i. Reality
1. _Absolute reality cannot be comprehended by men, and can only be
apprehended as God or in God by a combination of Desire and
Imagination, to which we give the name of Faith._
2. _Among objects of sensation those are (relatively) real which
present similar sensations in similar circumstances._
ii. Force
“Imagined” is inserted, throughout these Definitions, as a reminder that
the existence of all these objects of definition, however real, is
suggested to us by the Imagination.
_Force is that which is imagined to immediately produce, or tend to
produce, motion._
Why “immediately”? Because a particle of “matter”—attracting, as it
does, every other particle of “matter”—may be said to “tend to produce
motion.” Yet “matter” is not said to _be_ force, but to “_exert_” force.
“Matter” is imagined to attract “matter” through the medium of force, or
“mediately.” But force is imagined to act “immediately.” Hence the
insertion of the word.
iii. Cause and Effect
_When one thing is imagined to produce, or tend to produce, a
second, the first is called the Cause of the second, and the second
the Effect of the first._
iv. Spirit
_Spirit, i.e. Breath or Wind, is a metaphorical name—implying
subtleness, invisibility, ubiquitousness and life-giving power—given
to the ultimate Cause of Force; and hence sometimes to the Cause of
beneficent Force in the Universe, i.e. God; sometimes to the Cause
of Force in the human individual; more rarely to the Cause or Causes
of maleficent Forces in the Universe._
v. Matter
The existence of Matter has never been proved; and it is nothing but a
hypothesis. All the phenomena called “material” might be explained,
without Matter, by the hypothesis of a number of centres of force. The
_raison d’être_ of Matter is the notion of tangibility. But scientific
men now tell us that no atom ever touches another. If this be so,
scientific tangibility disappears and the _raison d’être_ of Matter
disappears, with it. But it is so natural a figment that we shall all
probably talk about it, and most of us probably will believe in it,
until human nature is very much changed.
Matter cannot be defined positively except by repeating, in some
disguise, the word to be defined, as thus:—
_Material, or Matter, is a name given to an unascertained and
hypothetical “material,” “matter,”_ “_substance,” or “fundamental
stuff,” of which we commonly imagine all objects of sensation to be
composed._
vi. Nature
1. _Nature means sometimes the (1) ordinary, or (2) orderly course
of things apart from the present and direct intervention of human
Will; sometimes the (3) ordinary or (4) orderly course of humanity;
sometimes the (5) ordinary or (6) orderly course of all things._
2. _Law of Nature is a metaphorical name for a frequently observed
sequence of phenomena (apart from human Will) implying, to some
minds, regularity; to others, absolute invariability._
3. _Miracle means a supposed suspension of a Sequence, or Law, of
Nature; Marvel, or Mighty Work, means a rare Sequence of Nature, in
which great Effects are produced by Causes seemingly, but not
really, inadequate._
4. _“Supernatural” is the name given, in these letters, to the
existence of a God; and to His creation and continuous development
of all things: the divine action being regarded, not as contrary to
Nature, but as above Nature; not as suspending the sequences of
Nature, but as originating and supporting them._
vii. Will
_The Will is the power of giving to some one of our desires, or to
some one group of compatible desires, permanent predominance over
the rest._
An addition might be suggested: “the power of controlling our desires.”
But we appear never to control our desires except by enthroning some one
desire (or group of desires)—whether it be the desire to gain power, to
ruin an enemy, to do right, or to serve God.
viii. Attention
_Attention is the power by which we impress upon our mind that which
is present._
ix. Memory
_Memory is the power by which we retain or recall to our mind that
which is past._
x. Imagination
_Imagination is the power by which we combine or vary the mental
images retained by Memory, often with a view to finding some unity
in them; and by which we are enabled to image forth the future
through anticipating its harmony with the past and present._
xi. Reason
_Reason (or, as some prefer to call it in this limited sense,
Understanding) is the power by which we compare, and, from our
comparisons, draw inferences or conclusions. By means of it we
compare the suggestions of the Imagination with the suggestions of
Experience, and accept or reject the former in accordance with the
result of our comparison._
xii. Hope
_Hope is desire, of which we imagine the fulfilment, while
recognizing the presence of doubt._
xiii. Faith
The following Definition appears to me to be the basis of all theology.
It is no more than an emphatic restatement of the old saying, “Faith is
the _assurance of_ (or _giving substance to_) things _hoped for_.” Since
_hope_ is but a weaker and more hesitant form of _desire_, the _imaging
forth of_ (or _giving substance to_) things earnestly _hoped for_ must
imply the vivid _imagination_ of the fulfilment of things _desired_.
_Faith (when not loosely used for Belief) is desire (approved by the
Conscience) of which we imagine the fulfilment, while putting doubt
at a distance._
“_Faith_ in a friend” means a _desire_ as well as a belief—that he will
do what you think he ought to do. “Faith” should never be used to
express a belief that something undesirable or wrong will happen, _e.g._
“I have great _faith_ that the boy will go wrong.” “Faith” in the
uniformity of Nature implies a desire that Nature should be uniform, and
a feeling that it is God’s will. In moments when we dread the uniformity
of Nature we should say that we have a “conviction” or “expectation” of
it, not that we have “faith” in it.
“Putting doubt at a distance is intended to include the different
degrees of faith: in the highest faith, the ‘distance’ is infinite.
“When ‘faith’ is said to be ‘shaken,’ we may mean that, though the
desire may remain, doubt is not ‘put at a distance;’ or that the
Conscience no longer approves of the desire; or that the desire itself
is weakened.”
xiv. Belief
_Belief (when it is not used for Faith) means a sense, mixed with
doubt, that the affirmations of our mind will harmonize with
Experience._[41]
xv. Certainty, or Conviction
_Certainty, or Conviction, is a sense, unmixed with doubt, that the
affirmations of our mind will harmonize with Experience._
xvi. Knowledge
1. _Absolute knowledge, which is possessed by no man, would be an
identity between our mental affirmations and those of the Creator;
who knows all things in their Essence and Causes._
2. _Knowledge (relative and ordinary) is (very often) a name loosely
given to a harmony between our mental affirmations and the
affirmations of the vast majority of those who have (or are thought
by the majority to have) the best opportunities for observation and
judgement._
_It might be more usefully defined as those mental affirmations
which harmonize with our nature and environment, i.e. with our
spiritual and material experience._
xvii. Illusions and Delusions
_Illusions are mental affirmations not harmonizing with immediate
experience, but preparatory for absolute knowledge. Delusions are
mental affirmations not harmonizing with experience, nor preparatory
for absolute knowledge._
Footnote 41:
Some might prefer “harmonize with experience _or with fact_.” But
“harmony with _fact_” can _never_ be proved: you can only prove
harmony with your experience, or with the general experience, of the
fact; or with experience of what others say about the fact.