not be used as a verb.

_Equally as_ well; say _equally well_, or _as well_.

_Every place_ used adverbially should be _everywhere_.

_Except_ should never be used in the sense of _unless_ or _but_.

_Exceptional_ which means "unusual," "forming an exception" should not

be confused with _exceptionable_ which means "open to objection."

_Expect_ which involves a sense of the future should not be confused

with _suppose_ and similar words, as in the phrase "I _expect_ you know

all about it."

_Factor_ is not to be confounded with _cause_.

_Falsity_ applies to things, _falseness_ to persons.

_At fault_ means "at a loss of what to do next." _In fault_ means "in

the wrong."

_Favor_ should not be used in the sense of _resemble_.

_Female_ should not be used for _woman_. The words _female_, _woman_,

and _lady_ should be used with careful attention to their respective

shades of meaning.

_Few_, which emphasizes the fact that the number is small should be

distinguished from _a few_ which emphasizes the fact that there is a

number though it be small. "_Few_ shall part where many meet." "_A few_

persons were saved in the ark."

_Fewer_ applies to number; _less_ to quantity.

_Firstly_ should not be used for _first_ although secondly and thirdly

may be used to complete the series.

_Fix_ should not be used in the sense of _repair_, _arrange_, or

_settle_.

_Former_ and _latter_ should never be used where more than two things

are involved.

_Frequently_ should be distinguished from commonly, _generally_,

_perpetually_, _usually_. _Commonly_ is the antithesis of _rarely_,

_frequently_ of _seldom_, _generally_ of _occasionally_, _usually_ of

_casually_.

_Funny_ should not be used to mean _strange_ or _remarkable_.

_Gentleman Friend_ and _Lady Friend_ are expressions which should be

avoided, say "man or woman friend" or "man or woman of my acquaintance"

or even "gentleman or lady of my acquaintance."

_Good_ should not be used in the sense of _well_. "I feel _good_."

_Got_ is said to be the most misused word in the language. The verb

means to secure by effort and should be used only with this meaning, e. g.,

"I have _got_ the contract." _Have got_ to indicate mere possession

is objectionable. Mere possession is indicated by _have_ alone. Another

common mistake is the use of _got_ to express obligation or constraint.

"I have _got_ to do it."

_Guess_ should not be used in the sense of _think_ or _imagine_.

_Handy_ should never be used to express nearness.

_Hanged_ should be used to express the execution of a human being.

_Hung_ is the past participle in all other uses.

_Hardly._ "I _can hardly_ see it," not "I _can't hardly_ see it."

_Healthy_ which means "possessed of health" should be distinguished

from _healthful_ and _wholesome_ which mean "health giving."

_High_ should not be confused with _tall_.

_Home_ is not a synonym for _house_. A beautiful _house_ is a very

different thing from a beautiful _home_.

_Honorable_ as a title should always be preceded by _the_.

_How_ should not be used for _what_, or for _that_. It means "in what

manner."

_How that_ should not be used when either one will do alone. Such a

sentence as "We have already noted how that Tillotson defied rubrical

order...." is very bad.

_If_ should not be used in the sense of _where_ or _that_.

_Ilk_ means "the same" not _kind_ or _sort_.

_Ill_ is an adverb as well as an adjective. Do not say illy.

_In_ should not be used for _into_ when motion is implied. You ride _in_

a car but you get _into_ it.

_Inaugurate_ should not be used for _begin_.

_Individual_ should not be used for _person_.

_Inside of_ should not be used as an expression of time.

_Invaluable_, meaning "of very great value" should not be confused with

_valueless_, meaning "of no value."

_Invite_ should not be used for _invitation_.

_Kind_ is not plural. Do not say "These" or "those" _kind_ of things.

_Kind of_ should never be followed by the indefinite article. "What

_kind of_ man is he?" not "What _kind of a_ man is he?" _Kind of_ or

_sort of_ should not be used in the sense of _rather_ or _somewhat_.

_Kindly_ is often misused in such expressions as "You are _kindly_

requested to recommend a compositor." Undoubtedly the idea of kindness

is attached to the recommendation not to the request and the sentence

should be so framed as to express it.

_Last_ is often misused for _latest_. "The _last_ number of the paper"

is not the one that appeared this morning but the one that finally

closes publication.

_Latter_ applies only to the last of two. If a longer series than two is

referred to, say _the last_.

_Lay_, which is a transitive verb, should not be confused with _lie_.

_Lay_ is a verb which expresses causitive action; _lie_ expresses

passivity. "He _lays_ plans." "He _lies_ down." The past tense of _lay_

is _laid_, that of _lie_ is _lay_.

_Learn_ should not be used in place of _teach_.

_Lengthy_ is a very poor substitute for _long_, which needs no

substitute.

_Liable_ should not be used for _likely_. _Liable_ means an unpleasant

probability. _Likely_ means any probability. _Liable_ is also used to

express obligation. He is _liable_ for this debt.

_Like_ must never be used in the sense of _as_. "Do _like_ I do" should

be "Do _as_ I do."

_Literally_ implies that a statement to which it is attached is

accurately and precisely true. It is frequently misused.

_Loan_ is a noun, not a verb.

_Locate_ should not be used in the sense of _settle_.

_Lot_ or _lots_ should not be used to indicate a _great deal_.

_Love_ expresses affection or, in its biblical sense, earnest

benevolence. _Like_ expresses taste. Do not say "I should _love_ to go."

_Lovely_ means "worthy of affection" and, like _elegant_, should never

be used as a term of general approbation.

_Luxuriant_ which means "superabundant in growth or production" should

not be confounded with _luxurious_ which means "given over to luxury."

Vegetation is _luxuriant_, men are _luxurious_.

_Mad_ means _insane_ and is not a synonym for _angry_.

_Means_ may be either singular or plural.

_Meet_ should not be used in the sense of _meeting_ except in the case

of a few special expressions such as "a race meet."

_Mighty_ should not be used in the sense of _very_.

_Mind_ should not be used in the sense of _obey_.

_Minus_ should not be used in the sense of _without_ or _lacking_.

_Most_ should not be used instead of _almost_, as in such expressions as

"It rained _most_ every day."

_Must_ should not be used for _had to_ or _was obliged_. In its proper

use it refers to the present or future only.

_Necessities_ should be carefully distinguished from _necessaries_.

_Negligence_, which denotes a quality of character should be

distinguished from _neglect_ which means "a failure to act."

_Neither_ denotes one of two and should not be used for _none_ or _no

one_. As a correlative conjunction it should be followed by _nor_ never

by _or_.

_New beginner_. _Beginner_ is enough; all beginners are new.

_News_ is singular in construction.

_Never_ is sometimes used as an emphatic negative but such usage is not

good.

_Nice_ should not be used in the sense of _pleasant_ or _agreeable_.

_No how_ should not be used for _anyway_.

_No place_ should be written as _nowhere_.

_None_ should be treated as a singular.

_Not_, like _neither_, must be followed by the correlative _nor_, e. g.,

"Not for wealth nor for fame did he strive."

_Not_ ... _but_ to express a negative is a double negative and therefore

should not be used, e. g., "I have _not_ had _but_ one meal to-day."

_Nothing like_ and _nowhere near_ should not be used for _not nearly_.

_O_ should be used for the vocative and without punctuation.

_Oh_ should be used for the ejaculation and should be followed by a

comma or an exclamation point.

_Obligate_ should not be used for _oblige_.

_Observe_ should not be used for _say_.

_Observation_ should not be used for _observance_.

_Of_ is superfluous in such phrases as _smell of_, _taste of_, _feel

of_.

_Off_ should never be used with _of_; one or the other is superfluous.

_Other._ After _no other_ use _than_, not _but_.

_Ought_ must never be used in connection with _had_ or _did_. "You

_hadn't ought_ or _didn't ought_ to do it" should be "You ought not to

have done it."

_Out loud_ should never be used for _aloud_.

_Panacea_ is something that cures all diseases, not an effective remedy

for one disease.

_Partake of_ should not be used in the sense of _eat_. It means "to

share with others."

_Party_ should never be used for _person_ except in legal documents.

_Per_ should be used in connection with other words of Latin form but

not with English words. _Per diem_, _per annum_, and the like are

correct. _Per day_ or _per year_ are incorrect. It should be _a day_, or

_a year_.

_Perpendicular_, which merely means at right angles to something else

mentioned, should not be used for _vertical_.

_Plenty_, a noun should not be confused with the adjective _plentiful_.

_Politics_ is singular.

_Post_ does not mean _inform_.

_Predicate_ should not be used in the sense of _predict_ or in the sense

of _base_ or _found_.

_Premature_ means "before the proper time." It should not be used in a

general way as equivalent to _false_.

_Pretty_ should not be used in the modifying sense, nor as a synonym for

_very_ in such phrases as "pretty good," "pretty near," and the like.

_Preventative_, no such word, say _preventive_.

_Promise_ should not be used in the sense of _assure_.

_Propose_, meaning "to offer" should not be confused with _purpose_

meaning "to intend."

_Proposition_ should not be confounded with _proposal_. A _proposition_

is a statement of a statement or a plan. A _proposal_ is the

presentation or statement of an offer.

_Providing_ should not be used for _provided_.

_Quality_ should never be used as an adjective or with an adjective

sense. "Quality clothes" is meaningless: "Clothes of quality" equally

so. All clothes have quality and the expression has meaning only when

the quality is defined as good, bad, high, low, and so forth.

_Quit_, "to go away from" is not the same as _stop_.

_Quite_ means "entirely," "wholly," and should never be used in the

modifying sense as if meaning _rather_ or _somewhat_. "Quite a few" is

nonsense.

_Raise_ is a much abused word. It is never a noun. As a verb it should

be distinguished from _rear_ and _increase_, as in such phrases as "He

was _raised_ in Texas." "The landlord _raised_ my rent."

_Rarely ever_ should not be used for _rarely_ or _hardly ever_.

_Real_ should not be used in the sense of _very_.

_Reference_ should be used with _with_ rather than _in_. Say _with_

reference to, not _in_ reference to. The same rule applies to the words

_regard_ and _respect_. Do not say "_in regards to_," say "_with regard

to_."

_Remember_ is not the same as _recollect_, which means "to remember by

an effort."

_Rendition_ should not be used for _rendering_.

_Researcher_ has no standing as a word.

_Reside_ in the sense of live, and residence in the sense of house or

dwelling are affectations and should never be used.

_Retire_ should not be used in the sense of "go to bed."

_Right_ should not be used in the sense of _duty_. "You _had a right_ to

warn me," should be "It was your duty to warn me, or you ought to have

warned me." _Right_ should not be used in the sense of _very_. Such

expressions as _right now_, _right off_, _right away_, _right here_ are

not now in good use.

_Same_ should not be used as a pronoun. This is a common usage in

business correspondence but it is not good English and can be easily

avoided without sacrificing either brevity or sense. _Same as_ in the

sense of _just as_, _in the same manner_ should be avoided.

_Score_ should not be used for _achieve_ or _accomplish_.

_Set_ should not be confused with _sit_. To set means "to cause to sit."

_Sewage_, meaning the contents of a sewer, should not be confused with

_sewerage_ which means the system.

_Show_ should not be used in the sense of _play_ or _performance_. _Show

up_ should not be used for _expose_.

_Since_ should not be used for _ago_.

_Size up_ should not be used for _estimate_ or _weigh_.

_Some_ should not be used for _somewhat_ as "I feel _some_ better."

_Sort of_ should not be used for _rather_.

_Splendid_ means _shining_ or _brilliant_ and should not be used as a

term of general commendation.

_Stand for_ means "be responsible for." Its recent use as meaning

_stand_, _endure_, or _permit_, should be avoided.

_Start_ should not be used for _begin_, e. g., "He _started_ (began) to

speak."

_State_ should not be used for _say_.

_Stop_ should not be used for _stay_.

_Such_ should not be used for _so_. Say "I have never seen _so_

beautiful a book before" not "I have never seen such a beautiful book

before."

_Sure_ should not be used as an adverb. Say _surely_.

_Take_ is superfluous in connection with other verbs, e. g., "Suppose we

_take_ and _use_ that type." _Take_ should not be confused with _bring_.

_Take stock in_ should not be used for _rely_ or _trust in_.

_That_ should not be used in the sense of _so_. "I did not know it was

_that_ big."

_Think_ should not have the word _for_ added, e. g., "It is more

important than you _think for_."

_This_ should not be used as an adverb. "This much is clear" should be

"Thus much is clear."

_Through_ should not be used for _finished_.

_To_ is superfluous and wrong in such expressions as "Where did you go

_to_?"

_Too_ alone should not modify a past participle. "He was _too_ (much)

excited to reply."

_Transpire_ does not mean _happen_. It means to come to light or become

known.

_Treat_ should be followed by _of_ rather than _on_. This volume treats

_of_ grammar, not _on_ grammar.

_Try_ should be followed by _to_ rather than _and_. "I will try _to_

go," not "I will try _and_ go."

_Ugly_ should never be used in the sense of _bad tempered_ or _vicious_.

It means "repulsive to the eye."

_Unique_ does not mean _rare_, _odd_, or _unusual_. It means alone of

its kind.

_Upward of_ should not be used in the sense of _more than_.

_Venal_ should not be confused with _venial_.

_Verbal_ should not be confused with _oral_. A _verbal_ message means

only a message in words; an _oral_ message is a message by word of

mouth.

_Very_ should be used sparingly. It is a word of great emphasis and like

all such words defeats its purpose when used too frequently.

_Visitor_ is a human caller. _Visitant_ a supernatural caller.

_Want_ should not be used in the sense of _wish_, e. g., "I _want_ it"

really means "I feel the want of it" or "I lack it." _Want_, _wish_, and

_need_ should be carefully distinguished.

_Way_ should not be used in the sense of _away_ in such expressions as

"_Way_ down East."

_Ways_ should not be used for _way_, e. g., "It is quite a _ways_ (way)

off."

_What_ is often misused for _that_, e. g., "He has no doubt but _what_

(that) he will succeed."

_Whence_ means "from what place or cause" and should not be preceded by

_from_. This applies equally to hence which means "from this place."

_Which_ should not be used with a clause as its antecedent, e. g., "He

replied hotly, _which_ was a mistake" should be "He replied hotly; this

was a mistake." _Which_ being a neuter pronoun should not be used to

represent a masculine or feminine noun. Use who. Between the two neuter

pronouns _which_ and _that_ let euphony decide.

_Who_ should not be misused for _whom_ or _whose_, e. g., "_Who_ (whom)

did you wish to see?" "Washington, than _who_ (whose) no greater name is

recorded." Impersonal objects should be referred to by _which_ rather

than _who_.

_Without_ should not be used for _unless_, e. g., "I will not go

_without_ (unless) you go with me."

_Witness_ should not be used for _see_.

_Worst kind_ or _worst kind of way_ should not be used for _very much_.

_Womanly_ means "belonging to woman as woman."

_Womanish_ means _effeminate_.

_Tables of Irregular Verbs_

Table 1 contains the principal parts of all irregular verbs whose past

tense and perfect participle are unlike.

Most errors in the use of irregular verbs occur with those in Table 1.

The past tense must not be used with _have_ (_has_, _had_). Do not use

such expressions as _have drove_ and _has went_. Equally disagreeable is

the use of the perfect participle for the past tense; as, _she seen_,

_they done_.

TABLE I

Present Tense Past Tense Perf. Part.

arise arose arisen

be or am was been

bear, _bring forth_ bore born[1], borne

bear, _carry_ bore borne

beat beat beaten, beat

begin began begun

bid bade, bid bidden, bid

bite bit bitten, bit

blow blew blown

break broke broken

chide chid chidden, chid

choose chose chosen

cleave, _split_ {cleft, clove {cleft, cleaved,

{(clave)[2] {cloven

come came come

do did done

draw drew drawn

drink drank drunk, drunken

drive drove driven

eat ate (eat) eaten (eat)

fall fell fallen

fly flew flown

forbear forbore forborne

forget forgot forgotten, forgot

forsake forsook forsaken

freeze froze frozen

give gave given

go went gone

grow grew grown

hide hid hidden, hid

know knew known

lie, _recline_ lay lain

ride rode ridden

ring rang, rung rung

rise rose risen

run ran run

see saw seen

shake shook shaken

shrink shrank, shrunk shrunk, shrunken

sing sung, sang sung

sink sank, sunk sunk

slay slew slain

slide slid slidden, slid

smite smote smitten

speak spoke (spake) spoken

spring sprang, spring sprung

steal stole stolen

stride strode stridden

strike struck struck, stricken

strive strove striven

swear swore (sware) sworn

swim swam, swum swum

take took taken

tear tore torn

throw threw thrown

tread trod trodden, trod

wear wore worn

weave wove woven

write wrote written

TABLE II

This table contains the principal parts of all irregular verbs whose

past tense and perfect participles are alike.

Present Tense Past Tense and Present Tense Past Tense and

Perf. Part. Perf. Part.

abide abode mean meant

behold beheld meet met

beseech besought pay paid

bind bound put put

bleed bled read read

breed bred rend rent

bring brought say said

build built seek sought

burst burst sell sold

buy bought send sent

cast cast set set

catch caught shed shed

cling clung shoe shod

cost cost shoot shot

creep crept shut shut

cut cut sit sat

deal dealt sleep slept

feed fed sling slung

feel felt slink slunk

fight fought spend spent

find found spin spun (span)

flee fled spit spit (spat)

fling flung split split

get got (gotten) spread spread

grind ground stand stood

have had stick stuck

hear heard sting stung

hit hit string strung

hold held sweep swept

hurt hurt swing swung

keep kept teach taught

lay laid tell told

lead led think thought

leave left thrust thrust

lend lent weep wept

let let win won

lose lost wring wrung

make made

TABLE III

This table includes verbs that are both regular and irregular.

A

Verbs in which the regular form is preferred.

Present Tense Past Tense Perf. Part.

bend bended, bent bended, bent

bereave bereaved, bereft bereaved, bereft

blend blended, blent blended, blent

bless blessed, blest blessed, blest

burn burned, burnt burned, burnt

cleave, _stick_ cleaved (clave) cleaved

clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad

curse cursed, curst cursed, curst

dive dived (dove) dived (dove)

dream dreamed, dreamt dreamed, dreamt

dress dressed, drest dressed, drest

gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt

heave heaved, hove heaved, hove

hew hewed hewed, hewn

lade laded laded, laden

lean leaned, leant leaned, leant

leap leaped, leapt leaped, leapt

learn learned, learnt learned, learnt

light lighted, lit lighted, lit

mow mowed mowed, mown

pen, _shut up_ penned, pent penned, pent

plead {pleaded (plead _or_ {pleaded (plead _or_

{pled) {pled)

prove proved proved, proven

reave reaved, reft reaved, reft

rive rived rived, riven

saw sawed sawed, sawn

seethe seethed (sod) seethed, sodden

shape shaped shaped, shapen

shave shaved shaved, shaven

shear sheared sheared, shorn

smell smelled, smelt smelled, smelt

sow sowed sowed, sown

spell spelled, spelt spelled, spelt

spill spilled, spilt spilled, spilt

spoil spoiled, spoilt spoiled, spoilt

stave staved, stove staved, stove

stay stayed, staid stayed, staid

swell swelled swelled, swollen

wake waked, woke waked, woke

wax, _grow_ waxed waxed (waxen)

wed wedded wedded, wed

whet whetted, whet whetted, whet

work worked, wrought worked, wrought

B

Verbs in which the irregular form is preferred.

Present Tense Past Tense Perf. Part.

awake awoke, awaked awaked, awoke

belay belaid, belayed belaid, belayed

bet bet, betted bet, betted

crow crew, crowed crowed

dare durst, dared dared

dig dug, digged dug, digged

dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled

gird girt, girded girt, girded

grave graved graven, graved

hang hung, hanged[3] hung, hanged

kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled

knit knit, knitted knit, knitted

quit quit, quitted quit, quitted

rap rapt, rapped rapt, rapped

rid rid, ridded rid, ridded

shine shone (shined) shone (shined)

show showed shown, showed

shred shred, shredded shred, shredded

shrive shrived, shrove shriven, shrived

slit slit, slitted slit, slitted

speed sped, speeded sped, speeded

strew strewed strewn, strewed

strow strowed strown, strowed

sweat sweat, sweated sweat, sweated

thrive throve, thrived thrived, thriven

wet wet (wetted) wet (wetted)

wind wound (winded) wound (winded)

The verbs of the following list also are irregular; but as they lack one

or more of the principal parts, they are called defective verbs.

_Defective Verbs_

Present Past Present Past

can could ought .....

may might ..... quoth

must ..... beware .....

shall should methinks methought

will would

All the participles are wanting in defective verbs.

The verb _ought_, when used to express past duty or obligation, is

followed by what is called the perfect infinitive--a use peculiar to

itself because _ought_ has no past form.

_Example:_ I ought _to have gone_ yesterday.

Other verbs expressing past time are used in the past tense followed by

the root infinitive.

_Example:_ I intended _to go_ yesterday.

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Composition and Rhetoric. By Lockwood and Emerson. Ginn & Co., Boston.

The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language. By Sherwin Cody.

The Old Greek Press, Chicago.

The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick Stokes

Company, New York.

A Manual for Writers. By John Matthews Manly and John Arthur Powell. The

University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Any good Grammar.

Putnam's Word Book. By Louis A. Flemming. G. P. Putnam's Sons, Chicago.

(For reference.)

QUESTIONS

In addition to the questions here given there should be constant and

thorough drill in the use of grammatical forms and the choice of words.

Frequent short themes should be required. In these themes attention

should be given to grammatical construction, choice of words, spelling,

capitalization, punctuation, sentence construction, and paragraphing.

1. Why is the subject important?

2. How many families of words are there, and what are they?

3. What is a noun?

4. What are the three things about a noun which indicates its relation

to other words?

5. How many numbers are there, and what do they mean?

6. How do ordinary nouns form their plurals?

7. How do compound nouns form their plurals?

8. What is one very important use of number?

9. What can you say of the use of the verb with collective nouns?

10. What is case?

11. How many cases are there, and what does each indicate?

12. What can you say about the relation of a noun to a preposition?

13. Are prepositions ever omitted, and why?

14. How are the nominative and objective cases distinguished?

15. How is the possessive case formed in the plural?

16. Do possessive pronouns take an apostrophe?

17. What is _it's_?

18. How are compound nouns, appositives, etc., treated in the

possessive?

19. What is an adjective?

20. What do degrees indicate, and how many are there?

21. How are adjectives compared?

22. When should the long form of comparison be used and when the short?

23. What danger attends the use of _most_?

24. Give two irregular adjectives and compare them.

25. Should the two methods of comparison ever be combined?

26. Why are some adjectives never compared?

27. What is an article?

28. How many articles are there?

29. What kinds of articles are there?

30. When should you use _a_?

31. When should you use _an_?

32. What is a verb?

33. Of what three parts does a simple sentence consist?

34. Name them and describe each.

35. What is the relation of the verb to the subject with regard to

person and number?

36. What is voice?

37. How many voices are there, what is each called, and what does it

indicate?

38. What is tense?

39. How many tenses are there, and what are they called?

40. What is the rule for tense in subordinate clauses?

41. What is the reason for the rule, and how can accuracy be determined?

42. What happens when the statement in the subordinate clause is of

universal application?

43. What is mood?

44. How many moods are there, and what are they called?

45. How is the indicative mood used?

46. How is the subjunctive mood used?

47. How is the imperative mood used?

48. What is the potential mood?

49. What is the exact meaning of (a) _may_, (b) _can_, (c) _must_, (d)

_ought_?

50. What is tense?

51. How are _shall_ and _will_ used in direct discourse (a) in simple

statements, (b) in questions, (c) in other cases?

52. How are _shall_ and _will_ used in indirect discourse?

53. What are the exceptions in the use of _shall_ and _will_?

54. What is the general use of _should_ and _would_?

55. How are should and would used in subordinate clauses, in indirect

discourse?

56. What exceptions are there in the use of _should_ and _would_?

57. Why do we make mistakes in the use of compound tenses?

58. What is the case of the object in participial construction?

59. What should be avoided in the use of prepositions?

60. Do passive verbs ever have objects?

61. What is a pronoun?

62. What common error occurs in the use of plural possessive pronouns?

63. What common error occurs in the use of cases in subordinate clauses?

64. What danger is there in the use of pronouns, and how can it be

avoided?

65. What is an adverb?

66. What is the important distinction in the use of adverbs and

adjectives?

67. What rule is to be observed in the use of negatives?

68. What is a preposition?

69. Where is it placed in the sentence?

70. What is a conjunction?

71. What is said of _and_ and _but_?

72. How should we pair _either_, _neither_, _or_, and _nor_?

73. What is the rule about placing correlatives?

74. What is an interjection?

75. Does it make much difference where words are put in a sentence? Why?

76. What is the general rule for placing words?

77. When may words be omitted?

78. What is the danger in such omission?

79. Mention some objectionable abbreviations of this sort.

80. What is the writer's task?

81. What three abuses are to be avoided?

82. What are Campbell's five canons?

83. What are the rules for the formation of sentences?

84. What are the rules for the formation of paragraphs?

GLOSSARY

AMBIGUITY--The possibility of more than one meaning.

APPOSITION--When the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear or

emphatic by the use of another noun or pronoun the two are said to be in

apposition, e. g., John, the old pressman.

AUXILIARY VERB--A verb used to help to express the meaning of another

verb by showing its voice, mood or tense.

CLAUSE--A group of words consisting of a subject and predicate with

their modifiers and forming a part of a sentence: a sentence within a

sentence.

COLLECTIVE NOUN--A noun indicating a collection of units considered as a

whole, e. g., _crowd_.

COMPOUND WORDS--Words made up of two or more words used together to

express one idea.

CONTEXT--The entire writing from which a text or passage is taken.

CORRELATIVE--A term applied to pairs of conjunctions or other words or

phrases which imply or involve each other.

DICTION--The choice and use of words.

GRAMMAR--The science that treats of the principles that govern the

correct use of language in either spoken or written form; the science of

the sentence and its elements.

HETEROGENEOUS SENTENCES--Sentences containing unrelated ideas or dealing

with a variety of separate things.

HYPOTHESIS--A supposition, or imaginary state of things assumed as a

basis for reasoning.

HYPOTHETICAL CLAUSE--A clause containing a supposition.

METAPHOR--A figure of speech in which one thing is likened to another by

speaking of it as if it were that other, or calling it that other.

NOUN CLAUSE--A clause used as a noun.

OBJECT (OF A VERB)--The thing acted on.

PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION--A participle and its modifiers used as the

subject or object of a verb.

PHRASE--An expression, consisting usually of but a few words, denoting a

single idea, or forming a separate part of a sentence.

PREDICATE (OF A SENTENCE)--That which is said of the subject. See

subject.

PRINCIPAL VERB--The verb in the main statement of a sentence.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE--An adjective used as a pronoun.

RHETORIC--The art of perfecting man's power of communicating to others

his mental acts or states by means of language: art of discourse.

SUBJECT (OF A SENTENCE)--The thing spoken about in the sentence. See

predicate.

SUBJECT (OF A VERB)--The thing acting.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE--A clause explaining or otherwise modifying the main

statement of the sentence.

TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES

The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL

SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the

Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in

trade classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals.

Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of

authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers

of the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a

comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable,

up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the

printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.

The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 x 8 inches. Their

general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as

practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the

particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be

found under each title in the following list.

Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in

each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary

information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the

subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear,

with the purpose of bringing essential information within the

understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever

practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have

been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text.

In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use

in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is

accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of

the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the

subject or department treated is also added to many of the books.

These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America.

Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED

TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A.

PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_

1. =Type: a Primer of Information= By A. A. Stewart

Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes,

font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture.

44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary.

2. =Compositors' Tools and Materials= By A. A. Stewart

A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads,

brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.;

illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary.

3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A. A. Stewart

A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets,

case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.;

illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary.

4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A. A. Stewart

Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the

press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59

pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary.

5. =Proof Presses= By A. A. Stewart

A primer of information about the customary methods and machines

for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review

questions; glossary.

6. =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker

A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical

construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand

press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on

automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review

questions; glossary.

7. =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker

Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types

of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review

questions; glossary.

8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier

The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines;

with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review

questions; glossary.

9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott

A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and

allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53

pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary.

10. =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr.

A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever

cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting

paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary.

11. =Printers' Rollers= By A. A. Stewart

A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and

care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions;

glossary.

12. =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton

Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by

permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of

Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the

everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review

questions; glossary.

13. =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright

A primer of information about the materials and processes of

manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated;

62 review questions; glossary.

14. =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan

Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of

engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for

reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings.

Illustrated; review questions; glossary.

15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping=

By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart

A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and

stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions;

glossaries.

PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_

16. =Typesetting= By A. A. Stewart

A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying,

spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting.

Illustrated; review questions; glossary.

17. =Printers' Proofs= By A. A. Stewart

The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with

observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions;

glossary.

18. =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVéze

Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first

jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make

good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions;

glossary.

19. =General Job Composition=

How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and

miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.

20. =Book Composition= By J. W. Bothwell

Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition,"

revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W.

Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of

pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525

review questions; glossary.

21. =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver

A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples

of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review

questions.

22. =Applied Arithmetic= By E. E. Sheldon

Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade,

calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard

tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with

examples and exercises. 159 pp.

23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A. W. Finlay, Editor

Section I--The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein

Section II--The Monotype By Joseph Hays

Section III--The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens

Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines

By Frank H. Smith

A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their

mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review

questions; glossary.

PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_

24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry

Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and

about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions;

glossary.

25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry

Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods

of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review

questions; glossary.