the sister game of chess, but still is much more profound than is generally
supposed. It has been cultivated in Britain, and especially in Scotland,
certainly for over two hundred years, and has served as a field of exercise
for some extremely able intellects, which but for it might hardly have been
exercised at all. Among famous players are: Andrew Anderson, of Carluke,
who published a celebrated work on the game in 1852; James Wyllie, the
'Herd Laddie', who travelled over the world playing exhibition matches, and
was for many years world's champion; Robert Martins, English champion about
1870, who played several matches with Wyllie; R. D. Yates, a young American
player, who defeated Wyllie for the championship, but shortly afterwards
gave up the game; James Ferrie, of Coatbridge, who in 1894 defeated Wyllie
and became champion, to be defeated in turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh
in 1896; Robert Stewart, of Fifeshire, many times Scottish champion, and
probably the strongest player now living.
The Scottish tourney, held annually in Glasgow since 1893, except for a few
years on account of the War, has done much to stimulate interest in the
game. The English Draughts Association also holds a biennial tourney.
Several international matches have taken place between Scotland and
England, the first in 1884. This, like nearly all the other matches, was
won by Scotland. In 1905 a very strong British team visited America and
decisively defeated a side representing the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
James Lees, _A Guide to the Game of Draughts_. Early works by Payne,
Sturges, Drummond, Hay, Anderson, and Bowen are now very scarce. There are
several periodicals devoted to the game; and some newspapers, notably _The
Glasgow Weekly Herald_, give it a column weekly.
DRAVE, or DRAU (dr[:a]'ve, drou), a European river which rises in Tyrol,
flows E.S.E. across the north of Illyria and the south of Styria, and
between Hungary on the left and Croatia and Slavonia on the right, and,
after a course of nearly 400 miles, joins the Danube 14 miles east of
Essek. It is navigable for about 200 miles.
DRAVID'IAN, a term applied to the vernacular tongues of the great majority
of the inhabitants of Southern India, and to the people themselves who
inhabited India previous to the advent of the Aryans. The affinities of the
Dravidian languages are uncertain. The family consists of the Tamil,
Telugu, Canarese, Malay[^a]lam, Tulu, Tuda, Gond, Rajmahal, Oraon, &c. Only
the first four mentioned have a literature, that of the Tamil being the
oldest and the most important. Originally the word Dravidian was a purely
philological term, but it is now used in an ethnological sense as
well.--Cf. R. Caldwell, _Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South
Indian Family of Languages_.
DRAWBACK, usually a certain amount of duties or customs dues paid back or
remitted to an importer when he exports goods that he has previously
imported and paid duty on, as, for instance, tobacco, &c.; or a certain
amount of excise paid back or allowed on the exportation of home
manufactures.
DRAWBRIDGE, a bridge with a lifting floor, such as was formerly used for
crossing the ditches of fortresses, or any movable bridge over a navigable
channel where the height of the roadway is insufficient to allow vessels to
pass underneath. Modern drawbridges across rivers, canals, the entrances of
docks, &c., are generally made to open horizontally, and the movable
portion is called a bascule, balance, or lifting bridge, a turning, swivel,
or swing bridge, or a rolling bridge, in accordance with the mode in which
it is made to open. Swing-bridges are usually divided into two parts
meeting in the middle, and each moved on pivots on the opposite sides of
the channel, or they may move as a whole on a pivot in the middle of the
channel. Rolling bridges are suspended from a structure high above the
water, and are propelled backwards and forwards by means of rollers.
DRAWING is the art of representing upon a flat surface the forms of
objects, and their positions in relation to each other. The idea of
nearness or distance is given by the aid of perspective, foreshortening,
and gradation, and in the same way the three-dimensional quality of objects
is expressed. The term drawing is sometimes limited to the representing of
the forms of objects in outline, with or without the shading necessary to
develop roundness or _modelling_. But the term has a wider significance.
Any arrangement of colours or tones which serve to express form, and the
relation of one form to another, is really drawing; and thus a painting may
show fine draughtsmanship without line being used at all. Drawing is not a
matter of the medium employed, but of the manner in which it is used. It
is, however, convenient to classify drawings according to mediums, each of
which produces its effect in a different way. Thus drawing may be divided
into (1) pen drawing; (2) chalk, pencil, or charcoal drawing; (3) crayon
and pastel drawing; (4) drawing shaded with the brush; (5) architectural or
mechanical drawing. _Pen drawings_ are often confined to pure outlines; an
appearance of _relief_ or projection being given by thickening or doubling
the lines on the shadow side, or they may be shaded by combination of
lines. _Chalk, pencil, and charcoal drawings_ may be in line or tone. When
the chalk is powdered and rubbed in with a stump, large masses and broad
effects can be produced with much rapidity. The best draughtsmen, however,
rarely use a stump. In _crayon and pastel drawings_ the colours of the
objects represented are more or less completely represented in the medium.
_Drawings shaded with the brush_ are outlined with the pencil or pen, the
shading being laid on or _washed in_ with the brush in tints of Indian ink,
sepia, or colour. This was the method of the early water-colour painters in
England. _Architectural and mechanical drawings_ are those in which the
proportions of a building, machine, &c., are accurately set out for the
guidance of the constructor; objects are, in general, delineated by
geometric or orthographic projection.
The great schools of painting all show excellent drawing, though differing
in character. In Italy the Florentine school combined study of the antique
with anatomical research, and produced many vigorous and expressive
draughtsmen, notably Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci. The Roman
school, under the influence of Raphael, sacrificed vigour and
expressiveness to elegance and the representation of ideal form. In the
Lombard school a severe style of drawing is seen through harmonious
colouring, and in the Venetian school the drawing is often veiled in the
richness of the colour. The German and Dutch schools excel in a careful and
minute style of naturalistic drawing, combined with good colour. The French
school in the time of Poussin was very accurate in its drawing; at a later
period its style betrayed a tendency to mannerism. David introduced, again,
a purer taste in drawing and a close study of the antique, and these are
qualities which distinguish his school (the so-called Classical school), of
which Ingres is the leading representative, from the Romantic and Eclectic
schools of a later period. The drawing of the British school is
naturalistic rather than academic, but the work of Gainsborough and Alfred
Stevens is comparable with that of earlier masters.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ruskin,
_Elements of Drawing_; Spiers, _Architectural Drawing_; R. S. Bowers,
_Drawing and Design for Craftsmen_; J. H. Brown, _Sketching without a
Master_; Harold Speed, _Drawing_.
DRAWING-ROOM, a room appropriated for the reception of company; a room in
which distinguished personages hold levees, or private persons receive
parties. _Court drawing-rooms_ are those assemblies held from time to time
for the reception or presentation to the sovereign of such ladies as by
custom, right, or courtesy are admissible. Receptions at which men are
presented are known as _levees_. The sovereign sometimes deputes a member
of the royal family to receive, in which case presentations are equivalent
to those made to the sovereign in person.
DRAWINGS. The term 'drawings' is usually taken to mean drawings of an
architectural or engineering nature, such as the plans of a new building
prepared by an architect, or the designs for engineering works, or for
machinery produced by an engineer.
[Illustration: Isometric projection of a Brick 8-3/4 x 4-1/4 x 2-3/4]
[Illustration: Plan and Elevation of a Square Slab pierced by a square hole
obtained by orthographic projection]
Three methods are commonly made use of in preparing drawings. (1)
Orthographic, which represents the subject under consideration in one plane
only, and from which dimensions may be scaled off, and which is the normal
method of preparing an engineering drawing. (2) Perspective or radial
projection is made use of by an architect for displaying the elevations of
a building, and gives a truer appreciation of the actual appearance of the
building than can be obtained by orthographic projection. (3) Isometric
projection enables one to show the length, breadth, and thickness of an
object drawn to scale on the one drawing. Such a drawing is really composed
of three sets of parallel straight lines, and is not strictly a true
representation of the object as it would appear to the eye. It has the
great advantage, however, that measurements may be directly scaled from it,
and lines which are parallel in the object are also parallel in the
drawing.
DRAYTON, MICHAEL, an English poet, born in 1563, is said to have studied at
Oxford, and afterwards held a commission in the army. The poem by which his
name is chiefly remembered is his _Polyolbion_ (1622, reprinted in 1890), a
sort of topographical description of England. It is generally extremely
accurate in its details, with, at the same time, many passages of true
poetic fire and beauty. Other works are his _Nymphidia, the Court of
Fairy_; _The Barons' Wars_; _The Legend of Great Cromwell_; _The Battle of
Agincourt_; besides numerous legends, sonnets, and other pieces. He died in
1631, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.--Cf. O. Elton, _Michael Drayton:
a Critical Study_.
DRAYTON, MARKET, or DRAYTON-IN-HALES, a town, England, county Salop, 18
miles northeast of Shrewsbury. It has a church, supposed to have been
erected, with exception of the steeple, in the reign of William I. There
are paper and hair-cloth manufactories. Pop. 5167.
DREAMS, trains of ideas which present themselves to the mind during sleep.
The principal feature of the state of dreaming is the absence of conscious
control over the current of thought, so that all kinds of fantastic
notions, which in the waking state would at once be put aside, are woven
into the texture of the dream. The usual content of dreams consists of
aspirations or dreads, which the dreamer had recently entertained or
experienced, mixed up with incidents which excited intense emotion at some
earlier period of the individual's history, and especially in early
childhood. The memory of unpleasant experiences, such, for example, as the
horrors of trench warfare, which is repressed in the waking state, tends to
force itself on the individual's attention when the conscious control is
relaxed in sleep, and to give rise to disturbing dreams which may become so
intense as to interfere with sleep and cause insomnia. The only rational
remedy for this distressing trouble is to discover the painful incident and
persuade the patient frankly to face it and not 'try to forget'. In recent
years S. Freud has placed the study of dreams upon a scientific basis. He
maintains that dreams represent the fulfilment of wishes. There is usually
an utter want of coherency in the images that appear before the mental eye,
but this excites no surprise in the dreamer. Occasionally, however,
intellectual efforts are made during sleep which would be difficult to
surpass in the waking state. It is said that Condillac often brought to a
conclusion in his dreams reasonings on which he had been employed during
the day; and that Franklin believed that he had been often instructed in
his dreams concerning the issue of events which at that time occupied his
mind. Coleridge composed from 200 to 300 lines during a dream: the
beautiful fragment of _Kubla Khan_, which was all he was able to commit to
paper when he awoke, remains a specimen of that dream-poem. Dreams are
subjective phenomena dependent on natural causes. They are retrospective
and resultant instead of being prospective or prophetic. The latter opinion
has, however, prevailed in all ages and among all nations; and hence the
common practice of divination or prophesying by dreams, that is,
interpreting them as presages of coming events. Some authorities declare
that all our dreams take place when we are in process of going to sleep or
becoming awake, and that during deep sleep the mind is totally inactive.
This is denied by the majority of philosophers, and with apparent
reason.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Havelock Ellis, _The World of Dreams_; S. Freud,
_The Interpretation of Dreams_; W. H. R. Rivers, _Instinct and the
Unconscious_.
[Illustration: Plan and Elevation of an 800-ton Dredger
A, Shoot. B, Hoist-gear. C, Hopper. D, Sand-pump and its engines. E,
Engines. F, Overboard shoot. G, Suction-pipe. H, Bucket-well. J, Overboard
discharge.]
DREDGING, a term applied to the operation of removing mud, silt, and other
deposits from the bottom of harbours, canals, rivers, docks, &c. The most
simple dredging apparatus is the spoon apparatus, which consists of a
strong iron ring or hoop, properly formed for making an impression upon the
soft matter at the bottom, so as to scoop it into a large leather bag
attached to the ring and perforated with a number of small holes. The means
for working it is a long handle, a suspending rope, and a crane or
sweep-pole planted in a boat. Much more effective is the steam
dredging-machine now in common use. It has a succession of strong iron
buckets on an endless chain, which travels on a frame whose lower end is
vertically adjustable so as to regulate the depth at which it works. It is
worked by steam, and the buckets tear up the matter at the bottom, raise
it, and discharge it into punts or hoppers close to the dredging vessel.
Various forms of steam-pump dredgers, in which suction-pipes are the chief
features, are also used. The River Clyde, from being a shallow stream, has
been converted, mainly by dredging, into a waterway carrying large vessels
up to Glasgow. Dredging rivers for gold is now largely carried on; and the
gold-dredge may even be floated in water artificially supplied. The
operation of dragging the bottom of the sea for molluscs, plants, and other
objects, usually for scientific observation, is also called dredging. The
oyster-dredge is a light iron frame with a scraper like a narrow hoe on one
side, and a bag attached to receive the oysters. The dredges used by
naturalists are mostly modifications of or somewhat similar to the
oyster-dredge. Scientific dredging has of late assumed great importance as
making us acquainted with the life of deep-sea areas.
DREISENSSIA, a genus of bivalve mollusc allied to the mussels. One species
(_D. polymorpha_) is a native of the streams which flow into the Caspian,
but has been accidentally introduced into most rivers and estuaries of
Europe, including those of Britain, where it is now abundant.
DRELINCOURT (dr[.e]-la[n.]-k[:o]r), Charles, a French Calvinistic minister,
born at Sedan 1595, died at Paris 1669. He was the author of many
controversial works, and of _Consolations against_ _the fear of Death_. To
promote the sale of the English translation of this work, De Foe wrote his
_Apparition of Mrs. Veal_.
DRENTHE (dren'te), a province of Holland, bounded by Hanover, Overijssel,
Friesland, and Groningen; area, 948 sq. miles. It is in general more
elevated than the surrounding provinces, especially in the centre. The soil
is generally poor, and the surface largely consists of heath and morass,
but the province is famed for its horses and cattle. Drenthe is remarkable
for the great number of so-called 'giants' graves' or barrows scattered
over the country. Its capital is Assen. Pop. 200,951.
DRES'DEN, the capital of the Republic (former kingdom) of Saxony, is
situated in a beautiful valley on both sides of the River Elbe, which is
here spanned by four stone bridges and an iron railway bridge. It is first
mentioned in history in 1206, and has been the residence of the sovereigns
since 1485; was greatly extended and embellished by Augustus the Strong
(1694-1736), and rapidly increased during the nineteenth century. Among the
chief sights are the museum (joined on to an older range of buildings
called the Zwinger), a beautiful building containing a famous
picture-gallery and other treasures; the Japanese palace (Augusteum),
containing the royal library (founded by the Elector Augustus in the
sixteenth century) of 570,000 volumes, besides a rich collection of
manuscripts; the Johanneum, containing the collection of porcelain and the
historical museum, a valuable collection of arms, armour, and domestic
utensils, belonging to the Middle Ages. The palace, built about 1530,
restored and remodelled externally between 1890 and 1902, and until 1918
the residence of the kings of Saxony, has also a fine interior, and
contains (in what is called the Green Vault) a valuable collection of
curiosities, jewels, trinkets, and works of art. The theatre is one of the
finest structures of the kind in the world. The city is distinguished for
its excellent educational, literary, and artistic institutions, among which
are the Technical High School, much on the plan and scale of a university;
the Conservatory and School of Music; and the Academy of Fine Arts. The
manufactures are not unimportant, and are various in character; the china,
however, for which the city is famed, is made chiefly at Meissen, 14 miles
distant. The commerce is considerable, and has greatly increased since the
development of the railway system. The chief glory of Dresden is the
gallery of pictures, one of the finest in the world, which first became of
importance under Augustus II, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, but
owes its most valuable treasures to Augustus III, who purchased the greater
portion of the gallery of the Duke of Modena for L180,000. The pictures
number about 3000, and in particular comprise many fine specimens of the
Italian, Dutch, and Flemish schools. Besides this fine collection the
museum contains also engravings and drawings amounting to upwards of
350,000. There is also a sculpture-gallery, the Albertinum, where by casts
and otherwise the progress of sculpture is exemplified from the earliest
times, all the most important antiques being shown. Dresden, being thus
rich in treasures of art and favoured by a beautiful natural situation, is
the summer resort of many foreigners. It suffered severely in the Thirty
Years' War, and also in 1813, when it was the head-quarters of Napoleon's
army. It was occupied by the Prussians in 1866, but was evacuated in the
following spring. Pop. 548,308.
DRESDEN, BATTLE OF, a battle fought in 1813 (26-27th Aug.), between the
French under Napoleon and the Allies under Schwarzenberg. Napoleon had come
to the relief of the city, which was occupied by the French. The Allies
assaulted and bombarded the city, and soon after a great pitched battle was
fought (27th Aug.), the Allies being defeated.
[Illustration: Dresden China. Candelabrum]
DRESDEN CHINA, a delicate, semi-transparent, highly finished china made at
Meissen, 14 miles from Dresden. The manufacture resulted from an accidental
discovery made by B[:o]ttger, a young chemist, in 1710, and the vases,
statuettes, groups of figures, candelabra, and clocks, manufactured during
the eighteenth century are highly prized.
DREUX (dr_eu_; DUROCASSIS or DROCAE of the Romans), a French town,
department of Eure-et-Loir, on the Blaise, near to where it joins the Eure,
20 miles N.N.W. of Chartres. It is built at the foot of a hill crowned by a
dilapidated castle, which contains a chapel, founded in 1142; to which has
been added the costly mausoleum of the Orleans family. A battle took place
near the town in 1562 between the Royalists under Montmorency and the
Huguenots under Cond['e], in which the latter were defeated. Pop. 10,692.
DREYFUS, Alfred, captain of artillery and general staff-officer in the
French army, was born of a Jewish family in Mulhouse, Alsace, in 1859. In
Oct., 1894, he was arrested on a charge of communicating military documents
to a foreign Government, supposed to be Germany; and at a secret
court-martial, which sat in December, he was condemned to public
degradation and lifelong imprisonment. Early in 1895 he was sent to the
[^I]le du Diable (Devil's Island), near Cayenne, to undergo his sentence.
About the middle of the same year Colonel Picquart became head of the
Intelligence Department, and in the course of his official duties
discovered various circumstances tending to throw doubt on the correctness
of the court-martial's decision, and pointing to another officer, of the
name of Esterhazy, as the real traitor. Picquart was superseded by a
Colonel Henry in Nov., 1897, and in the following January Esterhazy,
charged by a brother of the condemned man with having written the
_bordereau_, or memorandum, which was the chief document relied on by the
prosecutors of Dreyfus, was acquitted by a court-martial. Two days later M.
Zola, the eminent novelist, in a letter headed _J'accuse_ published in the
_Aurore_, made serious charges against the general staff and the Government
in connection with the Esterhazy court-martial. He was prosecuted, and
condemned to pay a heavy fine and undergo a term of imprisonment. In June,
1898, M. Brisson succeeded M. M['e]line as Prime Minister, and next month
M. Cavaignac, his War Minister, read to the Chamber several documents which
he regarded as conclusive proof of the guilt of Dreyfus. The chief of these
was soon admitted by Colonel Henry to have been forged by him, and M.
Cavaignac at once resigned. In June, 1899, the Cour de Cassation ordered a
fresh court-martial. The court-martial, which sat at Rennes, found Dreyfus
guilty with extenuating circumstances. He was sentenced to ten years'
imprisonment, but was pardoned by President Loubet almost immediately. In
1906, when Clemenceau was Prime Minister, the sentence was annulled, and
Dreyfus was reinstated in the army (as major). He was shot at by a
reactionary journalist in 1908, but escaped without serious injury. In
Sept., 1919, Lieutenant-Colonel Dreyfus was publicly presented with the
insignia of an officer of the Legion of Honour. Several times during the
progress of the case France seemed on the verge of revolution.--Cf. J.
Reinach, _Histoire de l'affaire Dreyfus_.
DRIFFIELD, GREAT, a town, England, Yorkshire, at the head of a navigable
canal communicating with the Humber at Hull. It lies in a fertile district,
has an ancient parish church, and manufactures linseed-cake and manures.
Pop. 5676.
DRIFT, in geology, a term applied to earth and rocks which have been
conveyed by flood-action, glaciers, or floating ice and deposited over the
surface of a country. It is sometimes used in a wider sense to denote all
post-Pliocene sands, gravels, and clays, such as the superficial deposits
shown on the 'drift' maps of the Geological Survey.
DRIFT, in mining, a horizontal tunnel or passage excavated underground that
follows the course of a vein or stratum. Drift, in musketry, is the lateral
deviation of the bullet after it has left the barrel of the rifle; it is
due to the spin of the bullet and the resistance of the air.
DRIFT SAND, sand thrown up by the waves of the sea, and blown when dry some
distance inland until arrested by obstacles, round which it gradually
accumulates until the heaps attain considerable dimensions, often forming
dunes or sand-hills. Coast-land sometimes requires artificial protection
from encroachment by drift-sand.