belief, one of the doctrines of the Christian faith. The history of dogmas,
as a branch of theology, exhibits in a historical way the origin and the
changes of the various Christian systems of belief, showing what opinions
were received by the various sects in different ages of Christianity, the
sources of the different creeds, by what arguments they were attacked and
supported, what degrees of importance were attached to them in different
ages, the circumstances by which they were affected, and the mode in which
the dogmas were combined into systems. Lectures on this subject are common
in the German universities. In English dogma and dogmatism have come to be
frequently used for assertion without proof.
DOGMAT'ICS, a systematic arrangement of the articles of Christian faith
(dogmas), or the branch of theology that deals with them. The first attempt
to furnish a complete and coherent system of Christian dogmas was made by
Origen in the third century.
D[=O]GRA. The D[=o]gras are a race of Indian hillmen, descended from
Rajputs, who in almost prehistoric times overran the country to the east of
Jammu, in Southern Kashmir, and founded principalities. They are now found
in and recruited from the country comprised within a rough triangle having
Jammu, Simla, and Chamba at its angles; or more generally still, between
the upper waters of the Rivers Chenab and Sutlej, two of the five rivers
from which the Punjab takes its name. By religion the D[=o]gras are, as
becomes their descent, strict Hindus; indeed, their religion may be
considered Hinduism in its purer and more original form, uncontaminated by
outside influences. As is the case with other high-caste Hindus, the
D[=o]gra's life is largely governed by ceremonial observances, those
relating to birth, initiation, marriage, and death being the more
important. He is, however, rather less fastidious about ceremonial cooking
than either the sacerdotal Brahman or his distant Rajput cousin of the
plains.
The D[=o]gra is not a big man, his average height being barely 5 feet 5
inches, but he is sturdy, and develops well with training, and, being fond
of sport and games, makes an excellent soldier, especially in his native
hills. Being Rajputs by descent, they are essentially a race of soldiers,
and, enlisted in the Indian army, give excellent service as such, being
law-abiding, hardy and enduring, and quietly courageous. It has already
been said that D[=o]gras are not so ceremonious in their cooking
arrangements as either Brahmans or down-country Rajputs, who require
separate cooking-places for each man; the D[=o]gra, on the other hand,
though remaining very particular about his drinking-water utensils, will
yet agree to have his food prepared for him in messes of five to ten men;
this trait makes his value on service and under service conditions
considerably greater than that of either of the two above-mentioned
classes. In the Indian army there are three first-line battalions of
D[=o]gras: the 37th, 38th, and 41st. These are what are known as class
regiments; that is, they consist entirely of the one class. In addition to
the three regiments, D[=o]gras also enlist in the cavalry and in
class-company regiments, i.e. regiments enlisting a variety of classes
while keeping them separate inside the regiment.
DOG-ROSE, the _Rosa can[=i]na_, or wild brier, nat. ord. Rosaceae. It is a
common British plant, growing in thickets and hedges. The fruit is known as
the hip.
[Illustration: Dog's Mercury (_Mercuri[=a]lis perennis_)
1, Male flower. 3, Same, enlarged. 2, Female flower.]
DOG'S-MERCURY, _Mercuri[=a]lis perennis_, nat. ord. Euphorbiaceae, a
woodland herb common in Britain. It has poisonous properties, and may be
made to yield a fugitive blue dye.
DOG'S-TAIL GRASS (Cynos[=u]rus), a genus of grasses. _Cynos[=u]rus
crist[=a]tus_ is a perennial found wild all over Great Britain in pastures,
lawns, and parks. Its roots are long and wiry, and, descending deep into
the ground, ensure the herbage against suffering from drought. Its stem is
from 1 to 2 feet high, and its leaves are slightly hairy.
[Illustration: Dog's-tooth Ornaments. Early English Style]
DOG'S-TOOTH ORNAMENT, an architectural ornament or moulding consisting
usually of four leaves radiating from a raised point at the centre. It is
the characteristic decorated moulding of Early English architecture, as the
zigzag is of the Norman.
DOG-TOOTH SPAR, a form of mineral calcium carbonate or calc-spar found in
Derbyshire and other parts of England, and named from a supposed
resemblance of its pointed crystals to a dog's tooth.
DOG-WATCH, a nautical term distinguishing two watches of two hours each (4
to 6 p.m. and 6 to 8 p.m.). All the other watches count four hours each,
and without the introduction of the dog-watches the same hours would always
fall to be kept as watch by the same portion of the crew.
DOGWOOD, a common name of trees of the genus Cornus, but specifically
applied in Britain to _C. sanguinea_. It is a common shrub in copses and
hedges in England; the small cream-white flowers are borne in dense
roundish clusters. The branchlets and leaves become red in autumn. The wood
is used for skewers and for charcoal for gunpowder.
DOIT, an ancient Scottish coin, of which eight or twelve were equal to a
penny sterling. In the Netherlands and Lower Germany there was a coin of
similar name and value.
DOL, a town of France, department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 14 miles south-east
by east of St. Malo. The old cathedral of St. Samson mostly dates back to
the thirteenth century. To the north of the town stretches a salt-marsh,
protected from inroads of the sea by a twelfth-century dyke, and in the
centre of the marsh Mont-Dol rises to a height of 213 feet. Pop. 3540.
DOLCI (dol'ch[=e]), Carlo, celebrated painter of the Florentine school, was
born at Florence in 1616, and died there in 1686. His works, principally
heads of madonnas and saints, have a character of sweetness and melancholy.
Among his chief productions are: _Archduchess Claudia_, in the Uffizi
(Florence); _St. Cecilia at the Organ_ and _Herodias with the Head of John
the Baptist_, both in the Dresden Gallery; _Ecce Homo_ and _St. Andrew in
Prayer_, at the Pitti Gallery; and _Magdalene_, at Munich.
DOLCINITES, a Christian sect of Piedmont, so named from their leader
Dolcino. They arose in 1304 as a protest against Papacy, but were
suppressed by the troops of the Inquisition in 1307.
DOL'DRUMS, among seamen, the parts of the ocean near the equator that
abound in calms, squalls, and light baffling winds; otherwise known as the
horse-latitudes.
D[^O]LE, a town in France, Jura, 26 miles southeast of Dijon. It is of
Roman origin, was long the capital of Franche Comt['e], and has some
interesting antiquities. The manufactures are Prussian blue, hosiery,
ironware, and leather. Pop. 16,294.
DOL'ERITE, compact rock of the Basaltic series, but crystalline throughout,
composed of augite and labradorite with some titaniferous iron ore and
often olivine. It makes, when unaltered, an excellent road-metal.
DOLGEL'LY, a town of Wales, capital of Merionethshire, near the foot of
Cader Idris. It was there that Owen Glendower held his Parliament in 1404
and signed his treaty with Charles VI of France. It has manufactories of
woollens, flannels, and cloths. Pop. 2160.
DOLICHOCEPHALIC (dol-i-ko-se-fal'ik), long-headed: a term used in
anthropology to denote those skulls in which the diameter from side to side
is less in proportion to the longitudinal diameter (i.e. from front to
back) than 8 to 10.
DOL'ICHOS (-kos), a genus of leguminous plants, sub-ord. Papilionaceae.
They are found in the tropical and temperate regions of Asia, Africa, and
America, and all produce edible legumes. _D. Lablab_ is one of the most
common kidney beans in India, and _D. biflorus_ (horse-gram) is used as
cattle-food in the same country. _D. Pachyrrhizus tuber[=o]sus_ of
Martinique has a fleshy tuberous root which is an article of food.
DOL'ICHOSAURUS ('long lizard'), an extinct snake-like reptile found in the
English chalk, whose remains indicate a creature of aquatic habits from 2
to 3 feet in length.
DOLLAR, a silver or gold coin of the United States, of the value of 100
cents, or rather above 4_s_. sterling. The same name is also given to coins
of the same general weight and value, though differing somewhat in
different countries, current in Mexico, a great part of South America,
Singapore, and the Philippine Islands. The name is from the Dutch (also
Danish and Swedish) _daler_, from Ger. _thaler_, so named from Ger. _thal_,
a dale, because first coined in Joachimsthal, in Bohemia, in 1518. By the
Act of 14th March, 1900, the gold dollar was declared to be the standard of
value in the United States, but no provision was made for the issue of a
coin corresponding to the unit.
DOLLAR, a town and police burgh, Scotland, Clackmannanshire, 10 miles E. by
N. of Stirling, noted for its academy, founded by John Macnab, who left
L90,000 for this purpose. The building, a handsome structure in the Grecian
style, was erected in 1819. The population of the village is 1497.
DOLLART, THE, a gulf of the North Sea, at the mouth of the Ems, between the
Dutch province of Groningen and Hanover. It was originally dry land, and
was formed by irruptions of the sea which took place in 1277 and 1530,
overwhelming thirty-four large villages and numerous hamlets.
D[:O]LLINGER (deul'ing-[.e]r), Johann Joseph Ignaz, a celebrated German
theologian and leader of the Old Catholic party, was born at Bamberg, in
Bavaria, in 1799, died in 1890. In 1822 he entered the Church, and soon
after published _The Doctrine of the Eucharist during the First Three
Centuries_, a work which won him the position of lecturer on Church history
at the University of Munich. In later years he took an active part in the
political struggles of the time as representative of the university in the
Bavarian Parliament, and as delegate at the Diet of Frankfurt voted for the
total separation of Church and State. In 1861 he delivered a course of
lectures, in which he attacked the temporal power of the Papacy. But it was
first at the Oecumenical Council of 1869-70 that Dr. D[:o]llinger became
famous over Europe by his opposition to the doctrine of Papal
infallibility. In consequence of his opposition to the Vatican decrees, he
was excommunicated in 1871 by the Archbishop of Munich. A few months later
he was elected rector of the University of Munich, where he remained until
his death. When the sentence of his excommunication was pronounced, he
received honorary degrees from the Universities of Oxford and Edinburgh.
Among his numerous works are: _Origins of Christianity_, _A Sketch of
Luther_, _The Papacy_, _Lectures on the Reunion of the Churches_, and
_Papal Legends of the Middle Ages_.
DOL'LOND, John, an English optician of French descent, born in 1706, died
in 1761. He devoted his attention to the improvement of refracting
telescopes, and succeeded in constructing object-glasses in which the
refrangibility of the rays of light was corrected.
DOLLS, representing more or less realistically the human form, have, for
more than fifty centuries, been the common playthings of children, more
especially of girls, whose maternal instinct impels them to lavish upon
these often crude surrogates all the affection and devotion which their
elders display towards real babies. But in ancient times, and even in the
ritual of many modern religions, worship is not infrequently paid to human
images, which in ancient times, and among the less cultured modern peoples,
are hardly distinguishable from dolls, such as children regard as
playthings and their fancy endows with a crude animism. In the earliest
times in which members of our own species, _Homo sapiens_, are known to
have lived in Europe, i.e. at the latter part of the so-called Old Stone
(palaeolithic) Age, it was the custom to make grotesque representations of
the female form as small figurines of clay or stone, which were regarded as
amulets identified with the Great Mother, the giver of birth or life to
mankind. As 'givers of life' such amulets were believed to be able to
protect their possessors against the risk of death, because they were
regarded in the most literal sense of the term as life-giving. But it was
not merely against the risk of death that such amulets were believed to be
potent: they could add 'vital substance' to the living and the dead,
rejuvenating and reinvigorating the former, and enhancing the chances of
continued existence and survival to the latter. Enormous respect was
naturally paid to figurines supposed to possess such far-reaching powers;
and when the Great Mother came to be identified with various animals, such
as the cow, pig, &c., the amulet was identified with these 'givers of life'
and sometimes represented in their shape. This is intimately associated
with the origin of _totemism_ (q.v.). It is probable that the modern doll
is in part at least the survivor of these primitive images of the deities
of early peoples. The fact that modern dolls are usually of the female sex
may also be due to the fact of the earliest prototype of the doll being an
amulet representing the Great Mother.
DOL'MAN, a long robe worn by the Turks as an upper garment. It is open in
front, and has narrow sleeves. It has given its name to a kind of loose
jacket worn by ladies, and to the jacket worn by hussars.
DOL'MEN, a Celtic name meaning 'table-stone'. Although some apply the name
to prehistoric stone chambers covered with more than one slab (really
'corridor tombs'), the Dolmen proper, whether round or square, has a single
cover-slab, and three, four, or even more stones supporting it. Some
authorities consider the name _dolmen_ as simply a French equivalent for
_cromlech_ (q.v.).
DOLOMIEU (dol-o-my_eu_), D['e]odat Guy Silvain Tancr[`e]de Gratet de, a
French geologist and mineralogist, born in 1750 at Dolomieu (Is[`e]re),
died in 1801. After some years of military service, he devoted himself to
geological researches. He accompanied the French expedition to Egypt, but
was shipwrecked on his return off the coast of Taranto, and imprisoned and
harshly treated by the Neapolitan Government. Among his works are: _Voyages
aux [^I]les de Lipari_ (1783), _Sur le Tremblement de Terre de la Calabre_
(1784), _Philosophie min['e]ralogique_ (1802).
DOL'OMITE, a mineral, the main constituent of magnesian limestone. It is
composed of carbonate of calcium and carbonate of magnesium in equal
molecular quantities, and varies from grey or yellowish-white to
yellowish-brown. Dolomite is easily scratched with the knife, and is
semi-transparent. It effervesces only slightly in _cold_ hydrochloric acid.
Its rhombohedral crystals are sometimes called _bitter-spar_. A variety is
_pearl spar_, which has crystals with curvilinear faces and a pearly
lustre.
DOLOMITES, a group of European mountains, a division of the Alps, in the
Trentino, North Italy, and having the Piave and Rienz on the east, the
Adige and Eisack on the west. They are named from the prevalence of the
mineral dolomite, and present most interesting and picturesque scenery, the
peaks being endlessly varied in form. The highest summits are Palle di San
Martino (10,968 feet); Sorapiss (10,798 feet), and Monte Tofana (10,715
feet).
[Illustration: Common Dolphin (_Delph[=i]nus delphis_)]
DOLPHIN (_Delph[=i]nus_), a cetaceous animal, forming the type of a family
(Delphinidae) which includes also the beluga or white whale
(_Delphinapterus leucas_), the narwhal (_Monodon_), porpoises (_Phocaena_),
the ca'ing whale (_Globicephalus melas_), and the killer whale or grampus
(_Orca gladiator_). Dolphins inhabit every sea from the equator to the
poles; they are gregarious, and swim with extraordinary velocity. The
common dolphin (_D. delphis_) measures from 6 to 10 feet in length, has a
long, sharp snout with numerous nearly conical teeth in both jaws; its
flesh is coarse, rank, and disagreeable, but is used by the Laplanders as
food. It lives on fish, molluscs, &c., and often may be seen in numbers
round shoals of herring. The animal has to come to the surface at short
intervals to breathe. The blow-hole is of a semilunar form, with a kind of
valvular apparatus, and opens on the vertex, nearly over the eyes. The
structure of the ear renders the sense of hearing very acute, and the
animal is observed to be attracted by regular or harmonious sounds. A
single young one is produced by the female, who suckles and watches it with
great care and anxiety, long after it has acquired considerable size.
Dolphins are associated with many legends, and they figure in armorial
bearings.--The name is also commonly but improperly given to fishes
(species of Coryphaena) belonging to the mackerel family. They abound
within the tropics, are about 4 or 5 feet long, very swift in swimming, and
are used as food, though said sometimes to be poisonous. The corn aphis
(_Siphonophora granaria_) is locally known as the dolphin.
DOMAIN', same as _Demesne_; also applied especially to Crown lands or
Government lands.--_Right of eminent domain_, the dominion of the sovereign
power over all the property within the State, by which it is entitled to
appropriate any part necessary to the public good, compensation being
given.
DOMBROWSKI (-brov'sk[=e]), Jan Henryk, a Polish general, distinguished in
the wars of Napoleon, born in 1755, died in 1818. He supported the rising
of the Poles under Kosciusko in 1794. In 1796 he entered the service of
France, and at the head of a Polish legion rendered signal services in
Italy from 1796 to 1801. He took a distinguished part in the invasion of
Russia in 1812, and also in the campaign of 1813. After Napoleon's
abdication he returned to Poland, and the year following was made a Polish
Senator by Alexander I.
[Illustration: Dome of St. Paul's
Section showing the inner and outer domes with the conical wall. Diameter
inside dome at base 102 feet.]
[Illustration: The Pantheon, Rome]
DOME, a vaulted roof of spherical or other curvature, covering a building
or part of it, and forming a common feature in Byzantine and also in
Renaissance architecture. Cupola is also used as a synonym, or is applied
to the interior, dome being applied to the exterior. (See _Cupola_.) Most
modern domes are semi-elliptical in vertical section, and are constructed
of timber; but the ancient domes were nearly hemispherical and constructed
of stone. Of domes the finest, without any comparison, ancient or modern,
is that of the Rotunda or Pantheon at Rome (142-1/2 feet internal diameter
and 143 feet internal height), erected in the reign of Augustus, and still
perfect. Among others the most noteworthy are St. Sophia at Constantinople
(104 x 201 feet), the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence (139 x
310 feet), St. Peter's at Rome (139 x 330 feet), St. Paul's, London (112 x
215 feet), the H[^o]tel des Invalides (80 x 173 feet) and the Panth['e]on
(formerly the church of St. Genevi[`e]ve) at Paris (67 x 190 feet). The
figures represent the internal diameter and height in English feet. The
finest dome in America is that of the Capitol at Washington, built of cast
iron.
DOMENICHINO (d[=o]-men-i-k[=e]'n[=o]) (or DOMENICO) ZAMPIERI, a
distinguished Italian painter, of the Lombard school, born at Bologna on
21st Oct., 1581. He studied under Annibal Carracci, and afterwards went to
Rome, where he became painter to Pope Gregory XV. Among his best works are
the _Communion of St. Jerome_ in the Vatican Museum, the _History of
Apollo_, the _Martyrdom of St. Agnes_, and the _Triumph of David_. He died
at Naples, 15th April, 1641.
[Illustration: Domesday Book
From the original in the Public Record Office, London.]
DOMESDAY (or DOOMSDAY) BOOK, a book containing a survey of all the lands in
England, compiled in the reign and by the order of William the Conqueror.
The survey was made by commissioners, who collected the information in each
district from a sworn jury consisting of sheriffs, lords of manors,
presbyters, bailiffs, villeins--all the classes, in short, interested in
the matter. The extent, tenure, value, and proprietorship of the land in
each district, the state of culture, and in some cases the number of
tenants, villeins, serfs, &c., were the matters chiefly recorded. The
survey was completed within a year. Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, and
Westmoreland were not included in the survey, probably for the reason that
William's authority was not then (1086) settled in those parts. The
_Domesday Book_ first appeared in print in 1783 in two folios. In 1816 two
supplementary volumes were published. These contained four other records of
the same nature. It has been twice republished, the last time (1861-5) in
perfect facsimiles of the original.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _The Victoria County
History_; F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_; H. Ellis, _General
Introduction to Domesday Book_; Birch, _Domesday: a Popular Account_.
DOM'ICILE, in law, the place where a person has a home or established
residence. Domicile is often an important question in determining the
efficacy of legal citations, the validity of marriage, the right of
succession to property, &c. For some purposes what is called a temporary
domicile is sufficient, but in questions of marriage and succession it is
the permanent domicile that determines the decision. A permanent domicile
may be constituted by birth, by choice, or by operation of the law. To
constitute a domicile by choice both actual residence and the intention to
make it the permanent home are required. It is a legal principle that the
wife takes the domicile of her husband. As a general rule the old domicile,
and especially the domicile of origin, continues till a new one has been
acquired.
DOM'INANT, in music, the fifth tone of the diatonic scale. This tone
assumes the character of a key-note itself when there is a modulation into
the first sharp remove. Thus G is the dominant of the scale of C, and D the
dominant of the scale of G.--_Dominant chord_, in music, that which is
formed by grouping three tones, rising gradually by intervals of a third
from the dominant or fifth tone of the scale. It occurs almost invariably
immediately before the tonic chord which closes the perfect cadence.
DOM'INIC, SAINT, the founder of the order of the Dominicans, was born in
1170 at Calahorra, in Old Castile. He early distinguished himself by his
zeal for the reform of canonical life and by his success as a missionary
amongst the Mohammedans. His attention having been directed to the
Albigenses in the south of France, he organized a mission of preachers
against heresy in Languedoc. In 1215 he went to Rome to obtain the sanction
of Pope Innocent III to erect the mission into a new order of preaching
friars. His request was only partially granted, and it was the succeeding
Pope, Honorius III, who first recognized the importance of a preaching
order, and conferred full privileges on the Dominicans. He also appointed
Dominic Master of the Sacred Palace or court preacher to the Vatican, an
office which is still held by one of the order. Dominic died at Bologna in
1221, and was canonized in 1234 by Pope Gregory IX. St. Dominic is usually
considered the founder of the Inquisition, which is supposed to have
originated with his mission to the Albigenses; but his claim is denied, on
the ground that two Cistercian monks were appointed inquisitors in
1198.--Cf. A. T. Drane, _The Life of St. Dominic_.