first of all the painters to give full expression to the mind[2040]
and passions of man, known to the Greeks as ἤθη, as well
as to the mental perturbations which we experience: he was somewhat
harsh, however, in his colours. There is a picture by him of a Captured
City, in which is represented an infant crawling toward the breast of
its wounded mother, who, though at the point of death, has all the
appearance of being aware of it, and of being in dread lest the child
should suck blood in place of milk from her exhausted breast: this
picture Alexander the Great ordered to be transferred to Pella, his
native place. Aristides also painted a Battle with the Persians, a
picture which contained one hundred figures, for each of which he was
paid at the rate of ten minæ by Mnason, the tyrant of Elatea.[2041] He
also painted Chariots with four horses in full career; a Suppliant,
which almost speaks, Huntsmen with game; Leontion, the mistress of
Epicurus; the Anapauomene,[2042] a damsel pining to death from love
for her brother; a Father Liber[2043] also, and an Artamene, two
fine pictures now to be seen in the Temple of Ceres[2044] at Rome; a
Tragedian and a Child, in the Temple of Apollo,[2045] a picture which
has lost its beauty, owing to the unskilfulness of the painter to
whom M. Junius, the prætor, entrusted the cleaning of it, about the
period of the Apollinarian Games.[2046] There was also to be seen, in
the Temple of Faith, in the Capitol, a picture of his, representing
an Aged Man giving instructions to a Child on the lyre. He executed
also a painting of an Invalid, upon which endless encomiums have been
lavished. Indeed, so great was the excellence of this artist, that King
Attalus, it is said, purchased one picture of his at the price of one
hundred talents.
At the same period[2047] flourished Protogenes, as already stated.
He was a native of Caunus,[2048] a place held in subjection by the
Rhodians. Great poverty in his early days, and extreme application to
his art, were the causes of his comparative unproductiveness. It is
not known with certainty from whom he received his instruction in the
art: indeed some say that he was only a ship-decorator down to his
fiftieth year; a proof of which, it is asserted, is the fact, that in
decorating the Propylæum[2049] of the Temple of Minerva, situate in one
of the most celebrated spots in Athens, where he has painted the fine
picture[2050] of Paralus and Hammonias, known by some as the Nausicaa,
he has added in the side pieces of the picture, by painters called
“parerga,” several small ships of war;[2051] wishing thereby to show
in what department that skill had first manifested itself which had
thus reached the citadel of Athens, the scene of his glory. Of all his
compositions, however, the palm has been awarded to his Ialysus,[2052]
now at Rome, consecrated in the Temple of Peace there. So long as he
was at work upon it, he lived, it is said, upon nothing but soaked
lupines; by which means he at once appeased both hunger and thirst, and
avoided all risk of blunting his perception by too delicate a diet.
In order to protect this picture against the effects of ill-usage and
old age, he painted it over four times,[2053] so that when an upper
coat might fail, there would be an under one to succeed it. There is
in this picture the figure of a dog, which was completed in a very
remarkable manner, inasmuch as accident had an equal share with design
in the execution of it. The painter was of opinion that he had not
given the proper expression to the foam at the mouth of the animal,
panting for breath, as it was represented; while, with all other parts
of the picture, a thing extremely difficult with him, he was perfectly
satisfied. The thing that displeased him was, the evident traces of art
in the execution of it, touches which did not admit of any diminution,
and yet had all the appearance of being too laboured, the effect
produced being far removed from his conception of the reality: the
foam, in fact, bore the marks of being painted, and not of being the
natural secretion of the animal’s mouth. Vexed and tormented by this
dilemma, it being his wish to depict truth itself, and not something
that only bore a semblance of truth, he effaced it again and again,
changed his pencil for another, and yet by no possibility could satisfy
himself. At last, quite out of temper with an art, which, in spite
of him, would still obtrude itself, he dashed his sponge against the
vexatious spot; when behold! the sponge replaced the colours that it
had just removed, exactly in accordance with his utmost wishes, and
thus did chance represent Nature in a painting.
Following his example, Nealces,[2054] it is said, succeeded in
representing the foam at a horse’s mouth; for on one occasion, when
engaged in painting a man holding in a pair of horses and soothing them
with his voice,[2055] he also dashed his sponge against the picture,
with the view of producing a like effect.
It was on account of this Ialysus, which he was apprehensive of
destroying, that King Demetrius[2056] forbore to set fire to the only
side of the city of Rhodes by which it was capable of being taken;
and thus, in his anxiety to spare a picture, did he lose his only
opportunity of gaining a victory. The dwelling of Protogenes at this
period was situate in a little garden in the suburbs, or in other
words, in the midst of the camp of Demetrius. The combats that were
taking place made no difference whatever to the artist, and in no way
interrupted his proceeding with the works which he had commenced; until
at last he was summoned before the king, who enquired how he could have
the assurance thus to remain without the walls. “Because I know,” was
his answer, “that you are waging war with the Rhodians, and not with
the arts.” Upon this, the king, delighted at having the opportunity
of protecting the hand which he had thus spared, ordered a guard to
be placed at his disposal for the especial purpose of his protection.
In order, too, that he might not distract the artist’s attention by
sending for him too often, he would often go, an enemy albeit, to pay
him a visit, and, abandoning his aspirations for victory, in the midst
of arms and the battering down of walls, would attentively examine the
compositions of the painter. Even to this day, the story is still
attached to the picture which he was then engaged upon, to the effect,
that Protogenes painted it beneath the sword. It is his Satyr, known as
the “Anapauomenos;”[2057] in whose hand, to mark the sense of security
that he felt, the painter has placed a pair of pipes.
Protogenes executed also, a Cydippe; a Tlepolemus; a portrait of
Philiscus, the tragic poet, in an attitude of meditation; an Athlete; a
portrait of King Antigonus, and one of the mother of Aristotle.[2058]
It was this philosopher too, who advised him to paint the exploits
of Alexander the Great, as being certain to be held in everlasting
remembrance. The impulse, however, of his natural disposition, combined
with a certain artistic caprice, led him in preference to adopt the
various subjects which have just been mentioned. His last works were
representations of Alexander and the god Pan. He also executed some
figures in bronze, as already[2059] stated.
At the same period also, lived Asclepiodorus,[2060] who was greatly
admired by Apelles for his proportions. The tyrant Mnason[2061] paid
him, for his picture of the Twelve Gods, at the rate of thirty minæ for
each divinity. This same Mnason also paid Theomnestus twenty minæ for
each of his Heroes.
In addition to these, it is only proper to mention Nicomachus,[2062]
the son and disciple of Aristiæus. He painted a Rape of Proserpina,
a picture that was formerly in the Temple of Minerva in the Capitol,
above the shrine of Juventas.[2063] Another picture of his was to
be seen also in the Capitol, placed there by the Roman general
Plancus,[2064] a Victory soaring aloft in a chariot: he was the
first painter who represented Ulysses wearing the pileus.[2065]
He painted also an Apollo and Diana; the Mother[2066] of the Gods
seated on a Lion; the fine picture of the Bacchantes, with Satyrs
moving stealthily towards them; and a Scylla, now at Rome in the
Temple of Peace. No painter ever worked with greater rapidity than
Nicomachus; indeed it is said, that on one occasion having entered
into an engagement with Aristratus,[2067] the tyrant of Sicyon, to
paint within a given time the monument which he was raising to the
memory of the poet Telestis,[2068] the artist only arrived a few days
before the expiration of the term; upon which, the tyrant was so angry
that he threatened to punish him: however, in the few days that were
left, Nicomachus, to the admiration of all, completed the work, with
equal promptitude and success. Among his pupils, were his brother
Ariston, his son Aristides, and Philoxenus of Eretria, who painted
for King Cassander a picture representing one of the battles between
Alexander and Darius, a work which may bear comparison with any. He
also painted a picture in grotesque, representing Three Sileni at
their revels. Imitating the celerity of execution displayed by his
master, he introduced a more sketchy style of painting, executed in a
comparatively off-hand manner.[2069]
To these artists Nicophanes[2070] has also been added, an elegant and
finished painter, to whom for gracefulness few can be compared, but for
a severe and tragic style far inferior to Zeuxis or Apelles. Perseus
also belongs to this period, a pupil of Apelles, who dedicated to him
his work on painting. Aristides of Thebes had for pupils his sons
Niceros and Ariston. By the latter of these artists, there is a Satyr
crowned with a chaplet and holding a goblet: two of his pupils were
Antorides and Euphranor, of the latter of whom we shall have to make
mention again.[2071]
CHAP. 37.—VARIOUS OTHER KINDS OF PAINTING.
We must now, however, make some mention of those artists who acquired
fame by the pencil in an inferior style of painting. Among these
was Piræicus, inferior to few of the painters in skill. I am not
sure that he did not do injustice to himself by the choice of his
subjects,[2072] seeing that, although he adopted an humble walk, he
still attained in that walk the highest reputation. His subjects were
barbers’ shops, cobblers’ stalls, jackasses, eatables, and the like,
and to these he was indebted for his epithet of “Rhyparographos.”[2073]
His paintings, however, are exquisitely pleasing, and have sold at
higher prices than the very largest works of many masters.
On the other hand again, as Varro tells us, a single picture by
Serapio covered the whole space of the balustrades,[2074] beneath
the Old Shops,[2075] where it was exhibited. This artist was very
successful in painting stage-scenery, but was unable to depict the
human form. Dionysius,[2076] on the contrary, painted nothing but men,
and hence it was that he had the surname of “Anthropographos.”[2077]
Callicles[2078] also painted some small pictures, and Calates
executed some small works in the comic style. Both of these styles
were adopted by Antiphilus;[2079] who painted a very fine Hesione,
and a Philip and Alexander with Minerva, now in the School of the
Porticos[2080] of Octavia. In the Portico of Philippus,[2081] also,
there is a Father Liber[2082] by him; an Alexander when a child; and
an Hippolytus alarmed at the Bull, which is rushing upon him:[2083]
and in the Portico of Pompeius[2084] we have his Cadmus and Europa. On
the other hand, again, he painted a figure in a ridiculous costume,
known jocosely as the Gryllus; and hence it is that pictures of this
class[2085] are generally known as “Grylli.” Antiphilus was a native of
Egypt, and received instruction in the art from Ctesidemus.[2086]
It would not be right to pass in silence the painter of the Temple
at Ardea,[2087] the more particularly as he was honoured with the
citizenship at that place, and with the following inscription in verse
upon one of the paintings which he executed there:
“These paintings, worthy of this worthy place,
Temple of Juno, queen, and wife of Jove,
Plautius Marcus,[2088] from Alalia, made.
May Ardea now and ever praise him for his skill.”
These lines are written in ancient Latin characters.
Ludius too, who lived in the time of the late Emperor Augustus, must
not be allowed to pass without some notice; for he was the first
to introduce the fashion of covering the walls of our houses with
most pleasing landscapes, representing villas, porticos, ornamental
gardening, woods, groves, hills, fishponds, canals,[2089] rivers,
sea-shores, and anything else one could desire; varied with figures of
persons walking, sailing, or proceeding to their villas, on asses or
in carriages. Then, too, there are others to be seen fishing, fowling,
or gathering in the vintage. In some of his decorations there are
fine villas to be seen, and roads to them across the marshes, with
women making[2090] bargains to be carried across on men’s shoulders,
who move along slipping at every step and tottering beneath their
load; with numberless other subjects of a similar nature, redolent of
mirth and of the most amusing ingenuity. It was this artist, too, who
first decorated our uncovered[2091] edifices with representations of
maritime cities, a subject which produces a most pleasing effect, and
at a very trifling expense.
But as for fame, that has been reserved solely for the artists who
have painted pictures; a thing that gives us all the more reason to
venerate the prudence displayed by the men of ancient times. For with
them, it was not the practice to decorate the walls of houses, for
the gratification of the owners only; nor did they lavish all their
resources upon a dwelling which must of necessity always remain a
fixture in one spot, and admits of no removal in case of conflagration.
Protogenes was content with a cottage in his little garden; Apelles
had no paintings on the plaster of his walls; it not being the fashion
in their day to colour the party-walls of houses from top to bottom.
With all those artists, art was ever watchful for the benefit of whole
cities only, and in those times a painter was regarded as the common
property of all.
Shortly before the time of the late Emperor Augustus, Arellius was in
high esteem at Rome; and with fair reason, had he not profaned the art
by a disgraceful piece of profanity; for, being always in love with
some woman or other, it was his practice, in painting goddesses, to
give them the features of his mistresses; hence it is, that there were
always some figures of prostitutes to be seen in his pictures. More
recently, lived Amulius,[2092] a grave and serious personage, but a
painter in the florid style. By this artist there was a Minerva, which
had the appearance of always looking at the spectators, from whatever
point it was viewed. He only painted a few hours each day, and then
with the greatest gravity, for he always kept the toga on, even when in
the midst of his implements. The Golden Palace[2093] of Nero was the
prison-house of this artist’s productions, and hence it is that there
are so few of them to be be seen elsewhere.
Next in repute to him were Cornelius Pinus and Attius Priscus, who
painted the Temple of Honour and that of Virtue,[2094] on their
restoration by the Emperor Vespasianus Augustus. Priscus approaches
more closely to the ancient masters.
CHAP. 38. (11.)—AN EFFECTUAL WAY OF PUTTING A STOP TO THE SINGING OF
BIRDS.
I must not omit here, in reference to painting, a celebrated story that
is told about Lepidus. During the Triumvirate, when he was entertained
by the magistrates of a certain place, he had lodgings given him
in a house that was wholly surrounded with trees. The next day, he
complained to them in a threatening tone, that he had been unable to
sleep for the singing of the birds there. Accordingly, they had a
dragon painted, on pieces of parchment of the greatest length that
could possibly be obtained, and surrounded the grove with it; a thing
that so terrified the birds, it is said, that they became silent at
once; and hence it was that it first became known how this object could
be attained.
CHAP. 39.—ARTISTS WHO HAVE PAINTED IN ENCAUSTICS OR WAX, WITH EITHER
THE CESTRUM OR THE PENCIL.
It is not agreed who was the inventor of the art of painting in wax and
in encaustic.[2095] Some think that it was a discovery of the painter
Aristides,[2096] and that it was afterwards brought to perfection
by Praxiteles: but there are encaustic paintings in existence, of a
somewhat prior date to them, those by Polygnotus,[2097] for example,
and by Nicanor and Arcesilaüs,[2098] natives of Paros. Elasippus too,
has inscribed upon a picture of his at Ægina, the word ἐνέκαεν;[2099]
a thing that he certainly could not have done, if the art of encaustic
painting had not been then invented.
CHAP. 40.—THE FIRST INVENTORS OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAINTING. THE
GREATEST DIFFICULTIES IN THE ART OF PAINTING. THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF
PAINTING. THE FIRST ARTIST THAT PAINTED CEILINGS. WHEN ARCHED ROOFS
WERE FIRST PAINTED. THE MARVELLOUS PRICE OF SOME PICTURES.
It is said, too, that Pamphilus,[2100] the instructor of Apelles,
not only painted in encaustic, but also instructed Pausias[2101] of
Sicyon in the art, the first who rendered himself distinguished in
this branch. Pausias was the son of Bryetes, by whom he was originally
instructed in the art of painting. He retouched also with the
pencil[2102] some walls at Thespiæ, then undergoing repair, which had
formerly been painted by Polygnotus. Upon instituting a comparison,
however, it was considered that he was greatly inferior, this kind
of painting not being in his line. It was he, too, who first thought
of painting ceilings: nor had it been the practice before his day to
use this kind of decoration for arched roofs. He painted many small
pictures also, miniatures of children more particularly; a thing which,
according to the interpretation put upon it by his rivals, was owing
to the peculiarly slow process of encaustic painting. The consequence
was, that being determined to give a memorable proof of his celerity of
execution, he completed a picture in the space of a single day, which
was thence called the “Hemeresios,”[2103] representing the portrait of
a child.
In his youth, he was enamoured of Glycera,[2104] his fellow-townswoman,
the first inventor of chaplets; and in his rivalry of the skill
shown by her, he achieved so much success in the encaustic art,
as to reproduce the almost numberless tints displayed by flowers.
At a later period, he painted her, seated, with a chaplet on, and
thus produced one of the very finest of his pictures; known as the
“Stephaneplocos”[2105] by some, and as the “Stephanopolis”[2106] by
others; from the circumstance that Glycera had supported herself in
her poverty by selling these chaplets. A copy of this picture, usually
known as an “apographon,”[2107] was purchased by L. Lucullus at Athens,
during the festival of the Dionysia, at the price of two talents.
Pausias also painted some large pictures, a Sacrifice of Oxen, for
instance, which used to be seen in the Portico of Pompeius. In this
painting he invented several improvements, which many artists have
since imitated, but none with the same success. Although in the picture
it was particularly his desire to give an impression of the length of
the ox, he painted it with a front view and not sideways, and still
has caused the large dimensions of the animal to be fully understood.
And then too, whereas all other painters colour in white such parts as
they wish to have the appearance of being prominent, and in black such
portions as are intended to remain in the back-ground, he has painted
the whole of the ox of a black colour, and has shown the dimensions of
the body which throws the shadow by the medium of the shadow itself;
thus evincing a wonderful degree of skill in showing relief upon a coat
painted with a single colour, and conveying an impression of uniform
solidity upon a broken ground.[2108] It was at Sicyon also that Pausias
passed his life, a city which for a long time continued to be the
native place of painting. Ultimately, all the paintings belonging to
that place were sold by public auction for the discharge of the debts
owing by the city, and were transferred to Rome in the ædileship of
Scaurus.[2109]
Next to him, in the hundred and fourth Olympiad, Euphranor,[2110]
the Isthmian, distinguished himself far beyond all others, an artist
who has been already mentioned in our account of the statuaries. He
executed some colossal figures also, and some statues in marble, and
he chased some drinking-vessels; being studious and laborious in the
highest degree, excellent in every branch, and at all times equal
to himself. This artist seems to have been the first to represent
heroes with becoming dignity, and to have paid particular attention to
symmetry. Still, however, in the generality of instances, he has made
the body slight in proportion to the head and limbs. He composed some
treatises also upon symmetry and colours. His works are, an Equestrian
Combat;[2111] the Twelve Gods; and a Theseus; with reference to which
he remarked that the Theseus of Parrhasius had been fed upon roses, but
his own upon beef.[2112] There are also at Ephesus some famous pictures
by him; an Ulysses, in his feigned madness, yoking together an ox and
a horse; Men, in an attitude of meditation, wearing the pallium;[2113]
and a Warrior, sheathing his sword.
At the same time, also, flourished Cydias;[2114] for whose picture of
the Argonautæ the orator Hortensius paid one hundred and forty-four
thousand sesterces, and had a shrine constructed expressly for its
reception on his estate at Tusculum.[2115] There was also Antidotus,
a pupil of Euphranor, by whom there is, at Athens, a Combatant armed
with a shield; a Wrestler, also; and a Trumpeter, a work which has been
considered a most exquisite production.
Antidotus, as a painter, was more careful in his works than prolific,
and his colouring was of a severe style. His principal glory was
his having been the instructor of Nicias[2116] of Athens; who was a
most careful painter of female portraits, and a strict observer of
light and shade,[2117] making it his especial care that the figures
in his pictures should appear in the boldest relief. His works are,
a Nemea, which was brought from Asia to Rome by Silanus, and was
placed in the Curia, as already stated;[2118] a Father Liber,[2119]
in the Temple[2120] of Concord; a Hyacinthus,[2121] which the Emperor
Augustus was so delighted with, that he took it away with him after
the capture of Alexandria; for which reason also it was consecrated
in the Temple[2122] of Augustus by the Emperor Tiberius; and a
Danaë. At Ephesus, there is a tomb by him of a megabyzus,[2123] or
priest of the Ephesian Diana; and at Athens a representation of the
Necyomantea[2124] of Homer; which last he declined to sell to King
Attalus for sixty talents, and in preference, so rich was he, made a
present of it to his own native place. He also executed some large
pictures, among which there are a Calypso, an Io, an Andromeda, a very
fine Alexander, in the Porticos[2125] of Pompeius, and a Calypso,
seated. To this painter also there are some pictures of cattle
attributed, and in his dogs he has been remarkably successful. It
was this Nicias, with reference to whom, Praxiteles, when asked with
which of all his works in marble he was the best pleased, made answer,
“Those to which Nicias has set his hand,” so highly did he esteem the
colouring of that artist. It has not been satisfactorily ascertained
whether it is this artist or another of the same name that some writers
have placed in the hundred and twelfth Olympiad.
With Nicias has been compared, and indeed sometimes preferred to
him, Athenion of Maronea,[2126] a pupil of Glaucion of Corinth. In
his colouring he is more sombre than Nicias, and yet, with all his
sombreness, more pleasing; so much so indeed, that in his paintings
shines forth the extensive knowledge which he possessed of the art. He
painted, in the Temple at Eleusis, a Phylarchus;[2127] and at Athens,
a family group, which has been known as the “Syngenicon;”[2128] an
Achilles also, concealed in a female dress, and Ulysses detecting him;
a group of six whole-length figures, in one picture; and, a work which
has contributed to his fame more than any other, a Groom leading a
Horse. Indeed, if he had not died young, there would have been no one
comparable to Athenion in painting.
Heraclides, too, of Macedon, had some repute as an artist. At first
he was a painter of ships, but afterwards, on the capture of King
Perseus, he removed to Athens; where at the same period was also
Metrodorus,[2129] who was both a painter and a philosopher, and of
considerable celebrity in both branches. Hence it was, that when L.
Paulus Æmilius, after the conquest of Perseus,[2130] requested the
Athenians to send him the most esteemed philosopher for the education
of his children, and a painter to represent his triumph, they made
choice of Metrodorus, declaring that he was eminently suited for either
purpose; a thing which Paulus admitted to be the case.
Timomachus of Byzantium, in the time of the Dictator Cæsar, painted an
Ajax[2131] and a Medea, which were placed by Cæsar in the Temple of
Venus Genetrix, having been purchased at the price of eighty talents;
the value of the Attic talent being, according to M. Varro, equivalent
to six thousand denarii. An Orestes, also by Timomachus, an Iphigenia
in Tauris, and a Lecythion, a teacher of gymnastics, are equally
praised; a Noble Family also; and Two Men clothed in the pallium,[2132]
and about to enter into conversation, the one standing, the other in
a sitting posture. It is in his picture, however of the Gorgon,[2133]
that the art appears to have favoured him most highly.
Aristolaüs, the son and pupil of Pausias, was one of the painters in
a more severe style: there are by him an Epaminondas, a Pericles, a
Medea, a Theseus, an emblematical picture of the Athenian People,
and a Sacrifice of Oxen. Some persons, too, are pleased with the
careful style of Nicophanes,[2134] who was also a pupil of Pausias; a
carefulness, however, which only artists can appreciate, as in other
respects he was harsh in his colours, and too lavish of sil;[2135]
as in his picture, for example, of Æsculapius with his daughters,
Hygia,[2136] Ægle, and Panacea, his Jason, and his Sluggard, known as
the “Ocnos,”[2137] a man twisting a rope at one end as an ass gnaws it
at the other. As to Socrates,[2138] his pictures are, with good reason,
universally esteemed.
Having now mentioned the principal painters in either branch,[2139] I
must not pass in silence those who occupy the next rank. Aristoclides
decorated the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Antiphilus[2140] is highly
praised for his picture of a Boy blowing a Fire, which illumines
an apartment handsomely furnished, and throws a light[2141] upon
the features of the youth; a Spinning-room, with women plying their
respective tasks; and a King Ptolemæus hunting. But his most famous
picture is his Satyr, clad in a panther’s skin, and known as the
“Aposcopeuon.”[2142] Aristophon[2143] has painted an Ancæus[2144]
wounded by the Boar, with Astypale, the sharer of his grief; and a
picture with numerous figures, representing Priam, Helena, Credulity,
Ulysses, Deiphobus, and Guile.[2145] Androbius has painted a
Scyllus[2146] cutting away the anchors of the Persian fleet: and
Artemon a Danaë, with Robbers in admiration; a Queen Stratonice;[2147]
and a Hercules and Deianira. But the finest of all this artist’s works
are those now in the buildings of Octavia; a Hercules ascending to
heaven, with the sanction of the gods, from his funeral pile upon Mount
Œta in Doris; and the story of Laomedon and his bargain[2148] with
Hercules and Neptune. Alcimachus has painted Dioxippus,[2149] who was
victorious in the pancratium at Olympia, without raising the dust; a
victory known to the Greeks as being gained “aconiti.”[2150] Cœnus
painted pedigrees.[2151]
Ctesilochus, a pupil[2152] of Apelles, was famous for a burlesque
picture of his representing Jupiter in labour with Bacchus,[2153] with
a mitra[2154] on his head, and crying like a woman in the midst of the
goddesses, who are acting as midwives. Cleon distinguished himself by
his Cadmus; and Ctesidemus, by his Capture of Œchalia[2155] and his
Laodamia.
Ctesicles became notorious for the insult which he offered to Queen
Stratonice;[2156] for, upon failing to meet with an honourable
reception from her, he painted her, romping with a fisherman, for
whom, according to common report, she had conceived an ardent
affection. After exhibiting this picture in the harbour at Ephesus,
he at once set sail and escaped: the queen, however, would not allow
of its removal, the likenesses of the two figures being so admirably
expressed. Cratinus,[2157] the comic writer, painted at Athens, in the
Pompeion[2158] there.
Of Eutychides, there is a Victory guiding a chariot drawn by two
horses. Eudorus is famous for his dramatic scenery; he executed some
statues in bronze also. By Hippys there is a Neptune and Victory.
Habron painted a picture of Friendship and Concord, and several
figures of divinities; Leontiscus, an Aratus with the trophies of
victory,[2159] and a Singing-girl; Leon, a portrait of Sappho; and
Nearchus, a Venus attended by Cupids and Graces, and a Hercules,
sorrowing and repentant at the sad results of his madness.[2160]
Nealces,[2161] a remarkably ingenious and inventive artist, painted a
Venus. On one occasion, when he had to represent a naval engagement
between the Persians and Egyptians, wishing it to be understood that
it took place on the river Nilus, the waters of which are similar in
appearance to those of the sea, he employed an emblem to disclose that
which would not admit of expression by art; for he painted an ass
drinking on the shore, and a crocodile lying in wait for him.[2162]
Œnias has painted a Family Group; Philiscus, a Painter’s Studio, with
a boy blowing the fire; Phalerion, a Scylla; Simonides, an Agatharchus
and a Mnemosyne; Simus, a youth reposing, a Fuller’s Shop, a person
celebrating the Quinquatria,[2163] and a Nemesis of great merit. By
Theorus[2164] there is a Man Anointing himself; a picture of the
Murder of Ægisthus and Clytæmnestra by Orestes; and a representation
of the Trojan War, in a series of paintings, now at Rome, in the
Porticos[2165] of Philippus: a Cassandra[2166] also, in the Temple
of Concord; a Leontium, the mistress of Epicurus, in an attitude of
meditation; and a King Demetrius.[2167] Theon[2168] has painted the
Frenzy[2169] of Orestes, and a Thamyras[2170] playing on the lyre;
Tauriscus, a Discobolus,[2171] a Clytæmnestra, a Pan in miniature, a
Polynices claiming[2172] the sovereignty, and a Capaneus.[2173]
In speaking of these artists, I must not omit to mention one memorable
circumstance: Erigonus, who was colour-grinder to the painter Nealces,
himself made such progress in the art as to leave a very celebrated
pupil, Pasias, the brother of Ægineta, the modeller. It is also a
very singular fact, and one well deserving of remark, that the last
works of these artists, their unfinished paintings, in fact, are
held in greater admiration than their completed works; the Iris of
Aristides, for instance, the Tyndaridæ[2174] of Nicomachus, the Medea
of Timomachus,[2175] and the Venus of Apelles,[2176] already mentioned.
For in such works as these, we not only see the outline depicted, and
the very thoughts of the artist expressed, but have the composition
additionally commended to our notice by the regrets which we must
necessarily feel on finding the hand that commenced it arrested by
death.
There are still some other artists, who, though by no means without
reputation, can only be noticed here in a summary manner: Aristocydes;
Anaxander; Aristobulus of Syria; Arcesilas,[2177] son of Tisicrates;
Corœbos, a pupil of Nicomachus; Charmantides, a pupil of Euphranor;
Dionysodorus of Colophon; Dicæogenes, a contemporary of King
Demetrius;[2178] Euthymides; Heraclides[2179] of Macedon; Milo of Soli,
a pupil of the statuary Pyromachus; Mnasitheus of Sicyon; Mnasitimus,
the son and pupil of Aristonidas;[2180] Nessus, son of Habron;[2181]
Polemon of Alexandria; Theodorus of Samos, and Stadieus, pupils of
Nicosthenes; and Xeno of Sicyon, a pupil of Neocles.
There have been some female painters also. Timarete, the daughter
of Micon,[2182] painted a Diana at Ephesus, one of the very oldest
panel-paintings known. Irene, daughter and pupil of the artist
Cratinus,[2183] painted a figure of a girl, now at Eleusis, a Calypso,
an Aged Man, the juggler Theodorus, and Alcisthenes the dancer.
Aristarete, daughter and pupil of Nearchus, painted an Æsculapius.
Iaia of Cyzicus, who always remained single, painted at Rome, in the
youth of M. Varro, both with the brush, and with the graver,[2184] upon
ivory, her subjects being female portraits mostly. At Naples, there
is a large picture by her, the portrait of an Old Woman; as also a
portrait of herself, taken by the aid of a mirror. There was no painter
superior to her for expedition; while at the same time her artistic
skill was such, that her works sold at much higher prices than those
of the most celebrated portrait-painters of her day, Sopolis namely,
and Dionysius,[2185] with whose pictures our galleries are filled. One
Olympias painted also, but nothing is known relative to her, except
that she had Autobulus for a pupil.
CHAP. 41.—ENCAUSTIC PAINTING.
In ancient times there were but two methods of encaustic[2186]
painting, in wax and on ivory,[2187] with the cestrum or pointed
graver. When, however, this art came to be applied to the painting
of ships of war, a third method was adopted, that of melting the wax
colours and laying them on with a brush, while hot.[2188] Painting of
this nature,[2189] applied to vessels, will never spoil from the action
of the sun, winds, or salt water.
CHAP. 42.—THE COLOURING OF TISSUES.
In Egypt, too, they employ a very remarkable process for the colouring
of tissues. After pressing the material, which is white at first, they
saturate it, not with colours, but with mordents that are calculated to
absorb colour. This done, the tissues, still unchanged in appearance,
are plunged into a cauldron of boiling dye, and are removed the next
moment fully coloured. It is a singular fact, too, that although the
dye in the pan is of one uniform colour, the material when taken out of
it is of various colours, according to the nature of the mordents that
have been respectively applied to it: these colours, too, will never
wash out. Thus the dye-pan, which under ordinary circumstances, no
doubt, would have made but one colour of several, if coloured tissues
had been put into it, is here made to yield several colours from a
single dye. At the same moment that it dyes the tissues, it boils in
the colour; and it is the fact, that material which has been thus
submitted to the action of fire becomes stouter and more serviceable
for wear, than it would have been if it had not been subjected to the
process.
CHAP. 43. (12.)—THE INVENTORS OF THE ART OF MODELLING.
On painting we have now said enough, and more than enough; but it will
be only proper to append some accounts of the plastic art. Butades, a
potter of Sicyon, was the first who invented, at Corinth, the art of
modelling portraits in the earth which he used in his trade. It was
through his daughter that he made the discovery; who, being deeply in
love with a young man about to depart on a long journey, traced the
profile of his face, as thrown upon the wall by the light of the lamp.
Upon seeing this, her father filled in the outline, by compressing clay
upon the surface, and so made a face in relief, which he then hardened
by fire along with other articles of pottery. This model, it is said,
was preserved in the Nymphæum[2190] at Corinth, until the destruction
of that city by Mummius.[2191] Others, again, assert that the first
inventors of the plastic art were Rhœcus[2192] and Theodorus,[2193] at
Samos, a considerable period before the expulsion of the Bacchiadæ from
Corinth: and that Damaratus,[2194] on taking to flight from that place
and settling in Etruria, where he became father of Tarquinius, who was
ultimately king of the Roman people, was accompanied thither by the
modellers Euchir,[2195] Diopus, and Eugrammus, by whose agency the art
was first introduced into Italy.
Butades first invented the method of colouring plastic compositions, by
adding red earth to the material, or else modelling them in red chalk:
he, too, was the first to make masks on the outer edges of gutter-tiles
upon the roofs of buildings; in low relief, and known as “prostypa”
at first, but afterwards in high relief, or “ectypa.” It was in these
designs,[2196] too, that the ornaments on the pediments of temples
originated; and from this invention modellers first had their name of
“plastæ.”
CHAP. 44.—WHO WAS THE FIRST TO MOULD FIGURES IN IMITATION OF THE
FEATURES OF LIVING PERSONS, OR OF STATUES.
The first person who expressed the human features by fitting a mould of
plaster upon the face, and then improving it by pouring melted wax into
the cast, was Lysistratus[2197] of Sicyon, brother of Lysippus, already
mentioned. It was he, in fact, who first made it his study to give a
faithful likeness; for before his time, artists only thought how to
make their portraits as handsome as possible. The same artist, too, was
the first who thought of making models for his statues; a method which
afterwards became so universally adopted, that there could be neither
figure nor statue made without its model in clay. Hence it would
appear, that the art of modelling in clay is more ancient than that of
moulding in bronze.[2198]
CHAP. 45.—THE MOST FAMOUS MODELLERS.
The most celebrated modellers were Damophilus and Gorgasus, who were
painters as well. These artists adorned with their works, in both
kinds, the Temple of Ceres,[2199] in the Circus Maximus at Rome; with
an inscription in Greek, which stated that the decorations on the
right-hand were the workmanship of Damophilus, and those on the left,
of Gorgasus. Varro says that, before the construction of this temple,
everything was Tuscan[2200] in the temples; and that, when the temple
was afterwards repaired, the painted coatings of the walls were cut
away in tablets and enclosed in frames, but that the figures on the
pediments were dispersed. Chalcosthenes,[2201] too,[2202] executed
at Athens some works in unbaked earth, on the spot which, from his
manufactory, has since obtained the name of “Ceramicus.”[2203]
M. Varro states that he knew an artist at Rome, Possis by name, who
executed fruit, grapes, and fish, with such exactness, that it was
quite impossible, by only looking at them, to distinguish them from
the reality. He speaks very highly also of Arcesilaüs,[2204] who was
on terms of intimacy with Lucius Lucullus,[2205] and whose models in
plaster used to sell at a higher rate, among artists themselves, than
the works of others. He informs us, also, that it was by this modeller
that the Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Cæsar was executed, it having
been erected before completion, in the great haste that there was to
consecrate it; that the same artist had made an agreement with Lucullus
to execute a figure of Felicity, at the price of sixty thousand
sesterces, the completion of which was prevented by their death; and
that Octavius, a Roman of equestrian rank, being desirous of a model
for a mixing-bowl,[2206] Arcesilaüs made him one in plaster, at the
price of one talent.
Varro praises Pasiteles[2207] also, who used to say, that the plastic
art was the mother of chasing, statuary, and sculpture, and who,
excellent as he was in each of these branches, never executed any work
without first modelling it. In addition to these particulars, he states
that the art of modelling was anciently cultivated in Italy, Etruria in
particular; and that Volcanius was summoned from Veii, and entrusted by
Tarquinius Priscus with making the figure of Jupiter, which he intended
to consecrate in the Capitol; that this Jupiter was made of clay, and
that hence arose the custom of painting it with minium;[2208] and that
the four-horse chariot, so often[2209] mentioned, upon the pediment
of the temple, was made of clay as well. We learn also from him, that
it was by the same artist that the Hercules was executed, which, even
to this day, is named[2210] at Rome from the material of which it is
composed. Such, in those times, were the most esteemed statues of the
gods; and small reason have we to complain of our forefathers for
worshipping such divinities as these; for in their day there was no
working of gold and silver—no, not even in the service of the gods.
CHAP. 46.—WORKS IN POTTERY.
Statues of this nature are still in existence at various places. At
Rome, in fact, and in our municipal towns, we still see many such
pediments of temples; wonderful too, for their workmanship, and, from
their artistic merit and long duration, more deserving of our respect
than gold, and certainly far less baneful. At the present day even, in
the midst of such wealth as we possess, we make our first libation at
the sacrifice, not from murrhine[2211] vases or vessels of crystal, but
from ladles[2212] made of earthenware.
Bounteous beyond expression is the earth, if we only consider in
detail her various gifts. To omit all mention of the cereals, wine,
fruits, herbs, shrubs, medicaments, and metals, bounties which she has
lavished upon us, and which have already passed under our notice, her
productions in the shape of pottery alone, would more than suffice, in
their variety, to satisfy our domestic wants; what with gutter-tiles of
earthenware, vats for receiving wine, pipes[2213] for conveying water,
conduits[2214] for supplying baths, baked tiles for roofs, bricks for
foundations, the productions, too, of the potter’s wheel; results, all
of them, of an art, which induced King Numa to establish, as a seventh
company,[2215] that of the makers of earthenware.
Even more than this, many persons have chosen to be buried in
coffins[2216] made of earthenware; M. Varro, for instance, who was
interred, in true Pythagorean style, in the midst of leaves of myrtle,
olive, and black poplar; indeed, the greater part of mankind make use
of earthen vases for this purpose. For the service of the table, the
Samian pottery is even yet held in high esteem; that, too, of Arretium
in Italy, still maintains its high character; while for their cups,
and for those only, the manufactories of Surrentum, Asta, Pollentia,
Saguntum in Spain, and Pergamus in Asia,[2217] are greatly esteemed.
The city of Tralles, too, in Asia, and that of Mutina in Italy, have
their respective manufactures of earthenware, and even by this branch
of art are localities rendered famous; their productions, by the aid of
the potter’s wheel, becoming known to all countries, and conveyed by
sea and by land to every quarter of the earth. At Erythræ, there are
still shown, in a temple there, two amphoræ, that were consecrated in
consequence of the singular thinness of the material: they originated
in a contest between a master and his pupil, which of the two could
make earthenware of the greatest thinness. The vessels of Cos are the
most highly celebrated for their beauty, hut those of Adria[2218] are
considered the most substantial.
In relation to these productions of art, there are some instances of
severity mentioned: Q. Coponius, we find, was condemned for bribery,
because he made present of an amphora of wine to a person who had
the right of voting. To make luxury, too, conduce in some degree to
enhance our estimation of earthenware, “tripatinium,”[2219] as we learn
from Fenestella, was the name given to the most exquisite course of
dishes that was served up at the Roman banquets. It consisted of one
dish of murænæ,[2220] one of lupi,[2221] and a third of a mixture of
fish. It is clear that the public manners were then already on the
decline; though we still have a right to hold them preferable to those
of the philosophers even of Greece, seeing that the representatives
of Aristotle, it is said, sold, at the auction of his goods, as many
as seventy dishes of earthenware. It has been already[2222] stated by
us, when on the subject of birds, that a single dish cost the tragic
actor Æsopus one hundred thousand sesterces; much to the reader’s
indignation, no doubt; but, by Hercules! Vitellius, when emperor,
ordered a dish to be made, which was to cost a million of sesterces,
and for the preparation of which a furnace had to be erected out in the
fields! luxury having thus arrived at such a pitch of excess as to make
earthenware even sell at higher prices than murrhine[2223] vessels. It
was in reference to this circumstance, that Mucianus, in his second
consulship, when pronouncing one of his perorations, reproached the
memory of Vitellius with his dishes as broad as the Pomptine Marsh;
not less deserving to be execrated than the poisoned dish of Asprenas,
which, according to the accusation brought against him by Cassius
Severus, caused the death of one hundred and thirty guests.[2224]
These works of artistic merit have conferred celebrity on some cities
even, Rhegium for example, and Cumæ. The priests of the Mother of
the gods, known as the Galli, deprive themselves of their virility
with a piece of Samian[2225] pottery, the only means, if we believe
M. Cælius,[2226] of avoiding dangerous results. He it was, too, who
recommended, when inveighing against certain abominable practices,
that the person guilty of them should have his tongue cut out, in a
similar manner; a reproach which would appear to have been levelled by
anticipation against this same Vitellius.
What is there that human industry will not devise? Even broken pottery
has been utilized; it being found that, beaten to powder, and tempered
with lime, it becomes more solid and durable than other substances
of a similar nature; forming the cement known as the “Signine”[2227]
composition, so extensively employed for even making the pavements of
houses.[2228]
CHAP. 47. (13.)—VARIOUS KINDS OF EARTH, THE PUTEOLAN DUST, AND OTHER
EARTHS OF WHICH CEMENTS LIKE STONE ARE MADE.
But there are other resources also, which are derived immediately
from the earth. Who, indeed, cannot but be surprised at finding the
most inferior constituent parts of it, known as “dust”[2229] only,
on the hills about Puteoli, forming a barrier against the waves of
the sea, becoming changed into stone the moment of its immersion, and
increasing in hardness from day to day—more particularly when mixed
with the cement of Cumæ? There is an earth too, of a similar nature
found in the districts about Cyzicus; but there, it is not a dust,
but a solid earth, which is cut away in blocks of all sizes, and
which, after being immersed in the sea, is taken out transformed into
stone. The same thing may be seen also, it is said, in the vicinity of
Cassandrea;[2230] and at Cnidos, there is a spring of fresh water which
has the property of causing earth to petrify within the space of eight
months. Between Oropus and Aulis, every portion of the land upon which
the sea encroaches becomes transformed into solid rock.
The finer portion of the sand of the river Nilus is not very different
in its properties from the dust of Puteoli; not, indeed, that it is
used for breaking the force of the sea and withstanding the waves,
but only for the purpose, forsooth, of subduing[2231] the body for
the exercises of the palestra! At all events, it was for this purpose
that it used to be brought over for Patrobius,[2232] a freedman of the
Emperor Nero. I find it stated also, that Craterus, Leonnatus, and
Meleager, generals of Alexander the Great, had this sand transported
along with their munitions of war. But I forbear to enlarge any further
upon this subject; or indeed, by Hercules! upon those preparations of
earth and wax of which the ceromata are made, so much employed by our
youth in their exercises of the body, at the cost of all vigour of the
mind.
CHAP. 48. (14.)—FORMACEAN WALLS.
And then, besides, have we not in Africa and in Spain walls[2233] of
earth, known as “formacean” walls? from the fact that they are moulded,
rather than built, by enclosing earth within a frame of boards,
constructed on either side. These walls will last for centuries, are
proof against rain, wind, and fire, and are superior in solidity to
any cement. Even at this day, Spain still beholds watch-towers that
were erected by Hannibal, and turrets of earth[2234] placed on the
very summits of her mountains. It is from the same source, too, that
we derive the substantial materials so well adapted for forming the
earth-works of our camps and embankments against the impetuous violence
of rivers. What person, too, is unacquainted with the fact, that
partitions are made of hurdles coated with clay, and that walls are
constructed of unbaked bricks?
CHAP. 49.—WALLS OF BRICK. THE METHOD OF MAKING BRICKS.
Earth for making bricks should never be extracted from a sandy or
gravelly soil, and still less from one that is stony; but from a
stratum that is white and cretaceous, or else impregnated with red
earth.[2235] If a sandy soil must be employed for the purpose, it
should at least be male[2236] sand, and no other. The spring is the
best season for making bricks, as at midsummer they are very apt to
crack. For building, bricks two years old are the only ones that are
approved of; and the wrought material of them should be well macerated
before they are made.
There are three different kinds of bricks; the Lydian, which is in
use with us, a foot-and-a-half in length by a foot in breadth; the
tetradoron; and the pentadoron; the word “doron” being used by the
ancient Greeks to signify the palm[2237]—hence, too, their word “doron”
meaning a gift, because it is the hand that gives.—These last two
kinds, therefore, are named respectively from their being four and five
palms in length, the breadth being the same. The smaller kind is used
in Greece for private buildings, the larger for the construction of
public edifices. At Pitane,[2238] in Asia, and in the cities of Muxilua
and Calentum in Farther Spain, there are bricks[2239] made, which
float in water, when dry; the material being a sort of pumice-earth,
extremely good for the purpose when it can be made to unite. The
Greeks have always preferred walls of brick, except in those cases
where they could find silicious stone for the purposes of building:
for walls of this nature will last for ever, if they are only built
on the perpendicular. Hence it is, that the Greeks have built their
public edifices and the palaces of their kings of brick; the wall at
Athens, for example, which faces Mount Hymettus; the Temples of Jupiter
and Hercules at Patræ,[2240] although the columns and architraves in
the interior are of stone; the palace of King Attalus at Tralles; the
palace of Crœsus at Sardes, now converted into an asylum[2241] for aged
persons; and that of King Mausolus at Halicarnassus; edifices, all of
them, still in existence.
Muræna and Varro, in their ædileship, had a fine fresco painting, on
the plaster of a wall at Lacedæmon, cut away from the bricks, and
transported in wooden frames to Rome, for the purpose of adorning
the Comitium. Admirable as the work was of itself, it was still more
admired after being thus transferred. In Italy also there are walls of
brick, at Arretium and Mevania.[2242] At Rome, there are no buildings
of this description, because a wall only a foot-and-a-half in thickness
would not support more than a single story; and by public ordinance it
has been enacted that no partition should exceed that thickness; nor,
indeed, does the peculiar construction of our party-walls admit of it.
CHAP. 50. (15.)—SULPHUR, AND THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT: FOURTEEN
REMEDIES.
Let thus much be deemed sufficient on the subject of bricks. Among the
other kinds of earth, the one of the most singular nature, perhaps,
is sulphur, an agent of great power upon other substances. Sulphur
is found in the Æolian Islands, between Sicily and Italy, which are
volcanic, as already[2243] stated. But the finest sulphur of all, is
that which comes from the Isle of Melos. It is obtained also in Italy,
upon the range of hills in the territories of Neapolis and Campania,
known as the Leucogæi:[2244] when extracted from the mines there, it is
purified by the agency of fire.
There are four kinds of sulphur; the first of which is “live” sulphur,
known as “apyron”[2245] by the Greeks, and found in solid masses, or
in other words, in blocks. This, too, is the only sulphur that is
extracted in its native state, the others being found in a state of
liquescence, and requiring to be purified by being boiled in oil. This
kind is green and transparent, and is the only sulphur that is used for
medicinal purposes. A second kind is known as the “glebaceous”[2246]
sulphur, and is solely employed in the workshops of the fullers. The
third kind, also, is only used for a single purpose, that of fumigating
wool, a process which contributes very greatly to making the wool white
and soft; “egula”[2246] is the name given to it. The fourth kind is
used in the preparation of matches more particularly.
In addition to these several uses, sulphur is of such remarkable
virtue, that if it is thrown upon the fire it will at once detect, by
the smell, whether or not a person is subject to epilepsy. Anaxilaüs
used to employ this substance by way of pastime: putting sulphur in a
cup of wine, with some hot coals beneath, he would hand it round to
the guests, the light given by it, while burning, throwing a ghastly
paleness like that of death upon the face of each. Its properties are
calorific and maturative, in addition to which, it disperses abscesses
on the body: hence it is that it is used as an ingredient in plasters
and emollient poultices. Applied to the loins and kidneys, with grease,
when there are pains in those parts, it is marvellously effectual as
a remedy. In combination with turpentine, it removes lichens on the
face, and leprosy,[2247] the preparation being known as “harpax,”[2248]
from the celerity with which it acts upon the skin; for which reason
it ought to be removed every now and then. Employed as an electuary,
it is good for asthma, purulent expectorations, and stings inflicted
by scorpions. Live sulphur, mixed with nitre, and then bruised with
vinegar and applied, causes morphew to disappear, and destroys nits in
the hair; in combination, too, with sandarach and vinegar, it is good
for diseases of the eyelids.
Sulphur has its place among our religious ceremonies, being used as
a fumigation for purifying houses.[2249] Its virtues are also to
be perceived in certain hot mineral waters;[2250] and there is no
substance that ignites more readily, a proof that there is in it
a great affinity to fire. Lightning and thunder are attended with
a strong smell of sulphur, and the light produced by them is of a
sulphureous complexion.
CHAP. 51.—BITUMEN, AND THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT; TWENTY-SEVEN
REMEDIES.
Nearly approaching to the nature of sulphur is that of bitumen,[2251]
which in some places assumes the form of a slime, and in others that
of an earth; a slime, thrown up, as already[2252] stated, by a certain
lake in Judæa, and an earth, found in the vicinity of Sidon, a maritime
town of Syria. In both these states, it admits of being thickened and
condensed. There is also a liquid[2253] bitumen, that of Zacynthus,
for example, and the bitumen that is imported from Babylon; which last
kind is also white: the bitumen, too, of Apollonia is liquid. All these
kinds, in Greek, have the one general name of “pissasphaltos,”[2254]
from their strong resemblance to a compound of pitch and bitumen. There
is also found an unctuous liquid bitumen, resembling oil, in a spring
at Agrigentum, in Sicily, the waters of which are tainted by it. The
inhabitants of the spot collect it on the panicles of reeds, to which
it very readily adheres, and make use of it for burning in lamps, as
a substitute for oil, as also for the cure of itch-scab in beasts of
burden.
Some authorities include among the bitumens, naphtha, a substance which
we have already mentioned in the Second Book;[2255] but the burning
properties which it possesses, and its susceptibility of igniting,
render it quite unfit for use. Bitumen, to be of good quality,
should be extremely brilliant, heavy, and massive; it should also
be moderately smooth, it being very much the practice to adulterate
it with pitch. Its medicinal properties are similar to those of
sulphur, it being naturally astringent, dispersive, contractive,
and agglutinating: ignited, it drives away serpents by the smell.
Babylonian bitumen is very efficacious, it is said, for the cure of
cataract and albugo, as also of leprosy, lichens, and pruriginous
affections. Bitumen is employed, too, in the form of a liniment, for
gout; and every variety of it is useful for making bandolines for
eye-lashes that are refractory and impede the sight. Applied topically
with nitre,[2256] it is curative of tooth-ache, and, taken internally,
with wine, it alleviates chronic coughs and difficulty of respiration.
It is administered in a similar manner for dysentery, and is very good
for arresting looseness of the bowels. Taken internally with vinegar,
it dissolves and brings away coagulated blood. It modifies pains also
in the loins and joints, and, applied with barley-meal, it forms a
peculiar kind of plaster, to which it has given its name.[2257] It
stanches blood also, heals wounds, and unites the sinews when severed.
Bitumen is administered for quartan fevers, in doses of one drachma
to an equal quantity of hedyosmos,[2258] the whole kneaded up with
one obolus of myrrh. The smell of burnt bitumen detects a tendency to
epilepsy, and, applied to the nostrils with wine and castoreum,[2259]
it dispels suffocations of the uterus. Employed as a fumigation, it
acts as a check upon procidence of the uterus, and, taken internally
with wine, it has the effect of an emmenagogue.
Another use that is made of it, is for coating the inside of copper
vessels, it rendering them proof against the action of fire. It has
been already[2260] stated that bitumen was formerly employed for
staining copper and coating statues. It has been used, too, as a
substitute for lime; the walls of Babylon, for instance, which are
cemented with it. In the smithies they are in the habit of varnishing
iron and heads of nails with it, and of using it for many other
purposes as well.
CHAP. 52.—ALUMEN, AND THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT; THIRTY-EIGHT
REMEDIES.
Not less important, or indeed very dissimilar, are the uses that are
made of alumen;[2261] by which name is understood a sort of brine[2262]
which exudes from the earth. Of this, too, there are several kinds. In
Cyprus there is a white alumen, and another kind of a darker colour.
The difference, however, in their colour is but trifling in reality,
though the uses made of them are very dissimilar; the white liquid
alumen being employed for dyeing[2263] wool of bright colours, and the
black, on the other hand, for giving wool a tawny or a sombre tint.
Gold, too, is purified[2264] by the agency of black alumen. Every kind
of alumen is a compound of slime and water, or in other words, is a
liquid product exuding from the earth; the concretion of it commencing
in winter, and being completed by the action of the summer sun. That
portion of it which is the first matured, is the whitest in appearance.
The countries which produce this substance, are Spain, Ægypt, Armenia,
Macedonia, Pontus, Africa,[2265] and the islands of Sardinia, Melos,
Lipara, and Strongyle:[2266] the most esteemed, however, is that of
Egypt,[2267] the next best being the produce of Melos. Of this last
kind there are also two varieties, the liquid alumen, and the solid.
Liquid alumen, to be good, should be of a limpid, milky, appearance:
when rubbed between the fingers it should be free from grit, and
productive of a slight sensation of heat. The name given to it is
“phorimon.”[2268] The mode of detecting whether or not it has been
adulterated, is by the application of pomegranate-juice; for if
genuine, it will turn black on combining with the juice. The other, or
solid alumen, is pale and rough in appearance, and turns black on the
application of nut-galls; for which reason it is known by the name of
“paraphoron.”[2269]
Liquid alumen is naturally astringent, indurative, and corrosive: used
in combination with honey, it heals ulcerations of the mouth, pimples,
and pruriginous eruptions. The remedy, when thus used, is employed in
the bath, the proportions being two parts of honey to one of alumen.
It has the effect, also, of checking and dispersing perspiration, and
of neutralizing offensive odours of the arm-pits. It is taken too, in
the form of pills, for affections of the spleen, and for the purpose
of carrying off blood by the urine: incorporated with nitre and
melanthium,[2270] it is curative of itch-scab.
There is one kind of solid alumen, known to the Greeks as
“schiston,”[2271] which splits into filaments of a whitish colour;
for which reason some have preferred giving it the name of
“trichitis.”[2272] It is produced from the mineral ore known to us
as “chalcitis,”[2273] from which copper is also produced, it being a
sort of exudation from that mineral, coagulated into the form of scum.
This kind of alumen is less desiccative than the others, and is not so
useful as a check upon bad humours of the body. Used, however, either
in the form of a liniment or of an injection, it is highly beneficial
to the ears; as also for ulcerations of the mouth, and for tooth-ache,
if retained with the saliva in the mouth. It is employed also as a
serviceable ingredient in compositions for the eyes, and for the
generative organs in either sex. The mode of preparing it is to roast
it in crucibles, until it has quite lost its liquid form.
There is another variety of alumen also, of a less active nature, and
known as “strongyle;”[2274] which is again subdivided into two kinds;
the fungous, which easily dissolves in any liquid, and is looked
upon as altogether worthless; and the porous, which is full of small
holes like a sponge, and in pieces of a globular form, more nearly
approaching white alumen in appearance. It has a certain degree, too,
of unctuousness, is free from grit, friable, and not apt to blacken
the fingers. This last kind is calcined by itself upon hot coals,
unmixed with any other substance, until it is entirely reduced to ashes.
The best kind of all, however, is that called “molinum,”[2275] as
coming from the Isle of Melos, as already mentioned; none being more
effectual for acting as an astringent, staining black, and indurating,
and none assuming a closer consistency. It removes granulations of
the eye-lids, and, in a calcined state, is still more efficacious for
checking defluxions of the eyes: in this last form, too, it is employed
for the cure of pruriginous eruptions on the body. Whether taken
internally, or employed externally, it arrests discharges of blood; and
if it is applied with vinegar to a part from which the hair has been
first removed, it will change into a soft down the hair which replaces
it. The leading property of every kind of alumen is its remarkable
astringency, to which, in fact, it is indebted for its name[2276] with
the Greeks. It is for this property that the various kinds are, all of
them, so remarkably good for the eyes. In combination with grease, they
arrest discharges of blood; and they are employed in a similar manner
for checking the spread of putrid ulcers, and for removing sores upon
the bodies of infants.
Alumen has a desiccative effect upon dropsical eruptions; and, in
combination with pomegranate juice, it removes diseases of the ears,
malformed nails, indurations resulting from cicatrization, hangnails,
and chilblains. Calcined, with vinegar or nut-galls, in equal
proportions, it is curative of phagedænic ulcers; and, in combination
with extracted juice of cabbage, of leprosy. Used in the proportion
of one part of alumen to two of salt, it arrests the progress of
serpiginous eruptions; and an infusion of it in water destroys lice and
other parasitical insects that infest the hair. Employed in a similar
manner, it is good for burns; and, in combination with the serous[2277]
part of pitch, for furfuraceous eruptions on the body. It is used also
as an injection for dysentery, and, employed in the form of a gargle,
it braces the uvula and tonsillary glands. For all those maladies which
we have mentioned as being treated with the other kinds of alumen,
that imported from Melos, be it understood, is still more efficacious.
As to the other uses that are made of it for industrial purposes, such
as preparing hides and wool, for example, they have been mentioned
already.[2278]
CHAP. 53. (16.)—SAMIAN EARTH: THREE REMEDIES.
In succession to these, we shall now have to speak of various other
kinds of earth[2279] which are made use of in medicine.
Of Samian earth there are two varieties; one known as
“collyrium,”[2280] the other by the name of “aster.”[2281] To be in
perfection, the first kind should be fresh, remarkably smooth, and
glutinous to the tongue; the second being of a more solid consistency,
and white. They are both prepared for use by being calcined and then
rinsed in water, some persons giving the preference to the first. They
are both of them useful for discharges of blood from the mouth, and are
employed as an ingredient in plasters of a desiccative nature. They are
used also in the preparation of ophthalmic compositions.
CHAP. 54.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF ERETRIA.
Of eretria, or Eretrian[2282] earth, there are also the same number
of varieties; one white, and the other of an ashy colour, this last
being preferred in medicine. To be good, this earth should be of a soft
consistency, and when rubbed upon copper it should leave a violet tint.
The virtues of eretria in a medicinal point of view, and the methods of
using it, have been already mentioned[2283] in our description of the
pigments.
CHAP. 55.—THE METHOD OF WASHING EARTHS FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES.
All these earths—for we will take the present opportunity of mentioning
it—are well washed in water, and then dried in the sun; after which,
they are again triturated in water, and left to settle: this done, they
are divided into tablets. They are usually boiled in earthen vessels,
which are well shaken every now and then.
CHAP. 56.—CHIAN EARTH; THREE REMEDIES. SELINUSIAN EARTH; THREE
REMEDIES. PNIGITIS; NINE REMEDIES. AMPELITIS; FOUR REMEDIES.
Among the medicinal substances, there is the white earth of Chios
also, the properties of which are the same as those of Samian earth.
It is used more particularly as a cosmetic for the skin of females;
the Selinusian[2284] earth being also employed for a similar purpose.
This last is of a milk-white colour, and melts very rapidly in water:
dissolved in milk, it is employed for whitening the plaster coats on
walls. Pnigitis[2285] is very similar to Eretrian earth, only that
it is found in larger masses, and is of a glutinous consistency. Its
effects are similar to those produced by Cimolian[2286] earth, but are
not so energetic.
Ampelitis[2287] is an earth which bears a strong resemblance to
bitumen. The test of its goodness is its dissolving in oil, like wax,
and preserving its black colour when submitted to the action of fire.
Its properties are emollient and repercussive; for which reason, it is
used in medicinal compositions, those known as “calliblephara,”[2288]
more particularly, and in preparations for dyeing the hair.
CHAP. 57. (17.)—CRETACEOUS EARTHS USER FOR SCOURING CLOTH. CIMOLIAN
EARTH; NINE REMEDIES. SARDINIAN EARTH. UMBRIAN EARTH. SAXUM.
Of cretaceous[2289] earths there are several varieties; and among
them, two kinds of Cimolian earth, employed in medicine, the one white
and the other inclining to the tint of purpurissum.[2290] Both kinds,
moistened with vinegar, have the effect of dispersing tumours and
arresting defluxions. They are curative also of inflammatory swellings
and imposthumes of the parotid glands; and, applied topically, they
are good for affections of the spleen and pustules on the body. With
the addition of aphronitrum,[2291] oil of cypros,[2292] and vinegar,
they reduce swellings of the feet, care being taken to apply the lotion
in the sun, and at the end of six hours to wash it off with salt and
water. In combination with wax and oil of cypros, Cimolian earth is
good for swellings of the testes.
Cretaceous earths, too, are of a cooling tendency, and, applied to the
body in the form of a liniment, they act as a check upon excessive
perspiration: taken with wine, in the bath, they remove pimples on the
body. The most esteemed of all these earths is that of Thessaly: it is
found also in the vicinity of Bubon[2293] in Lycia.
Cimolian earth is used also for another purpose, that of scouring
cloth. As to the kind which is brought from Sardinia, and is known as
“sarda,” it is used for white tissues only, and is never employed for
coloured cloths. Indeed, this last is held in the lowest estimation
of all the Cimolian earths; whereas, that of Umbria is more highly
esteemed, as also the kind generally known as “saxum.”[2294] It is a
property of this last to increase in weight[2295] by maceration, and
it is by weight that it is usually sold, Sardinian earth being sold by
measure. Umbrian earth is only used for giving lustre to cloths.
It will not be deemed out of place to give some further account here
of this process, there being still in existence the Metilian Law,
relative to fullers; an enactment which C. Flaminius and L. Æmilius, in
their censorship,[2296] had passed by the people,[2297] so attentive
to everything were our ancestors. The following then is the method
employed in preparing cloth: it is first washed in an infusion of
Sardinian earth, and is then exposed to a fumigation with sulphur. This
done, it is scoured[2298] with Cimolian earth, when the cloth has been
found to be of a genuine colour; it being very soon detected when it
has been coloured with spurious materials, by its turning black and the
colours becoming dispersed[2299] by the action of the sulphur. Where
the colours are genuine and rich, they are softened by the application
of Cimolian earth; which brightens and freshens them also when they
have been rendered sombre by the action of the sulphur. Saxum is better
for white tissues, after the application of sulphur, but to coloured
cloths it is highly injurious.[2300] In Greece they use Tymphæan[2301]
gypsum in place of Cimolian earth.
CHAP. 58.—ARGENTARIA. NAMES OF FREEDMEN WHO HAVE EITHER RISEN TO POWER
THEMSELVES, OR HAVE BELONGED TO MEN OF INFLUENCE.
There is another cretaceous earth, known as “argentaria,”[2302] from
the brightness[2303] which it imparts to silver. There is also the most
inferior kind of chalk; which was used by the ancients for tracing the
line of victory[2304] in the Circus, and for marking the feet of slaves
on sale, that were brought from beyond sea. Such, for instance, were
Publilius[2305] Lochius, the founder of our mimic scenes; his cousin,
Manilius Antiochus,[2306] the first cultivator of astronomy; and
Staberius Eros, our first grammarian; all three of whom our ancestors
saw brought over in the same ship.[2307]
(18.) But why mention these names, recommended as they are by the
literary honours which they acquired? Other instances too, Rome has
beheld of persons rising to high positions from the slave-market;[2308]
Chrysogonus, for example, the freedman of Sylla; Amphion, the freedman
of Q. Catulus; the man who was the keeper[2309] of Lucullus; Demetrius,
the freedman of Pompeius, and Auge, the freedwoman of Demetrius,[2310]
or else of Pompeius himself, as some have supposed; Hipparchus, the
freedman of M. Antonius; as also, Menas[2311] and Menecrates,[2312]
freedmen of Sextus Pompeius, and many others as well, whom it would be
superfluous to enumerate, and who have enriched themselves at the cost
of Roman blood, and the licence that results from proscription.
Such is the mark that is set upon those droves of slaves which we see
on sale, such the opprobrium thrown upon them by a capricious fortune!
And yet, some of these very men have we beheld in the enjoyment of
such power and influence, that the senate itself has decreed them—at
the command of Agrippina,[2313] wife of the Emperor Claudius—the
decorations even of the prætorship: all but honoured with the fasces
and their laurels, in fact, and sent back in state to the very place
from which they originally came, with their feet whitened with the
slave-dealer’s chalk!
CHAP. 59. (19.)—THE EARTH OF GALATA; OF CLYPEA; OF THE BALEARES; AND OF
EBUSUS.
In addition to these, there are various other kinds of earth, endowed
with peculiar properties of their own, and which have been already
mentioned on former occasions.[2314] We may, however, take the present
opportunity of again remarking the following properties. The earth of
the island of Galata and of the vicinity of Clypea, in Africa, is fatal
to scorpions; and that of the Balearic Islands and of Ebusus kills
serpents.
SUMMARY.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, nine hundred and
fifty-six.
ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Messala[2315] the Orator, the Elder
Messala,[2316] Fenestella,[2317] Atticus,[2318] M. Varro,[2319]
Verrius,[2320] Cornelius Nepos,[2321] Deculo,[2322] Mucianus,[2323]
Melissus,[2324] Vitruvius,[2325] Cassius Severus Longulanus,[2326]
Fabius Vestalis,[2327] who wrote on Painting.
FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Pasiteles,[2328] Apelles,[2329]
Melanthius,[2330] Asclepiodorus,[2331] Euphranor,[2332]
Heliodorus,[2333] who wrote on the Votive Offerings of the Athenians,
Metrodorus,[2334] who wrote on Architecture, Democritus,[2335]
Theophrastus,[2336] Apion[2337] the grammarian, who wrote on the
Medicines derived from Metals, Nymphodorus,[2338] Iollas,[2339]
Apollodorus,[2340] Andreas,[2341] Heraclides,[2342] Diagoras,[2343]
Botrys,[2344] Archidemus,[2345] Dionysius,[2346] Aristogenes,[2347]
Democles,[2348] Mnesides,[2349] Xenocrates[2350] the son of Zeno,
Theomnestus.[2351]