CHAPTER XXXI.

BRICK, POTTERY, GLASS, PLASTICS.

When the nineteenth century dawned, men were making brick in the same

way for the most part that they were fifty centuries before. It is

recorded in the eleventh chapter of Genesis that when “the whole earth

was of one language and one speech, it came to pass as they journeyed

from the east that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they

dwelt there, and they said to one another, Go to, let us make brick and

burn them thoroughly, And they had brick for stone, and slime had they

for mortar.” Then commenced the building of Babel. Who taught the trade

to the brick-makers of Shinar?

The journey from the east continued, and with it went brick making to

Greece and Rome, across the continent of Europe, across the English

channel, until the brick work of Cæsar, stamped by the trade mark of his

legions, was found on the banks of the Thames, and through the fields of

Caerleon and York.

Alfred the Great encouraged the trade, and the manufacture flourished

finely under Henry VIII., Elizabeth and Charles I.

As to Pottery:--Could we only know who among the peoples of the earth

first discovered, used, or invented fire, we might know who were the

first makers of baked earthenware. Doubtless the art of pottery arose

before men learned to bake the plastic clay, in that groping time when

men, kneading the soft clay with their fingers, or imprinting their

footsteps in the yielding surface and learning that the sun’s heat

stiffened and dried those forms into durability, applied the discovery

to the making of crude vessels, as children unto this day make dishes

from the tenacious mud. But the artificial burning of the vessels was no

doubt a later imitation of Nature.

Alongside the rudest and earliest chipped stone implements have been

found the hollow clay dish for holding fire, or food, or water. “As the

fragment of a speech or song, a waking or a sleeping vision, the dream

of a vanished hand, a draught of water from a familiar spring, the

almost perished fragrance of a pressed flower call back the singer, the

loved and lost, the loved and won, the home of childhood, or the parting

hour, so in the same manner there linger in this crowning decade of the

crowning century bits of ancient ingenuity which recall to a whole

people the fragrance and beauty of its past.” _Prof. O. T. Mason._ The

same gifted writer, adds: “Who has not read, with almost breaking heart,

the story of Palissy, the Huguenot potter? But what have our witnesses

to say of that long line of humble creatures that conjured out of

prophetic clay, without wheels or furnace, forms and decorations of

imperishable beauty, which are now being copied in glorified material in

the best factories of the world? In ceramic as well as textile art the

first inventors were women. They quarried the clay, manipulated it,

constructed and decorated the ware, burned it in a rude furnace and wore

it out in a hundred uses.”

From the early dawn of human history to its present noonday civilisation

the progress of man may be traced in his pottery. Before printing was an

art, he inscribed on it his literature. Poets and painters have adorned

it; and in its manufacture have been embodied through all ages the

choicest discoveries of the chemist, the inventor and the mechanic.

It would be pleasant to trace the history of pottery from at least the

time of Homer, who draws a metaphor from the potter seated before his

wheel and twirling it with both hands, as he shapes the plastic clay

upon it; to dwell upon the clay tablets and many-coloured vases, covered

with Egyptian scenes and history; to re-excite wonder over the arts of

China, in her porcelain, the production of its delicacy and bright

colours wrapped in such mystery, and stagnant for so many ages, but

revived and rejuvenated in Japan; to recall to mind the styles and

composition of the Phœnician vases with mythological legends burned

immortally therein; the splendid work of the Greek potteries; to lift

the Samian enwreathed bowl, “filled with Samian wine”; to look upon the

Roman pottery, statues and statuettes of Rome’s earlier and better days;

the celebrated _Faience_ (enamelled pottery) at its home in Faenza,

Italy, and from the hands of its master, Luca della Robia; to trace the

history of the rare Italian majolica; to tread with light steps the

bright tiles of the Saracens; to rehearse the story of Bernard Palissy,

the father of the beautiful French enamelled ware; to bring to view the

splendid old ware of Nuremberg, the raised white figures on the deep

blue plaques of Florence, the honest Delft ware of Holland; and finally

to relate the revolution in the production of pottery throughout all

Europe caused by the discoveries and inventions of Wedgwood of England

in the eighteenth century. All this would be interesting, but we must

hasten on to the equally splendid and more practical works of the busy

nineteenth century, in which many toilsome methods of the past have been

superseded by labour-saving contrivances.

The application of machinery to the manufacture of brick began to

receive attention during the latter part of the eighteenth century,

after Watt had harnessed steam, and a few patents were issued in England

and America at that time for such machinery of that character, but

little was practically done.

The operations in _brickmaking_, to the accomplishment of which by

machines the inventors of the nineteenth century have devoted great

talent, relate:

First, to the preparation of the clay.--In ancient Egypt, in places

where water abounded, it appears that the clay was lifted from the

bottoms of ponds and lakes on the end of poles, was formed into bricks,

then sun-dried, modernly called _adobes_. The clay for making these

required a stiffening material. For this straw was used, mixed with the

clay; and stubble was also used in the different courses. Hence the old

metaphor of worthlessness of “bricks without straw,” but of course in

burning, and in modern processes of pressing unburnt bricks, straw is no

longer used. Sand should abound in the clay in a certain proportion, or

be mixed therewith, otherwise the clay, whether burned or unburned, will

crumble. Stones, gravel and sticks must be removed, otherwise the

contraction of the clay and expansion of the stones on burning, produce

a weak and crumbling structure.

Brick clay generally is coloured by the oxide of iron, and in proportion

as this abounds the burned brick is of a lighter or a deeper red. It may

be desired to add colouring matter or mix different forms of clay, or

add sand or other ingredients. Clay treated by hand was for ages kneaded

as dough is kneaded, by the hand or feet, and the clay was often long

subjected, sometimes for years, to exposure to the air, frost and sun to

disintegrate and ripen it. As the clay must be first disintegrated,

ground or pulverised, as grain is first ground to flour to make and

mould the bread, so the use of a grinding mill was long ago suggested.

The first machine used to do all this work goes by the humble name of

_pug mill_.

Many ages ago the Chilians of South America hung two ponderous solid

wood or stone wheels on an axis turned by a vertical shaft and operated

by animal power; the wheels were made to run round on a deep basin in

which ores, or stones, or grain were placed to be crushed. This Chilian

mill, in principle, was adopted a century or so ago in Europe to the

grinding of clay. The pug mill has assumed many different forms in this

age; and separate preliminary mills, consisting of rollers of different

forms for grinding, alone are often used before the mixing operation. In

one modern form the pug mill consists of an inverted conical-shaped

cylinder provided with a set of interior revolving blades arranged

horizontally, and below this a spiral arrangement of blades on a

vertical axis, by which the clay is thoroughly cut up and crushed

against the surrounding walls of the mill, in the meantime softened with

water or steam if desired, and mixed with sand if necessary, and when

thus ground and tempered is finally pressed down through the lower

opening of the cylinder and directly into suitable brick moulds beneath.

Second.--The next operation is for moulding and pressing the brick. To

take the place of that ancient and still used mode of filling a mould of

a certain size by the hands with a lump of soft clay, scraping off the

surplus, and then dumping the mould upon a drying floor, a great variety

of machines have been invented.

In some the pug mill is arranged horizontally to feed out the clay in

the form of a long horizontal slab, which is cut up into proper lengths

to form the bricks. Some machines are in the form of a large horizontal

revolving wheel, having the moulds arranged in its top face, each mould

charged with clay as the wheel presents it under the discharging spout

of the grinding mill, and then the clay is pressed by pistons or

plungers worked by a rocking beam, and adapted to descend and fit into

the mould at stated intervals; or the moulds, carried in a circular

direction, may have movable bottom plates, which may be pressed upwards

successively by pistons attached to them and raised by inclines on which

they travel, forcing the clay against a large circular top plate, and in

the last part of the movement carrying the pressed brick through an

aperture to the top of the plate, where it is met by and carried away on

an endless apron.

In some machines two great wheels mesh together, one carrying the moulds

in its face, and the other the presser plate plungers, working in the

former, the bricks being finally forced out on to a moving belt by the

action of cam followers, or by other means.

In others the moulds are passed, each beneath a gravity-descending or

cam-forced plunger, the clay being thus stamped by impact into form; or

in other forms the clay in the moulds may be subjected to successive

pressure from the cam-operated pistons arranged horizontally and on a

line with the discharging belt.

Third, the drying and burning of the brick.--The old methods were

painfully slow and tedious. A long time was occupied in seasoning the

clay, and then after the bricks were moulded, another long time was

necessary to dry them, and a final lengthy period was employed to burn

them in crude kilns. These old methods were too slow for modern wants.

But they still are in vogue alongside of modern inventions, as in all

ages the use of old arts and implements have continued along by the side

of later inventions and discoveries.

No useful contrivances are suddenly or apparently ever entirely

supplanted. The implements of the stone age are still found in use by

some whose environment has deprived them of the knowledge of or desire

to use better tools. The single ox pulling the crooked stick plough, or

other similar ancient earth stirrer, and Ruth with her sickle and

sheaves, may be found not far from the steam plough and the automatic

binder.

But the use of antiquated machinery is not followed by those who lead

the procession in this industrial age. Consequently other means than the

slow processes of nature to dry brick and other ceramics, and the crude

kilns are giving way to modern heat distributing structures.

Air and heat are driven by fans through chambers, in which the brick are

openly piled on cars, the surplus heat and steam from an engine-room

being often used for this purpose, and the cars so laden are slowly

pushed on the tracks through heated chambers. Passages and pipes and

chimneys for heat and air controlled by valves are provided, and the

waste moisture drawn off through bottom drains or up chimneys, the draft

of which is increased by a hot blast, or blasts of heated air are driven

in one direction through a chamber while the brick are moved through in

the opposite direction, or a series of drying chambers are separated

from each other by iron folding-doors, the temperature increasing as

cars are moved on tracks from one chamber to another.

Dr. Hoffmann of Berlin invented different forms of drying and burning

chambers which attracted great attention. In his kiln the bricks are

stacked in an _annular_ chamber, and the fire made to progress from one

section of the chamber to another, burning the brick as the heat

advances; and as fast as one section of green brick is dried, or burned,

it is withdrawn, and a green section presented. Austria introduced most

successful and thorough systems of drying brick about 1870. In some

great kilns fires are never allowed to cease. One kiln had been kept

thus heated for fifteen years. Thus great quantities of green brick can

at any time be pushed into the kiln on tracks, and when burned pushed

out, and thus the process may go on continuously day and night.

To return to pottery: As before stated, Wedgwood of England

revolutionised the art of pottery in the eighteenth century. He was

aided by Flaxman. Before their time all earthenware pottery was what is

now called “soft pottery.” That is, it was unglazed, simply baked clay;

_lustrous_ or _semi-glazed_ and _enamelled_ having a harder surface.

Wedgwood invented the hard porcelain surface, and very many beautiful

designs. To improve such earthenware and to best decorate it, are the

objects around which modern inventions have mostly clustered.

The “_regenerative_” principle of heating above referred to employed in

some kilns, and so successfully incorporated in the regenerators

invented since 1850 by Siemens, Frank, Boetius, Bicheroux, Pousard and

others, consisting in using the intensely hot wasted gases from

laboratories or combustion chambers to heat the incoming air, and

carrying the mingled products of combustion into chambers and passages

to heat, dry or burn materials placed therein, has been of great service

in the production of modern pottery; not only in a great saving in the

amount of fuel, but in reduction in loss of pieces of ware spoiled in

the firing.

The old method of burning wood, or soft coal, or charcoal at the bottom

of a small old-fashioned cylindrical fire brick kiln attended to by

hand, and heating the articles of pottery arranged on shelves in the

chamber above, is done away with to a great extent in large

manufactories for the making of stone and earthenware--although still

followed in many porcelain kilns.

Inventions in the line of pottery kilns have received the aid of woman.

Susan Frackelton of the United States invented a portable kiln for

firing pottery and porcelain, for which she obtained a patent in 1886.

As in drying clay for brick, so in drying clay for porcelain and pottery

generally, great improvements have been made in the drying of the clay,

and other materials to be mixed therewith. A great step was taken to aid

drying by the invention of the _filter press_, in which the materials,

after they are mixed and while still wet, are subjected to such pressure

that all surplus water is removed and all air squeezed out, by which the

inclosure of air bubbles in the clay is prevented.

Despairing of excelling the China porcelain, although French

investigators having alleged their discovery of such methods, modern

inventors have contented themselves in inventing new methods and

compositions. Charles Aoisseau, the potter of Tours, born in 1796,

rediscovered and revived the art of Palissy. About 1842, Thomas Battam

of England invented the method of imitating marble and other statuary by

a composition of silica, alumina, soda, and traces of lime, magnesia,

and iron, reducing it to liquid form and pouring it into plaster moulds,

forming the figure or group. His plaster casts soon became famous. In

the use of materials the aid of chemists was had in finding the proper

ingredients to fuse with sand to produce the best forms of common and

fine _Faience_.

_Porcelain Moulding_, and its accompanying ornamentation and the use of

apparatus for moulding by compression and by exhaustion of the air has

become since that time a great industry.

_Porcelain Colours._--Chemists also aided in discovering what metallic

ingredients could best be used when mixed with the clay and sand to

produce the desired colours. As soon as a new metal was discovered, it

was tested to find, among other things, what vitrifiable colour it would

produce. In the production of metallic glazes, the oxides generally are

employed. The colours are usually applied to ware when it is in its

unglazed or _biscuit_ form. In the _biscuit_ or _bisque_ form pottery is

bibulous, the prepared glaze sinks into its pores and when burned forms

a vitreous coating.

The application of oil colours and designs to ware before baking by the

“bat” system of printing originated in the eighteenth and was perfected

in the nineteenth century. It consists of impressing oil pictures on a

bat of glue and then pressing the bat on to the porous unbaked clay or

porcelain which transferred the colours. This was another revolution in

the art.

One manner for ages of applying colours to ware is first to reduce the

mixture to a liquid form, called “slip,” and then, if the Chinese method

is followed, to dip the colour up on the end of a hollow bamboo rod,

which end is covered with wire gauze, then by blowing through the rod

the colour was sprayed or deposited on the ware. Another method is the

use of a brush and comb. The brush being dipped into the coloured

matter, the comb is passed over the brush in such manner as to cause the

paint to spatter the object with fine drops or particles. A very recent

method, by which the beautiful background and blended colours of the

celebrated Rookwood pottery of Cincinnati, Ohio, have become

distinguished, consists in laying the colour upon the ware in a cloud or

sheet of almost imperceptible mist by the use of an air atomiser blown

by the operator. By the use of this simple instrument, the laying on a

single colour, or the delicate blending and shadings of two or more

colours in very beautiful effects is easily produced.

This use of the atomiser commenced in 1884, and was claimed as the

invention of a lady, Miss Laura Fry, who obtained a patent for thus

blowing the atomised spray colouring matter on pottery in 1889; but it

was held by the courts that she was anticipated by experiments of

others, and by descriptions in previous patents of the spraying of paint

on other objects by compressed air apparatus known as the air brush.

However, this introduction of the use of the atomiser caused quite a

revolution in the art of applying colours to pottery in the forming of

backgrounds.

Enamelled ware is no longer confined to pottery. About 1878 Niedringhaus

in the United States began to enamel sheet iron by the application of

glaze and iron oxide, giving such articles a granite appearance; and

since then metallic cooking vessels, bath tubs, etc., have been

converted in appearance into the finest earthenware and porcelain, and

far more durable, beautiful and useful than the plain metal alone for

such purposes.

When we remember that for many centuries, wood and pewter, and to some

extent crude earthenware, were the materials from which the dishes of

the great bulk of the human family were made, as well as their table and

mantel ornaments, and compare them in character and plenteousness with

the table and other ware of even the poorest character of to-day, we can

appreciate how much has been done in this direction to help the human

family by modern inventions.

_Artificial Stone._--The world as yet has not so far exhausted its

supply of stone and marble as to compel a resort to artificial

productions on a great scale, and yet to meet the demands of those

localities wherein the natural supplies of good building stones and

marble are very scarce, necessitating when used a long and expensive

transportation, methods have been adopted by which, at comparatively

small cost, fine imitations of the best stones and marbles have been

produced, having all the durable and artistic qualities of the

originals, as for the most part, they are composed of the same materials

as the stone and marbles themselves.

The characteristic backgrounds, the veins and shadowings, and the soft

colours of various marbles have been quite successfully imitated by

treating dehydrated gypsum with various colouring solutions. Sand stones

have been moulded or pressed from the same ingredients, and with either

smooth or undressed faces. When necessary the mixture is coloured, to

resemble precisely the original stones.

One of the improvements in the manufacture and use of modern _cements_

and artificial stones consists in their application to the making of

streets and sidewalks. Neat, smooth, hard, beautiful pavements are now

taking the place everywhere of the unsatisfactory gravel, wood, and

brick pavements of former days. We know that the Romans and other

ancient peoples had their hydraulic cements, and the plaster on some of

their walls stands to-day to attest its good quality. Modern inventors

have turned their attention in recent years to the production of

machines to grind, crush, mix and set the materials, and to apply them

to large wall surfaces, in place of hand labour. _Ready-made plaster_ of

a fine quality is now manufactured in great quantities. It needs only

the addition of a little water to reduce it to a condition for use; and

a machine operated by compressed air may be had for spreading it quickly

over the lath work of wood or sheet metal, slats, or over rough cement

ceilings and walls.

_Glass._--The Sister of Pottery is Glass. It may have been an accidental

discovery, occurring when men made fire upon a sandy knoll or beach,

that fire could melt and fuse sand and ashes, or sand and lime, or sand

and soda or some other alkali, and with which may also have been mixed

some particles of iron, or lead, or manganese, or alumina to produce

that hard, lustrous, vitreous, brittle article that we call _glass_.

But who invented the method of blowing the viscid mass into form on the

end of a hollow tube? Who invented the scissors and shears for cutting

and trimming it when soft? Or the use of the diamond, or its dust, for

polishing it when hard? History is silent on these points. The tablets

of the most ancient days of Egypt, yet recovered, show glass blowers at

work at their trade--and the names of the first and original inventors

are buried in oblivion. Each age has handed down to us from many

countries specimens of glass ware which will compare favourably in

beauty and finish with any that can be made to-day.

Yet with the knowledge of making glass of the finest description

existing for centuries, it is strange that its manufacture was not

extended to supply the wants of mankind, to which its use now seems so

indispensable. And yet as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth

centuries glass windows were found only in the houses of the wealthy, in

the churches and palaces, and glass mirrors were unknown except to the

rich, as curiosities, and as aids to the scientists in the early days of

telescopy. Poor people used oiled paper, isinglass, thinly shaved

leather, resembling parchment, and thin sheets of soft pale crystalised

stone known as talc, and soapstone.

The nineteenth century has been characterised as the scientific century

of glass, and the term commercial, may well be added to that

designation.

Its commercial importance and the advancement in its manufacture during

the first half of the century is illustrated in the fact that the

Crystal Palace of the London Industrial Exhibition of 1851, although

containing nearly 900,000 square feet of glass, was furnished by a

single firm, Messrs. Chance & Co. of London, without materially delaying

their other orders. In addition to scientific discoveries, the

manufacture of glass in England received a great impetus by the removal

of onerous excise duties which had been imposed on its manufacture.

The principal improvements in the art of glass-making effected during

the nineteenth century may be summarised as follows:

First, Materials.--By the investigations of chemists and practical

trials it was learned what particular effect was produced by the old

ingredients employed, and it was found that the colours and qualities of

glass, such as clearness, strength, tenacity, purity, etc., could be

greatly modified and improved by the addition to the sand of certain new

ingredients. By analysis it was learned what different metallic oxides

should be employed to produce different colours. This knowledge before

was either preserved in secrecy, or accidentally or empirically

practised, or unknown. Thus it was learned and established that lime

hardens the glass and adds to its lustre; that the use of ordinary

ingredients, the silicates of lime, magnesia, iron, soda and potash, in

their impure form, will produce the coarser kinds of glass, such as that

of which green bottles are made; that silicates of soda and lime give

the common window glass and French plate; that the beautiful varieties

of Bohemian glass are chiefly a silicate of potash and lime; that

crystal or flint glass, so called because formerly pulverised flints

were used in making it, can be made of a suitable combination of

potassia plumbic silicate; that the plumbic oxide greatly increases its

transparency, brilliancy, and refractive power; that _paste_--that form

of glass from which imitations of diamonds are cut, may be produced by

adding a large proportion of the oxide of lead; that by the addition of

a trace of ferric oxide or uranic acid the yellow topaz can be had; that

by substituting cobaltic oxide the brilliant blue sapphire is produced;

that cuperic oxide will give the emerald, gold oxide the ruby, manganic

oxide the royal purple, and a mixture of cobaltic and manganic oxides

the rich black onyx.

Professor Faraday as early as 1824 had noticed a change in colour

gradually produced in glass containing oxide of manganese by exposure to

the rays of the sun. This observation induced an American gentleman, Mr.

Thomas Gaffield, a merchant of Boston, to further experiment in this

direction. His experiments commenced in 1863, and he subjected eighty

different kinds of glass, coloured and uncoloured, and manufactured in

many different countries, to this exposure of the sun’s rays. He found

that not only glass having manganese as an element, but nearly every

species of glass, was so affected, some in shorter and some in longer

times; that this discoloration was not due to the heat rays of the sun,

but to its actinic rays; and that the original colour of the glass could

be reproduced by reheating the same.

Mr. Gaffield also extended his experiments to ascertain the power of

different coloured glasses to transmit the actinic or chemical rays, and

found that blue would transmit the most and red and orange the least.

Others proceeded on lines of investigation in ascertaining the best

materials to be employed in glass-making in producing the clearest and

most permanent uncoloured light; the best coloured lights for desired

purposes; glasses having the best effects on the growth of plants; and

the best class for refracting, dispersing and transmitting both natural

lights and those great modern artificial lights, gas and electricity.

Another illustration of modern scientific investigation and success in

glass-making materials is seen at the celebrated German glass works at

Jena under the management of Professors Ernst Abbe and Dr. Schott,

commenced in 1881. They, too, found that many substances had each its

own peculiar effect in the refraction and dispersion of light, and

introduced no fewer than twenty-eight new substances in glass making.

Their special work was the production of glass for the finest scientific

and optical purposes, and the highest grades of commercial glass. They

have originated over one hundred new kinds of glass. Their lenses for

telescopes and microscopes and photographic cameras, and glass and

prisms, and for all chemical and other scientific work, have a worldwide

reputation.

So that in materials of composition the old days in which there were

substantially but two varieties of glass--the old-fashioned standard

crown, and flint glass--have passed away.

_Methods._--The revolution in the production of glass has been greatly

aided also by new methods of treatment of the old as well as the new

materials. For instance, the application of the Siemens regenerative

furnace, already alluded to in referring to pottery, in place of

old-fashioned kilns, and by which the amount of smoke is greatly

diminished, fuel saved, and the colour of the glass improved. Pots are

used containing the materials to be melted and not heated in the

presence of the burning fuel, but by the heated gases in separate

compartments.

Another process is that of M. de la Bastie, added to by others, of

toughening glass by plunging it while hot and pasty and after it has

been shaped, annealed, and reheated, into a bath of grease, whereby the

rapid cooling and the grease changes its molecular condition so that it

is less dense, resists breaking to a greater degree, and presents no

sharp edges when broken.

Another process is that of making plate glass by the cylinder

process--rolling it into large sheets.

Other processes are those for producing hollow ware by pressing in

moulds; for decorating; for surface enamelling of sheet glass whereby

beautiful lace patterns are transferred from the woven or netted fabric

itself by using it as a stencil to distribute upon the surface the

pulverised enamel, which is afterwards burned on; of producing

_iridescent_ glass in which is exhibited the lights and shadows of

delicate soap bubble colours by the throwing against the surface of

hydrochloric acid under pressure, or the fumes of other materials

volatilised in a reheating furnace.

Then there is Dode’s process for platinising glass, by which a

reflecting mirror is produced without silvering or otherwise coating its

back, by first applying a thin coating of platinic choride mixed with an

oil to the surface of the glass and heating the same, by which the

mirror reflects from its front face. The platinum film is so thin that

the pencil and hand of a draughtsman may be seen through it, the object

to be copied being seen by reflection.

Again there is the process of making _glass wool or silk_--which is

glass drawn out into such extremely fine threads that it may be used for

all purposes of silk threads in the making of fabrics for decorative

purposes and in some more useful purposes, such as the filtration of

water and other liquids.

We have already had occasion to refer to Tilghman’s sand blast in

describing pneumatic apparatus. In glass manufacture the process is used

in etching on glass designs of every kind, both simple and intricate.

The sand forced by steam, or by compressed air on the exposed portions

of the glass on which the design rests, will cut the same deeply, or

most delicately, as the hand and eye of the operator may direct.

_Machines._--In addition to the new styles of furnaces, moulds and

melting, and rolling mills to which we have alluded, mention may be made

of annealing and cooling ovens, by which latter the glass is greatly

improved by being allowed to gradually cool. A large number of

instruments have been invented for special purposes, such as for making

the beautiful expensive cut glass, which is flint glass ground by wheels

of iron, stone, and emery into the desired designs, while water is being

applied, and then polished by wheels of wood, and pumice, or

rottenstone; for grinding and polishing glass for lenses; and for

polishing and finishing plate glass; for applying glass lining to metal

pipes, tubes, etc.; for the delicate engraving of glass by small

revolving copper disks, varying in size from the diameter of a cent down

to one-fifteenth of an inch, cutting the finest blade of grass, a tiny

bud, the downy wing of an insect, or the faint shadow of an exquisite

eyebrow.

_Cameo_ cutting and incrustation; porcelain electroplating and moulding

apparatus, and apparatus for making porcelain plates before drying and

burning, may be added to the list.

It would be a much longer list to enumerate the various objects made of

glass unknown or not in common use in former generations. The reader

must call to mind or imagine any article which he thinks desirable to be

made from or covered with this lustrous indestructible material, or any

practicable form of instrument for the transmission of light, and it is

quite likely he will find it already at hand in shops or instruments in

factories ready for its making.

_Rubber--Goodyear._

The rubber tree, whether in India with its immense trunk towering above

all its fellows and wearing a lofty crown, hundreds of feet in

circumference, of mixed green and yellow blossoms; or in South America,

more slender and shorter but still beautiful in clustered leaves and

flowers on its long, loosely pendent branches; or in Africa, still more

slender and growing as a giant creeper upon the highest trees along the

water courses, hiding its struggling support and festooning the whole

forest with its glossy dark green leaves, sweetly scented, pure white,

star-like flowers, and its orange-like fruit--yields from its veins a

milk which man has converted into one of the most useful articles of the

century.

The modes of treating this milky juice varies among the natives of the

several countries where the trees abound. In Africa they cut or strip

the bark, and as the milk oozes out the natives catch and smear it

thickly over their limbs and bodies, and when it dries pull it off and

cut it into blocks for transportation. In Brazil the juice is collected

in clay vessels and smoked and dried in a smouldering fire of palm nuts,

which gives the material its dark brown appearance. They mould the

softened rubber over clay patterns in the form of shoes, jars, vases,

tubes, etc., and as they are sticky they carry them separated on poles

to the large towns and sea ports and sell them in this condition. It was

some such articles that first attracted the attention of Europeans, who

during the eighteenth century called the attention of their countrymen

to them.

It was in 1736 that La Condamine described rubber to the French Academy.

He afterward resided in the valley of the Amazon ten years, and then he

and MM. Herissent, Macquer, and Grossat, again by their writings and

experiments interested the scientific and commercial world in the

matter.

In 1770 Dr. Priestley published the fact that this rubber had become

notable for rubbing out pencil marks, bits of it being sold for a high

price for that purpose. About 1797, some Englishman began to make

water-proof varnish from it, and to take out patents for the same. This

was as far as the art had advanced in caoutchouc, or rubber, in the

eighteenth century.

In 1819 Mr. Mackintosh, of Glasgow, began experimenting with the oil of

naphtha obtained from gas works as a solvent for India rubber; and so

successfully that he made a water-proof varnish which was applied to

fabrics, took out his patent in England in 1823, and thus was started

the celebrated “Mackintoshes.”

In 1825 Thomas C. Wales, a merchant of Boston, conceived the idea of

sending American boot and shoe lasts to Brazil for use in place of their

clay models. This soon resulted in sending great quantities of rubber

overshoes to Europe and America.

The importation of rubber and the manufacture of water-proof garments

and articles therefrom now rapidly increased in those countries. But

nothing that could be done would prevent the rubber from getting soft in

summer and hard and brittle in the winter. Something was needed to

render the rubber insensible to the changes of temperature.

For fifty years, ever since the manufacturers and inventors of Europe

and America had learned of the water-proof character of rubber, they had

been striving to find something to overcome this difficulty. Finally it

became the lot of one man to supply the want. His name was Charles

Goodyear.

Born with the century, in New Haven, Connecticut, and receiving but a

public school education, he engaged with his father in the hardware

business in Philadelphia. This proving a failure, he, in 1830, turned

his attention to the improvement of rubber goods. He became almost a

fanatic on the subject--going from place to place clad in rubber

fabrics, talking about it to merchants, mechanics, scientists, chemists,

anybody that would listen, making his experiments constantly; deeply in

debt on account of his own and his father’s business failures, thrown

into jail for debt for months, continuing his experiments there with

philosophical, good-natured persistence; out of jail steeped to his lips

in poverty; his family suffering for the necessaries of life; selling

the school books of his children for material to continue his work, and

taking a patent in 1835 for a rubber cement, which did not help him

much. Finding that nitric acid improved the quality of the rubber by

removing its adhesiveness, he introduced this process, which met with

great favour, was applied generally to the manufacture of overshoes, and

helped his condition. But his trials and troubles continued. Finally one

Nathaniel Haywood suggested the use of sulphurous acid gas, and this was

found an improvement; but still the rubber would get hard in winter, and

although not so soft in summer, yet the odour was offensive. Yet by the

use of this improvement he was enabled to raise more money to get

Haywood a patent for it, while he became its owner. In the midst of his

further troubles, and while experimenting with the sulphur mixed with

rubber he found by accidental burning or partly melting of the two

together on a stove, that the part in which the sulphur was embedded was

hard and inelastic, and that the part least impregnated with the sulphur

was proportionately softer and more elastic. At last the great secret

was discovered!

And now at this later day, when $50,000,000 worth of rubber goods are

made annually in the United States alone, the whole immense business is

still divided into but two classes--hard and soft--hard or vulcanized

like that called “ebonite,” or soft, it may be, as a delicate wafer. And

these qualities depend on and vary as a greater or less amount of

sulphur is used, as described in the patents of Goodyear, commencing

with his French patent of 1844.

Then of course the pirates began their attacks, and he was kept poor in

defending his patents, and died comparatively so in 1860; but happy in

his great discovery. He had received, however, the whole world’s

honours--the great council medal at the Nations Fair in London in 1851

the Cross of the Legion of Honour by Napoleon III., and lesser tributes

from other nations.

It can be imagined the riches that flowed into the laps of Goodyear’s

successors; the wide field opened for new inventions in machines and

processes; and the vast added comforts to mankind resulting from

Goodyear’s introduction of a new and useful material to man.--A material

which, takes its place and stands in line with wood, and leather, and

glass, and iron, and steel!

But rubber and steel as we now know them are not the only new fabrics

given to mankind by the inventors of the Nineteenth Century.

The work of the silk worm has been rivalled; and a _wool_ as white and

soft as that clipped from the cleanest lamb has been drawn by the hands

of these magicians from the hot and furious slag that bursts from a

blast furnace.

The silk referred to is made from a solution of that inflammable

material of tremendous force known as gun-cotton, or pyroxylin. Dr.

Chardonnet was the inventor of the leading form of the article, which he

introduced and patented about 1888. The solution made is of a viscous

character, allowed to escape from a vessel through small orifices in

fine streams; and as the solvent part evaporates rapidly these fine

streams become hard, flexible fibres, which glisten with a beautiful

lustre and can be used as a substitute for some purposes for the fine

threads spun by that mysterious master of his craft--the silk worm.

The gusts of wind that drove against the molten lava thrown from the

crater of Kilauea, producing as it did, a fall of white, metallic,

hairy-like material resembling wool, suggested to man an industrial

application of the same method. And at the great works of Krupp at

Essen, Prussia, for instance, may be witnessed a fine stream of molten

slag flowing from an iron furnace, and as it falls is met by a strong

blast of cold air which transforms it into a silky mass as white and

fine as cotton.

INDEX.

Abbe, Prof. Ernst, 412, 473.

Abbott Museum, N.Y., 242.

Abrading machines, 332.

Acetylene, 70, 456.

Accumulators, 177.

Achromatic lens, 410.

Acoustics, 406.

Addressing machines, 285.

Aeolipile, 74.

Affixers, 285.

African inventions, 340, 476.

Agriculture, Chap. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Agricultural chemistry, 64.

Agricultural societies, 16.

Aeronautics. (See Air Ships and Balloons, 169, 445, 448.)

Air Atomizers, 467.

Air brakes, 89, 108, 193.

Air Brushes, 195, 418.

Air Compressors and propellers, 195.

Air Drills, 194.

Air Engines, 89, 193, 194.

Air propellers. (See Pneumatics.)

Air Pumps, 55, 113, 194, 195, 196, 197, 404.

Air Ships, 446, 449.

Airy, 410.

“Alabama,” The, 261.

Alarm Locks. (See Locks.)

Alchemistry and alchemists. (See Chemistry.)

Alcohol, 65.

Alfred the Great, 386, 457.

Alembert, D., 167.

Alhambra, 373.

Allen, Horatio, 83.

Allen, Dr. John, 168.

Allotropic phosphorus. (See Matches.)

Allen and Yates. (See Puddling.)

Alloys, 237, 238.

Altiscope, 413.

Aluminium, 238.

Amalgamators, 380.

American Inventions, 341.

Ammonia, 191, 215.

Ammoniacal gas engines, 191.

Ampère, 122, 130.

Amontons air engines, 193.

Ancient smelting. (See Metallurgy.)

Anæsthetics, 2, 71.

Aniline dyes, 69.

Annealing and tempering, 248.

Antiseptics, 2, 72.

Antwerp, Siege of, 261. (See Ordnance.)

Aoisseau, Chas., 466.

Apollo, 400.

Applegath, 283, 284.

Aqueducts, 93, 166, 167.

Arabs, 253, 274.

Arabic notation, 2.

Arago, 122, 410, 411, 416.

Arc Lamps, 137.

Archimedes, 9, 165, 185, 442.

Aristotle, 58.

Argand burner, 456.

Arkwright, Richard, 42, 296, 298, 301.

Arlberg tunnel, 107.

Armor, plate, 262, 264, 265, 266.

Arnold, Asa, 301.

Arnold, watchmaker, 389.

Armstrong, Sir William G., 176, 263, 264.

Arquebus. (See Ordnance.)

Artesian Wells, 38.

Artificial Stone. (See Pottery.)

Artificial Silk. (See Glass.)

Arts, Fine, 197, 347, 353, 371, 400, 414, 418.

Art, Scientific, 228.

Artificial Teeth. (See Dentistry.)

Artillery. (See Ordnance.)

Asbestos, 421.

Assembling machines and system.

(See Sewing machines, Watch, and Ordnance.)

Assyrians, 24.

Astronomical inventions, 390. (See Horology and Optics.)

Athens. (See Greece.)

Athanor, Alchemist’s stone. (See Chemistry.)

Atmospheric and Gas pressure, 194.

Atoms--atomic theory, 59, 60, 453.

Atomizer, 197, 467.

Attraction of Gravitation, 2.

Augurs, 348, 349.

Auricular instruments, 406.

Australia, 40.

Austria, 24, 50, 358.

Autoharps, 405.

Automobiles, 89, 435.

Axes, 340.

B.

Babbitt, Isaac, metal, 237.

Babylonians, 384.

Bach. (See Pianos.)

Bacon, Roger, 214.

Bacteria, 213.

Bailey, 1822; 37.

Bain, Alex., 147.

Baling and Bale ties, 51, 52, 53.

Balloons, 169, 446.

Band Saw, 348.

Barber, John, 185.

Barker’s Mill, 171.

Barlow looms, 305.

Barlow, Prof., 123.

Barrel making. (See Wood Working.)

Bartholdi, 105.

Bastie, 473.

Batcheller, 318.

Baths--closets, 178.

Bath system, Porcelain, 466.

Battam, Thomas, artificial marble, 466.

Baude, Peter, 224.

Beadlestone, metallurgist, 231.

Bean, B. W., 318.

Beaulieu, Col. (Ordnance), 264.

Beating engines. (See Paper.)

Becher, 58.

Bechler, 413.

Becquerel, 44.

Beds, 355.

Bed--printing, 282.

Beer. (See Chemistry.)

Bellaert, Jacob, 280.

Bell, Alex. Graham, 140, 141, 142, 407, 414.

Bell, C. A., 408.

Bell, Sir L., metallurgy, 223.

Bell’s history of metallurgy, 223.

Bell, Rev. Patrick, 36, 38.

Bells and Bell making--Metallurgy.

Bending wood, 349, 357. (See Woodworking.)

Bennett, Richard, 46.

Bentham, Sir Sam’l, 242, 342, 349, 374.

Bergman, 61.

Berliner, Emile, 408.

Bernoulli, D., 167.

Berthollet, 64, 454.

Berzelius, 60.

Bessemer, Henry, and process, 176, 232, 233.

Besson, Prof. J., 75, 242.

Bicheroux, potter, 465.

Bicycles, 431.

Bigelow, E. B., 305.

Billings, Dr., 210.

Binding books. (See Printing.)

Binders, grain and twine, 39.

Bicycles, 431 to 435.

Bischof, Simon, 191.

Blacksmithing. (See Metallurgy.)

Blaew of Amsterdam, 281.

Black, chemist, 58.

Blair, iron and steel, 234.

Blakely Gun. (See Ordnance.)

Blake, Eli. W., Blake crusher, 376, 377.

Blanchard, Thos., 268, 343, 344, 350, 356, 369.

Blasting, 107.

Blast, steel. (See Bessemer.)

Blauofen furnace. (See Metallurgy.)

Bleaching and Dyeing, 69.

Blenkinsop, 82.

Blithe, Walter, 14.

Block Printing. (See Printing.)

Blodgett & Lerow, sewing machines, 318.

Bloomaries. (See Metallurgy.)

Blunderbuss, 257.

Bobbins--spinning, 302.

Boerhaave, 58.

Boetius, 365.

Bohemia, 357.

Boilers. (See Steam Engineering.)

“Boke of Husbandry,” 1523, 14.

Bollman bridge, 103.

Bolting. (See Milling.)

Bolt making. (See Metal Working.)

Bombards, 254.

Bombs. (See Ordnance.)

Bomford, Col., 260.

Bonaparte, 89, 90, 256.

Bonnets and ladies’ hats, 324.

Bonjeau, M., 325.

Bonelli, M., 305.

Book making and binding, 287, 288.

Boots and shoes, 366 to 371.

Boring machines, 345, 348.

Boring square holes, 346.

Bormann, Genl., 259.

Bottle stoppers, 358.

Boulton and Watt, 84, 452.

Bouton, 415.

Bourseuil, Chas., 407.

Boyce, 1799, 35.

Boyle, Robert, 58, 184, 193, 194.

Box making. (See Woodworking Machinery.)

Braiding. (See Sewing Machines.)

Braithwaite, 83.

Brakes, bicycle, 433-436.

Brakes, steam, Railway and Electric, 87, 436.

Brakes and gins, 297.

Bramah, Jos., 82, 154, 170, 242, 244, 342, 349, 424.

Branch, 342.

Branco, 75.

Brahe, Tycho, 183, 388.

Brass, 219.

Brayton, G. H., 190.

Brazil, 281, 476, 477.

Breech-loaders, 257, 263, 264, 265, 269.(See Ordnance.)

Brewster, Sir David, 410.

Brickmaking machines, kilns and processes, 457, 464.

Bridges and Bridge Building, 93 to 104, 197.

Bright, John, 138.

Broadwood piano, 403.

Bronsen, 412.

Broom-making, 328, 329.

Brot, 411.

Brothers of the Bridge, 94.

Bronze, 218, 219.

Brooklyn bridge, 98, 99.

Brown, Sir Saml., 95, 187, 188.

“Brown Bess,” 258.

Bruce, David, 284.

Brunel, I. K., 97.

Brunel, I. M., 351, 367.

Brunton, 82.

Brush--Brush light, 137.

Brushes and Brush making, 330.

Buchanan’s Practical Essays, 244.

Buckingham, C. L., 148.

Buffing machines, 365.

Builders’ hardware, 250.

Buildings, tall, 152, 153.

Buffers, 437. (See Railways, Elevator, etc., 160, 161.)

Bunsen, Robt. W., 119, 120, 230.

Bunsen light, 456.

Burden, Henry, 95.

Burdett, Wm., 188.

Burke, Edmund, 182.

Burns, Robert, 31.

Butter, 54, 55.

Button-hole machines, 323.

Bunsen. (See Chemistry.)

C.

Cable transportation, 109.

Cæsar, 457.

Cahill, Thaddeus, 287.

Caissons, 100.

Calcium-carbide, 70, 456.

Calico making and printing, 325, 326.

California, 382.

Cameo cutting, 475.

_Camera obscura_, 414.

Campbell printing press, 285.

Canada, 40, 430.

Canals, and boats for, 84, 106, 107, 109, 110, 440.

Canal locks, 110.

Cane woven goods, 308.

Cannons and firearms, 252-272.

Cantilever bridges, 103, 104.

Caoutchouc. (See Rubber, 476.)

Caps,--gun, 259.

Car heating, 211.

Cars, sleeping, 431. (See Railways.)

Car tracks, 108.

Car rails, 108.

Car wheels, 108.

Carbines, 266. (See Ordnance.)

Carbon--chemistry.

Carbonating, 68.

Carborundum, 70.

Cardan, 183.

Carding, 298, 300.

Cardova. (See Leather.)

Carlyle, 310.

Carnot. (See Ordnance.)

Carpentry, 339, 352.

Carpets and Looms, 305.

Carré Brothers, 214.

Carriages and carrying machines, 82, 428-437.

Carthagenians, 164.

Carts. (See Coaches and Waggons.)

Cartridges, 267.

Cartwright, Rev. Edwd., 297.

Carving machinery, 346.

Case-shot. (See Ordnance.)

Cash registers, 395.

Cast iron, 223.

Catalan furnace, 222. (See Metallurgy.)

Cauchy, 410.

Caus, Salomon de, 75.

Cavendish, 58.

Caxton, 280.

Centennial Exhibition. 1876; 38, 39, 40, 140, 246, 320,

352, 353, 393, 402, 430.

Centrifugal machines (pumps), 172, 173.

Charcoal. (See Metallurgy.)

Chairs. (See Furniture.)

Chaff separator. (See Milling.)

Chain wheels--hydraulics, 156.

Chairs, tables, desks, etc. (See Furniture, 351, 358.)

Challey, M., 97.

“Champion harvesters”--Harvesters.

Chance & Co., Glass makers, 470.

Channelling shoes. (See Leather.)

Chanute, Octave, 110.

Chappe, M., 125.

Charles I. (See Ordnance;

Charles II., 242;

Charles V., 387;

Charles VIII., 265.)

Chemistry, 58, 70.

Chemical Telegraph. (See Telegraphy.)

Chester-dial telegraph, 146.

Chili, 461.

Chill hardening, 250.

Chickering pianos, 403.

Chimes, 196.

China and Chinese inventions, 24, 52, 165, 222, 241, 253,

257, 273, 275, 280, 384, 386, 400, 423, 465.

Chlorates, 70.

Chlorine, 237.

Chlorination, 237.

Chromium, 70.

Chronometers, 390, 394.

Chubb-safes, 422, 425.

Cigar and cigarette machines, 56, 57.

Cincinnati Bridge. (See Engineering.)

Cincinnatus, 17, 31.

Circulation of blood, 2.

Civil Engineering, 93-110.

Clark, Alvan, 412.

Clavichord, 402.

Clayton, Dr., 1688, 451.

Clay, Treatment of. (See Brick and Pottery making.)

Cleaning grain, etc. (See Mills.)

Clement, metal worker, 244.

Clementi, pianist, 403.

Clepsydra, 384, 385, 386.

“Clermont.” (See Steam Ships.)

Clippers, Ships, 439.

Clocks, 384. (See Horology.)

Clocks, Essential parts of, 386.

Closets. (See Baths.)

Cloth, Making, Finishing, 306;

Drying, 306;

Printing, 306;

Creasing and pressing, 306;

Cutting, 306-324;

Fancy woven, 205-306.

Clothes. (See Garments.)

Clover Header, 32.

Clutches, 161-162.

Clymer, of Philadelphia, press, 282.

Coaches, stages, mail, etc., 428-431.

Coach lace, 306.

Coal, 225, 378, 380;

Coal breakers and cleaners, 378-380.

Coal gas, 450;

Coal tar colors. (See Chemistry.)

Coal mining. (See Ores.)

Coaling Ships, 110.

Coehorn, shell, 255.

Coffin, journalist, 25.

Coke. (See Metallurgy.)

Cold metal punching, working and rolling, 246-247.

Colding of Denmark, 63.

Collards, pianos, 403.

Collen, Henry, 417.

Collins line. (See Steam Ships.)

Collinge, 430.

Coloring cloth, 325.

Colors and coloring, 464-467.

Color process. (See Photography, 417, Printing, 290.)

Colt, revolvers, 260, 267, 322.

Columbiad, 261.

Colossus of Rhodes, 34.

Comminges of France, 255.

Comminuting machines. (See Grinding.)

Compartment vessels, 442.

Compass, 2.

Compensating devices, 391.

Compound engines, 87-89.

Compressed air drills, 376.

Compressed air and steam, 193, 194, 378.

Compressed air ordnance, 265, 269.

Condensers, 87.

Condamine, 477.

Conservation of forces, 2.

Constitution, U.S., 8.

Convertibility of forces, 2.

Containers, 175.

Conveyors, transportation, 152, 153, 154, 158, 159, 160.

Cook, Telegraphy, 127, 146.

Cooke, Prof. J. P., 59.

Cooke, James, 25.

Cooking. (See Stoves.)

Cooper, Peter, 84.

Coopering. (See Wood Working.)

Copernicus, 183.

Copper, 218, 219, etc.

Corliss, 88.

Corn: Cultivators, 29-30;

Mills, 46;

Planters, 28.

Correlation of forces, 2.

Cort, Henry, 226-231.

Corundum, 70, 334.

Coster, 280.

Cotton, 42, 43;

Gin, 42, 43, 297;

Harvester, 40.

Cotton seed oil, 69.

Cotton and wool machinery, 298. (See Textiles.)

“Counterblast to Tobacco,” 155.

Couplers, 437.

Cowper, 31.

Cowper, printer, 283.

Cowley, 77.

Cradle, grain, 33.

Cranes and derricks, 110, 152, 153, 171.

Crecy, (1346). (See Ordnance.)

Cristofori, pianist, 402.

Crompton, Saml., 42, 297, 298, 301.

Crompton, George, 305.

Crookes, Prof. Wm., 149.

Crooke tubes, 149.

Cros, Charles, 407.

Crushers, stone and ore, 376.

Crystal Palace, 470.

Ctesibius, 74, 165, 168, 385.

Cultivators, 29, 30.

Curtet, 121.

Cugnot, 1769, 81.

Culverin. (See Cannon.)

Cunard line, 86.

Cuneus, 115.

Curtains Shades and Screens, 356.

Cyanide. Cyanide process, 236.

Cyclometers, 396.

D.

Daguerre, 415-416.

Daguerreotype, 415.

Dahlgren, Cannon, 264.

Danks, Rotary puddler, 231.

Dalton, John, 59-60, 186, 194, 453.

Damascus Steel, 221. (See Metallurgy.)

Dana, Prof., 126.

Daniell’s battery, 119, 126.

Darby, Abraham, 1777, 95, 225.

Darwin, Dr., 18th cent., 73.

Davy, Humphry, Sir, 16, 63, 64, 70, 118, 122, 125,

188, 209, 236, 415.

David’s harp, 6.

Decker, piano, 403.

Delinter, 43.

Dentistry, 72.

Dental Chairs, 72, 358;

Drills, 72;

Engines, 72;

Hammers, 72;

Pluggers, 72.

Deoville, St. Clair, 238.

Derricks, 110.

“Deutschland,” The, 445.

Desks, 355.

De Susine, 192.

Dewar, Prof., 216.

Dial Telegraphs. (See Telegraphy.)

Diamonds. (See Milling; Polishing; Artificial, 70.)

Diamond Drill, 375.

Diana, Temple of, 34.

Diastase, 54.

Didot, Francois, 1800, 276.

Dickenson, 277.

Digesters. (See Chemistry.)

Differential motion, 301.

Dioptric Lens, 410.

Diorama, 415.

Direct Acting Engines, 88.

Direct Feed Engines, 88.

Discoveries, distinct from inventions, 1, 2.

Disk Plows, 21, 30.

Distaff and Spindle. (See Textiles, 292.)

Dodge, James M., 159.

Doffers, 301.

Dog Carts. (See Carriages.)

Dollond, John, 410.

Donkin, 277.

Donovan, 454.

Don Quixote, 222.

Douglass, Nicholas, 105.

Draining, 105, 106, 107.

Drags and Drays. (See Waggons, 430-431.)

Drais, Baron Von, 432.

Drake, E. S., Col., 382.

Draper, J. W., Prof., 412, 416, 450.

Drawing Machines, Spinning, 296, 298, 301.

Dredging, 105, 106, 107.

Dressing; of thread and cloths, 299, 302;

of skins. (See Leather.)

Drills, seeders, 20, 27.

Drills, stone ore and iron, 375, 378.

Drying apparatus. (See Kilns.)

Dreyse, 266.

Dualine, 270.

Duboscq, 137.

Dudley, Dud, 224.

Duncan, John, 311.

Dundas, Charlotte, 84.

Dundonald, Lord, 451.

Dundas, Lord, 83, 440.

Dunlop, J. B., Bicycles, 433.

Duplex Engines, 88.

Dulcimer. (See Music.)

Dust Explosions and Collectors, 50.

Dutch Paper, 277;

Printing, 280.

Dutch Canals, 107.

Dutch Clocks, 388, 391.

Dutch Furnaces and Stoves, 203.

Dutch Locks, 424.

Dutch Ships, 439.

Dutch Ware, 459.

Dutton, Maj. C. E., 261.

Dynamometer, 187, 398.

Dynamite, 270.

Dynamo Electric Machines, 130, 134, 251.

E.

Eads, James B., 102.

Eames of U. S., 234.

East River Bridge, 98, 99.

Eddystone Lighthouse, 105.

Edison, 137, 144, 145, 148, 407, 408.

Egyptian agriculture, arts and inventions, 5, 13, 42, 45, 58,

164, 184, 220, 241, 273, 292, 340, 354, 400, 402, 423,

457, 460, 470.

Eiffel, M., 105.

Electricity, 5, 111-151.

Electric Alarms. (See Locks.)

Electric Batteries, 117-132.

Electric Cable, 138.

Electric Heating, 213.

Electric Lighting, 108, 119, 121 to 137, 360, 456.

Electro-Chemistry, 70.

Electro-magnets, 120-133.

Electro Metallurgy, 70, 238, 249.

Electrodes, 113, 135.

Electrolysis, 129, 131.

Electrometer, 113, 122.

Electrical Music, 148.

Electro Plating, 249.

Electric Railway, 143, 144.

Electric Signals and Stops, 160, 162.

Electric Telegraphy, 2, 114, 122, 123, 145, 146, 147.

Electrotyping, 283, 290.

Electric Type Printing, 147, 148.

Electric Type Writer, 287.

Electric Voters, 396.

Elevators, 6, 148, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157.

Eliot, Prof., 410.

Elizabeth, Queen, 402.

Elton, John, 46.

Elvean, Louis T. van, 155.

Embossing, 346, 347.

Embossing, weaving, 306.

Embroidery, 310, 313.

Emery, abrading, 70, 334.

Emery, testing machines, 398.

England, 8, 17, 25, 50, 188.

Engraving Machines, 290.

Enamelling. (See Pottery.)

Enamelled Ware, 459, 468.

Engineering. (See Civil.)

Electric, 143;

Hydraulic, 168;

Marine, 442;

Mining, 373;

Steam, 2.

Eolipile. (See Hero.)

Erard, pianist, 403.

Erasmus, 183.

Ericsson, John, 83, 86, 441, 443, 444.

Euclid, 9.

Euler, 167, 173.

Evans, Oliver, 1755-1819; 46, 47, 48, 81, 83, 87, 154, 374.

Evaporating, 52.

Evelyn, John, 1699; 25.

Evolution of modern inventions, 153.

Excavating, 105, 106.

Explosives, 270.

Eylewein, 167.

F.

Fabroni, 66, 118.

Faience, 459, 466.

Fairbairn, Sir Wm., 100, 176, 226, 440.

Fairbanks, scales and testing, 397.

Fahrenheit, 183.

Fanning Mills, 45.

Faraday, Michael, 63, 118, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 138,

188, 209, 411, 472.

Fan mills, 41.

Fare registers, 395.

Farmer, Moses G., 133, 135, 145.

Factory life, 298.

Faure, M. Camille, 120.

Faur, Faber du, 230.

Faust, 280.

Felt making, 325.

Fermentation, 65, 66, 67.

Fertilizers--machines and compositions. (See Agriculture.)

Field, Cyrus W., 138.

Filament-carbon, 360.

(See Electric Lighting.)

Filters, filtering, 167, 180, 181.

Filter Press, 465.

Fink bridge, 103.

Fire-arms, 252-272.

Fire crackers, 252.

Fire engines, 76.

Fire place, 205.

Fiske, range finder, 266.

Fiske, 148, 413.

Fitch, John, 1784, 81.

Fitzherbert, Sir A., 1523, 14.

Fireproof safes. (See Locks.)

Flax machines, 42.

Flax brakes, 42.

Flaxman, 464.

Flax-threshers, 41, 42.

Fleming, 247.

Fleshing machines, 364.

Fletcher, 244.

Flexible shafts, 350.

Florence, 459.

Flour. (See Mills.)

Fly Shuttle. (See Spinning and Weaving.)

Foods, preparation of, 53, 54.

Force feed-seeders, 26.

Forneyron, 171, 172.

Forsythe, Rev. Mr., 259, 260.

Foucault, 137.

Fourcroy, 64.

Fourdrinier, 277. (See Paper making.)

Frackelton, Susan, portable kiln, 465.

France, 63, 203, 253, 274, 275, 313.

Francis, S. W., 286.

Frank, pottery, 463.

Franklin, Benj., 5, 111, 112, 115, 116, 117, 121, 125,

168, 203, 281, 446.

Franklin Institute, 455.

Fraunhofer, von, Jos., 61, 412.

Frederick, Henry, 255.

Freiberg Mining Academy, Metallurgy, 223.

Fresnel, 410.

Frictional Electricity, 111.

Frieburg Bridge. (See Bridges.)

Frogs, R. R., 108.

Flintlock, firearms, 258.

Froment, 146.

Frontinus, on Roman aqueducts, 166.

Fruits, Preparation of, 51, 53.

Fruit jars, 359.

Fry, Laura, 467.

Fulton, Robt., 84-85.

Furnaces, hot air; hot water, 206, 207.

Furniture, 351, 354, 359.

Furniture machinery, 351, 352.

Fuses, 259.

G.

Gaffield, Thos., glass, 472.

Gale, Prof., 126.

Galileo, 1, 166, 183, 388, 409.

Gally, self-playing pianos, 406.

Galton, Capt. Douglas, 205.

Galvani, 5, 117, 118, 125.

Galvanism, 112,121.

Galvanic batteries, 121, 122.

Galvanic music, 148, 406.

Galvanometer, 122, 139.

Gamble, 277.

Garay, Blasco de, 75.

Garments, 310-327.

Gas, 450;

illuminating, 69, 185, 450-456.

Gases, motors, 188, 190.

Gas checks, 266.

Gas engines, 76, 18, 184-194.

Gasoline and stoves, 213.

Gas pumps, 190.

Gatling, Dr., gun, 269.

Gaul, 32, 33.

Gauss, 126.

Gay-Lussac, 60, 185, 194, 209.

Ged, Wm., 281.

Geissler tubes, 135, 149.

Generator, Electric, 113.

Gentleman Farmer, 1768, 20.

George III., 389.

German inventions, 50, 203, 255, 313, 387, 391, 430, 473.

Germ theory, 67.

German clock and watch making, 387.

Gibraltar, 253.

Giffard-injector, 173.

Gilbert, Dr., 1600, 5, 113.

Gill, J. G., 268.

Giers, 234, 250.

Gin-cotton, 297.

Gladstone, inventor, 1806, 35.

Glass, 469, 474.

Glass, wool, and silk, 474, 480.

Glazes, 475. (See Porcelain.)

Glauber, 58.

Glycerine, 69.

Gold. (See Metallurgy.)

Goodyear, Chas., 434, 476, 478, 479, 480.

Googe, Barnaby, 14.

Gompertz, 432.

Gordon, 82.

Gothic architecture, 373.

Governors, 87.

Graham (chemist), 391.

Graham. (See Horology.)

Grain Binder. (See Harvesters.)

Grain cradles, drills, and seeders. (See Agriculture.)

Grain elevator, 110.

Grain Separators, 49.

Gramme, Z., 134, 136, 137.

Gramophone, 406, 408.

Graphophone, 406, 408.

Grass burning stoves, 211.

Gray, Elisha. (See Electricity.)

Gray, S., 1729, 114, 125.

“Great Britain,” The, 440.

“Great Republic,” The, 439.

Great Urgroez, 357.

Greece and Greek antiquities and inventions, 9, 13, 18, 45,

74, 113, 164, 182, 218, 257, 340, 386, 457, 459.

Grenades, 255.

Green, N. W., driven well, 383.

Greenough, J. J., 318.

Gribeauval, 256.

Griffith, Julius, 82.

Griffiths of U. S., 234.

Grinding by stones, 45 to 49.

Grinding glass, 475.

Grindstones, 375.

Grossat, 477.

Grover and Baker sewing mach., 320.

Grooving, 245.

Grove, Sir Wm. Robert, 119.

Gruner, 234.

Gun carriages. (See Ordnance.)

Gun cotton, 270.

Gun making, 345.

Gunpowder, 253, 262, 263, 270.

Gunpowder eng., 192.

Gun-stock, 345.

Guericke, Otto von, 113, 183, 193.

Guillaume, Puy, 253.

Gurney, 82.

Guttenberg, John, 280.

H.

Hales, Dr., 451.

Hall, John H., 267.

Hall safes, 422.

Hamberg, 58.

Hamblet, 146.

Hamilton (stove inventor), 212.

Hammers, steam and air, 88, 244.

Hanckwitz, Godfrey, 1680, 199.

Hancock, Walter, 82.

Handel, 402.

Hanging Gardens, 34.

Hardening metals, 249.

Hardware. (See Metal Working.)

Hargreaves, Jas., 42, 294, 297.

Harnesses, 431.

Harp, The, and the Harpsichord, 6, 402.

Harvesters, 32, 33, 35, 39, 40, 41, 322.

Hartshorn, spring roller shades, 356.

Harveyized steel, 234, 249.

Harrows, 22, 28.

Hautefeuille, 77.

Hauteville, Abbé, 185, 389.

Hat making, 325.

Haydn, 402.

Hay, rakes and tedders, 15, 40.

Headers, 32.

Heat as power, 186, 187.

Heating, 86, 199, 210.

Hebrews, 45, 362, 423.

Hele, P., 388.

Helmont, J. van, 58, 184.

Hell Gate, 107.

Helmholtz, 66, 131, 141, 403, 406, 407, 411, 417.

Hendley, Wm., 82.

Henry, Joseph, 63, 123, 124, 126, 131, 146, 210.

Henry, rifle, 267.

Henry, Wm., 78.

Herissent, M., 477.

Hermetical sealing, 359.

Herodotus, 362.

Hero of Alexander, 5, 9, 74, 76, 87, 89, 165, 171, 404.

Herring, safes, 421.

Herschel, 228, 412.

Hides, treatment of. (See Leather.)

Hide mills, 364.

High and low pressure engines, 87, 88.

Hindoos, 220, 241, 254, 273, 292, 340, 384.

Hodges, James, of Montreal, 101.

Hoe, Robert, and son, R. M., 284.

Hoe drill-seeders, 27.

Hoes, 29, 30.

Hoffman, Dr., 464.

Hoisting, conveying, and storing, 152-163.

Holland, 18, 255, 257, 275.

Holley, A. L., 232.

Holtzapffel, J., 241.

Homer, 459.

Hooke, Dr., 388, 389.

Hoopes and Townsend, 247.

Hoppers. (See Mills.)

Hopper boy. (See Mills.)

Hoosac tunnel, 107.

Hornblower, 1781, 87.

Horrocks, 305.

Horse power, 187.

Horseshoes, 248.

Horology, 384-395.

Hot air engines, 185.

Hot air blast, 231.

Hot furnaces. (See Heating.)

Hot water circulation. (See Heating.)

Hotchkiss gun, 270.

Houdin regulator, 137.

Houses, their construction, 351, 352.

Houston. (See Telegraphy.)

Howe, Elias, 314-318.

Howe bridge, 103.

Howitzer. (See Ordnance.)

Hunt, Walter, 314, 315.

Hungary, 357.

Huggins, Dr., 63, 412.

Hughes, D. E., 147.

Hugon, 189.

Hulls, Jonathan, 78.

Huntsman, Benj., 225.

“Husbandry, The whole art of.” (See Agriculture.)

Huskisson, 83.

Hussey, 1833, 37, 38.

Huxley, 65.

Huygens, 61, 77, 183, 184, 192, 388, 391.

Hydraulicising, 174.

Hydraulic elevators, 156, 157, 164, 165, 166.

Hydraulic jacks, 174.

Hydraulic motors, 164-181;

pumps, rams, 166, 168;

press, 52, 53, 154, 155, 168, 171, 175;

testing, 398, 399.

Hydrogen gas, 454.

Hydrostatic engines and presses, 166, 190, 194.

I.

Ida, mountains of, iron, 218.

Illuminating gas. (See Gas.)

Impulse pump. (See Ram.)

Incandescent light, 135, 456.

Incubators, 207.

India, 373, 400.

Industrial mechanics, 328-338.

Injectors, 173.

Intensifiers, 174.

International Exposition, London, 246, 352.

Invention, what it is, how induced, distinctions, growth,

protection of, 1-8.

Iron, 218.

Iron Ships. (See Ships.)

Iridescent glass, 474.

Ironing machines, 338.

Italy, 255, 280.

Ives. F. E. (three-color process), 417.

J.

Jablochoff, M. Paul, 136.

Jacks, 245.

Jacobi, of Russia, 249.

Jackson, C. T., Dr., 71.

Jacquard Loom, The, 304, 323, 326.

Jacquard, Joseph Marie, 304, 305.

Jenk’s ring frame, 302.

Jenkins, Prof. F., 192.

Jefferson, Thos., 16,18.

Jenkin, Prof. Fleeming, 144.

Jewelry, 333.

“Jimcrow,” 245.

Johnson, Denis. (See Bicycle.)

Jones, iron and steel, 234.

Jonval, 172.

Joule, 2.

Jupiter, statue of, 34.

K.

Kaleidoscope, 410.

Karnes, Lord, 1768, 20.

Kaolin. (See Lighting.)

Kay, John, 293, 295.

“Kearsarge,” The, 261.

Kepler, 183.

Kennedy, Diss and Cannan, 331.

Kilns, 463, 464, 465.

Kinetic energy, Age of, 86.

Kinetograph, 417.

Kirchoff, G. R., 62, 412.

Kitchen and table utensils, 356.

Knabe piano, 403.

Knight, Edward, 36, 51, 170, 202, 232, 276, 321, 429.

Knitting, 307, 308.

König and Bauer, 283.

König, acoustics, 407.

Koops, 277.

Koster, 1620, rifle, 258.

Krag-Jorgensen rifle, 268.

Kramer, 146.

Krupp, steel, 234.

Krupp, Fredk., guns, 264.

Krupp, glass, 480.

Kutler, Augustin, 258.

L.

La Condamine, 477.

Labor organizations, 11.

Labor, how affected by inventions; reducing, and increasing,

152, 153, 162, 163, 293, 308, 380, 381, 460.

Lace making, 306.

Laconium, 202.

Ladd electric machine, 133.

La Hire, 167, 170.

Laird, John, 440, 443.

Lallement, P. (See Bicycle.)

Lamps and lamp lighting, 359, 450.

Lancaster, cannon, 263.

Land reclamation, 107.

Lane, 1828, 37.

Lane-Fox light, 137.

Langen and Otto. (See Gas Engine.)

Langley, Prof., 4.

L’Hommedieu, 348.

Lapping-cotton, 299, 300.

Lasts, making of, 344, 345.

Lathes, 241-243, 340, 345, 349;

for turning irregular forms of wood, 344.

Lattice work bridges, 103.

Laundry, 335.

Lavoisier, 58, 60, 63.

Lawn mowers, 40.

Lazy tongs mechanism, 160.

Le Bon, 1801, 185, 452.

Leaching, 236.

Lead, 219. (See Metallurgy.)

Leather, 361-372.

Leeuwenhoek of Holland, 65.

Leeu, 280.

Leckie, 41.

Le Conte, 63.

Lefaucheux, M., 267.

Leibnitz, 183.

Lenoir, 189.

Lesage, 121.

Lescatello, 1662, 24.

Leyden jar, 114.

Libavius, 58.

Liebig, 64.

Lieberkulm, Dr., 409.

Light, 2.

Lighting. (See Lamps and Gas.)

Light Houses, illumination, 105, 410.

Linotype, 288, 289, 290.

Linville bridge, 103.

Lippersheim, 409.

Liquid air, 216, 217.

Livingstone, Dr., 221.

Livingston, Robt., 84, 85.

Lixiviation, 236.

Locks, 420-427.

Locomotives, 82, 83, 84, 88.

Looms, 293, 297, 302. (See Textiles.)

Loomis, Mahlen, 150.

“London Engineering,” 288.

London exhibition, 1851, 470.

London Times, 283, 285.

Lontin regulator, 137.

Lost arts, 219.

Louis XI., XIV., 254, 255.

Lowell, Francis C., 298.

Lowe, T. S. C., gas, 454, 455.

Lubricants, 237.

Lyall, James, 306.

Lyttleton, 442.

M.

MacArthur-Forrest, cyanide process, 236.

Macaulay, Lord, 10.

Mackintosh, of Glasgow, 477.

Machine guns, 269.

Madersperger, Jos., 312.

Magdeburg, 193.

Magic lantern. (See Optics.)

Magnets and Magnetic Electricity, 112, 122, 123, 124, 130, 133.

Mail bags and locks, 427.

Mail service, 427.

Mail marking, 285.

Majolica. (See Pottery.)

Malt, 65, 66.

Man a tool-using animal, 310.

Manning, 1831, 37.

Marble, artificial, 468, 469.

Marine propulsion, 442.

Marconi, 151.

Mariotte’s law of gases, 184, 194.

Markers and cutters, 324.

Markham, 30.

Marsland, looms, 301.

Marr, Wm., 421.

Martin, Prof., 63.

Marvin’s safes, 421.

McClure’s Magazine, 445, 447.

McCormick reaper, 37, 38.

McCallum bridge, 103.

McKay, ships, 439.

McKay, shoe machines, 369.

McMillan bicycle, 433.

Mary, Queen, 402.

Mason, Prof. O. T., 458.

Massachusetts, mills, 298, 369.

Massachusetts, shoe making, 370.

Master locks, 423, 426.

Matches, 199, 200, 201.

Matting, 309, 312.

Maudsley, Henry, 243, 349.

Maurice of Nassau, 255.

Maurice, Peter, 167.

Mauser rifle, 269.

Mausoleum, 34.

Maxim electric light, 137.

Maxwell, 417.

Mayer, Prof., 404.

Meares, 1800, 35.

Meat, Preparation of, 55.

Mechanical powers, 4.

Medicine and surgery, 70, 71, 72.

Meigs, General M. C., 102.

Meikle, 1786, 41.

Megaphone, 407.

Melville, David, 452.

Menai Straits bridges, 96.

Mendeljeff, 2.

Menzies of Scotland, 41.

Mergenthaler, 288.

Merrimac and Monitor, 268, 441.

Metals and Metallurgy, 218-239.

Metal founding, 249.

Metal working and turning, 240;

boring, planing, 251;

hammering, shaping, 240;

modern metal

working plant, 250.

Metal, personal ware, buckles, clasps, hooks, buttons, etc.,

250.

Meters, gas and water, 178.

Mexico, 281, 292.

Microphone, 148.

Microscope, 409.

Middlings purifier, 49, 50.

Milk, milkers, 54, 55.

Millet, 30.

Mills, 45 to 51.

Milling, high, low, 49.

Miller, wood working, 342.

Miller and Taylor, 81.

Millwright, The Young, 47.

Milton, 105, 218.

Mineral wool, minerals and mining, 373-383.

Minneapolis mills, 50.

Mitrailleuses, 269.

Modern machinery, its commencement, 364.

Mohl, von, Hugo, 67.

Moigno, Abbé, 411.

Mold, aging. (See Chemistry.)

Moulding. (See Wood-working and Glass making.)

Monks, 387.

“Monitor,” The, 268, 441.

Montgolfier, 169.

Moody, Paul, 298.

Moors, 253.

Morin, Genl., 209, 238.

Morland, Sir Sam’l, 77.

Morrison, Chas., 115.

Morse, S. B. F., 126, 127, 128, 129.

Mortars, 253.

Mortise making, 345.

Morton, Dr. W. T. G., 71.

Motor vehicles, 435.

Mont Cenis Tunnel, 107.

Mowers, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.

Moxon, Jos., 242.

Mozart, 402.

Murdock, Wm., 185, 452.

Music, 400-406.

Musical instruments, 6, 400.

Musical electrical apparatus, 406.

Muschenbroeck, Prof., 1745, 114, 115.

Mushet, iron and steel, 234.

Muskets. (See Ordnance.)

Muzzle loaders, 263, 264.

N.

National Assembly, France, 9.

Napoleon. (See Bonaparte.)

Naphtha, 454.

Nasmyth, 243, 245.

Needle, 310, 313.

Needle gun, 266.

Niedringhaus, 468.

Netting. (See Spinning.)

Newcomen, 5, 77, 78, 79, 167, 187.

Newbold, Chas., 19.

Newbury, Wm., 348.

Newton, Sir Isaac, 9, 11, 61, 114, 167, 183, 414.

Niagara bridges, 97, 98, 104.

Niagara power, 171, 172.

Nicholson and Carlisle, 118.

Nicholson, Wm., of England, 282.

Nickel. (See Metallurgy.)

Niepce, Jas. N., 415.

Nitro-glycerine, 270.

Noah’s Ark, 438.

Nobel, A., 192.

Nollet, Prof., 132.

Noria, The, 165.

Norway, 266, 430, 439.

Nozzles, flexible, 174;

water, 179.

O.

Oersted, 121, 130.

Ogle, 1822, 36.

Ohm, G. S., 125.

Oils and fats, 69.

Oil cloth, 306.

Oil lamps, 359.

Oil stoves and furnaces, 190, 212.

Oiling waves, 446.

Oil wells, 190, 382.

Omnibus. (See Stages and Carriers.)

Opening and blowing machines, cotton, 299.

Opthalmoscope, 411.

Optical instruments, 409-412.

Ordnance, arms, explosives, 252 to 272.

Ores, treatment of, 229, 250, 251, 373 to 380.

Ore separators, 379. (See Metallurgy.)

Organs, 404.

Ornamental iron work. (See Metal Working.)

Ornamental wood work. (See Wood Working.)

Oscillating engines. (See Steam.)

Osmund furnaces. (See Metallurgy.)

Otis elevators, 155.

Otto, Nicolaus A., Otto engine, 190, 191.

Oxygen, 58, 453. (See Priestley.)

P.

Paddle wheels and vessels, 443.

Paints, 466.

Painting, 418, 419, 459.

Painting machines, 193, 418, 467.

Paixhans, Genl., 261, 264.

Page, Prof. C. G., 132, 141.

Page, Ralph, 224.

Palissy, Bernard, 458.

Palmer, stage-coaches, 429.

Palladius, 32.

Panoramas, 415.

Paper and printing, 273-291.

Paper bag machinery, 279.

Papin, 5, 77, 184, 192, 193.

Papyrus, 273, 274.

Paraffine. (See Oils.)

Parchment, 274.

Parkinson, Thos., 194.

Parliament, House of, 209.

Parquetry. (See Wood-working.)

Parrott, gun, 264.

Parthenon, 373.

Partridge, Reuben, matches, 200.

Pascal, 166, 168, 170, 183.

Pasteur, 68.

Patents, their origin and purpose, 8, 21.

Pattern making. (See Wood, Metal, and Textiles.)

Pauley, Col., 266.

Pegs, 367, 368.

Pencils, 418.

Pendulum. (See Horology.)

Pendulum machines, 365.

Penelope, 306.

Pennsylvania fireplace, 203.

Percussion caps, 259, 260.

Percy. (See Metallurgy.)

Permutation locks, 425.

Pernot, 234.

Perin & Co., saws, 348.

Persians, 362.

Petroleum, 359, 382.

Petzold, 403.

Pfaff, 121.

Pharos of Alexandria, 34.

Phelps, G. M., 147.

Phœnicians, 439, 459.

“Phœnix,” The. (See Ships.)

Phonautograph, 141, 407.

Phonograph, 2, 406.

Phonophone, 414.

Phonoscope, 414.

Photophone, 414.

Phosphorus matches, 200.

Photochromoscope, 417.

Photography, 410, 414, 416, 418.

Photo-processes, 417.

Piano, 6, 401-404.

Picking machine, 298, 299.

Picker-motion, looms, 297.

Piezometer, 262.

Pigments, 70.

Pitt, inventor, 1786, 33.

Pixii, 131.

Planes, 340, 350. (See Wood-working.)

Planing machines, 245, 349, 350. (See Wood-working.)

Planté, G., 120.

Planters. (See Chap. III.)

Plaster, 469.

Plato, 385.

Platt, Sir Hugh, 14.

Platt, Senator, 35.

Pliny, 32, 164, 223, 227, 273, 340.

Ploughs, 5, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27,

28, 29, 30.

Plucknett, 1808, 35.

Pneumatics, 165, 182 to 198.

Pneumatic machines, 195, 197, 198.

Pneumatic propellers, 444.

Pneumatic tires, 433.

Pneumatic tubes and transmission, 159, 196.

Polemoscope, 413.

Polishing glass, 475.

Pope, Alexander, 394.

Porcelain, 465, 466.

Poririer (match machine), 201.

Porta Baptista, 414.

Porta G. della, 75.

Portable engines, 88.

Potato planters, 28.

Potassium, 236.

Potter, Humphrey, 78.

Pottery, 457-469.

Pousard, 465.

Powder, 253.

Power, measure of, 187.

Prehistoric inventions. (See beginning of each Chapter.)

Pressing machines, 51, 52, 53.

Priestley, 58, 453, 477.

“Princeton,” The, 443.

Printing press, 2, 6, 273-291.

Prince of Orange, 255.

Projectiles, 253-270.

Prometheus, 199, 200.

Protoplasm, 67.

Prussia, 266.

Providence, R. I., Tool Co., 322.

Psalteries, 401.

Ptah, 241.

Puckle’s patent breech loader, 258, 259.

Puddling, 226, 227, 231.

Pug mills, 461.

Pullman car, 107.

Pulp, 275-279.

Pumps, 187.

Ptolemy, 428.

Puillet, 411.

Puy Guillaume, battle of, 1338, 253.

Pyramids, 34, 93.

Q.

Quadruplex telegraphy. (See Telegraphy.)

“Queen Ann’s Pocket Piece,” 256.

Queen of Sheba, 326.

Quern, 45.

Quilting machine, 324.

R.

Radcliffe, 305.

Radiation and radiators, 205, 206.

Railways, rails and tracks, 106, 108;

cars, 108, 109;

frogs, 108.

Railway cars, 436, 437.

Rakes. (See Agriculture.)

Ramage Press, 281.

Ramseye, David, 1630, 76.

Ramelli, Cardan, 75.

Ramsey, David, 1738, 168, 389.

Ram, water. (See Pumps.)

Randolph, David M., 367.

Randolph, Elder and Co., 440.

Ranges. (See Stoves.)

Range finder, 413.

Raphael, 418.

Rawhides. (See Leather.)

Read, Nathan, 1791, 87.

Reapers. (See Harvesters, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38.)

Reichenbach, 382.

Reis, Prof., 141, 407.

Refining metals, 227.

Refrigeration, 213, 214, 216.

Regenerators, 465.

Regenerative furnace. (See Metallurgy, also, 464.)

Registers, 395.

Regulators, Electric, 137;

time, 137.

Rennie, 244.

Repeating watches, 389.

Reservoirs, 166, 180.

Resonators, 404.

Revault, 1605, 75.

Revolvers. (See Fire Arms.)

Rhode Island, 298.

Ribbon making, 306.

Rickel, Dr., 451.

Rider bridge, 103.

Riehle, testing mach., 398.

Rifles, 258, 259, 260.

Rifled cannon, 262, 263.

Ring frame-spinning, 302.

Ritter, 118, 121.

Riveting, 176.

Road carriage, steam, 83.

Roads, 106, 107.

Road making, 106.

Robia, Luca della, 459.

Robert, Louis, 276.

Roberts, 244.

Rock drilling, 107.

Rockers, ore, 235.

Rockets, 253.

Rodman, General, gun, 264.

Roebling, John A., engineer, 98, 99.

Roebling, Washington, 98, 100.

Roentgen, X rays, 149.

Rohes, M. Beau de, 189.

Rogers, Saml. B., metallurgist, 229, 230.

Rogers, type maker, 289.

Roller press, 283, 284.

Roman arts, inventions, etc., 10, 13, 14, 45, 93, 164, 166,

178, 202, 274, 457, 459.

Rookwood pottery, 467.

Romagnosi, G. D., 121.

Roscoe, Prof. (See Chemistry.)

Rose, H., 238.

Rotary engines. (See Steam.)

Rotary printing press, 284. (See Printing.)

Rotary pumps. (See Water and Steam Eng.)

Roving, spinning, 298, 299.

Rubber, 69, 434.

Ruhmkorff coil, 132.

Rumford, Count, 63.

Rumsey, James, 81, 168.

Russia, 40, 254, 430.

Russian leather, 362.

Rust, Saml., 282.

Ruth, 16.

S.

Sabot, projectiles, 262, 263.

Safes and locks, 420-427.

Safety valves, 87.

Saint, Thomas, sewing machine, 311.

Salman, scales maker, 396.

Salonen, 1807, mower, 36.

Samians and Samos, 459.

Sand blast, 332, 334, 475.

Sand filters. (See Filters.)

Sandwich, Earl, 1699, 25.

Saracens, 274.

Sarnstrom, Prof., 234.

Savery, Thos., 5, 77.

Saws, 340, 341, 342, 348, 351.

Saw mills, 341, 342.

Saxton, Jos., 131.

Scales, 395.

Scaliger, 183.

Scandinavians, 363.

Scarborough, 85.

Schilling, Baron, 126.

Schönbein, 270.

Schapper, Hartman, 241.

Schoeffer, Peter, 270.

Schreiber, 403.

Schrotter (matches), 200.

Schweigger, S. C., 126.

Scoops, 178.

Scotland, 19, 20, 33.

Scott, phonautograph, 141, 407.

Scott, Sir Walter, 45, 80.

Scott, Gen. W., 260.

Scott, Rich’d, 420.

Scouring machines. (See Leather and Cloth, and Grain.)

Screw, Archimedean. (See Ships and Propeller.)

Screw, press, 52.

Screw propeller, 85, 443.

Screw making, 245, 246.

Scythians, 362, 428.

Scythes, 32, 33, 35.

Seed drills, 24, 25, 26, 27.

Seely, F. A., 3.

Self-playing Instruments, 406.

Seguin, 83.

Sellers, Wm., 234, 247.

Separators, Grain, 48, 49;

milk, 54;

ore, 379. (See Mills.)

Seppings, Sir Robert, 440.

Serrin, 137.

Serviere, 166.

Seward, Wm. H., 3.

Seven Wonders, The, 34, 35.

Sewing machines, 311-323.

Sewer construction, 107.

Shades and screens, 356.

Shaping machines, 245.

Sharp’s carbine, 267.

Shaw, Joshua, 260.

Sheele, 415.

Sheet metal ware, 250.

Shells, 264.

Shingle making, 350.

Shinar, Brick making in, 457.

Ships, war, and others, 261, 343, 438-449.

Shoes and machinery, 365-371.

Sholes, inventor, type writing, 286.

Shrapnel, 259.

Shuttles, 293. (See Textiles.)

Sickle, 32, 33.

Side wheel steamboats, 85.

Siemens, Dr. Werner, 133.

Siemens, Wm., Sir., 144, 171.

Siemens and Halske, 144, 146.

Siemens, C. L., 147, 234, 465.

Silk making. (See Spinning.)

Silk, artificial. (See Glass.)

Silver, 219.

Singer, sewing machine, 319, 320.

Sinking shafts, Mode of, 106, 107.

Skiving. (See Leather.)

Slade, J. T., 155.

Slater, Thomas, 298.

Slaughtering, 55.

Sleighs, 430, 431.

Slide, rest, 243, 349.

Slotting machines, 245.

Small arms, 266. (See Ordnance.)

Small, Jas., 1784, 18.

Smeaton, 87, 105.

Smelting, 220. (See Metallurgy.)

Smiles, Self Help, 95.

Smith & Wesson, revolvers, 269.

Snellus, 234.

Snow ploughs, 109.

Soda, pulp, 278.

Solarmeter, 413.

Solomon’s temple, 242.

Somerset, Marquis of Worcester. (See Steam.)

Sound, 406. (See Acoustics.)

Sowing, 23.

Spanish inventions, 25, 75, 253, 274, 280, 292.

Spectacles. (See Optics.)

Spectrum, analysis, 60, 61, 62, 63, 412.

Spectroscope, 2, 412.

Speed Indicators, 396.

Spencer, gun, 267.

Spencer, metal coating, 249.

Spinet, 402.

Spinning, 6, 292, 296, 300. (See Textiles.)

“Spinning Jenny,” 297.

Spinning Mule, 297, 300.

“Spiritalia,” 404.

Splitting, leather, 366.

Spooling, 302.

Springfield musket, 268.

Spun glass. (See Spinning and 474.)

Stamp mills and metal working, 236, 250.

Standard time, 394.

Stanhope, Earl, 282.

St. Gothard tunnel, 107.

St. Louis bridge, 102.

Steam engines, 2, 5, 73 to 95;

boilers, 86;

heating, 207;

pumps, 79, 81, 88.

Steam ships, 2, 84, 85, 440.

Stearns, 145.

Steel, manufacture of. (See Metallurgy.)

Steinheil, 126, 412.

Steinway, pianos, 403.

Stenographing, 290.

Stereoscope, 410, 411.

Stereotyping, 281.

Sterilisation, 54, 213.

Stephenson, Geo., 82, 83, 84, 85, 98.

Stephenson, Robert, 98, 100, 101, 155.

Stevens, John C., 84, 85, 86, 443.

Stevinus, 166.

Stitching machines. (See Sewing.)

Stocking making, 307.

Stone cutting, carving and dressing, 374, 375.

Stone crushing, 376.

Stone, artificial, 468.

Storage battery, 120.

Storm, W. M. (Gunpowder Engine,) 192.

Store service, 152, 153, 158, 159.

Stoves, 200-206.

Street, Robert, 185.

Street sweeping, 331.

Stow, 350.

Stückofen, metallurgy, 224.

Sturgeon, inventor, 122, 123, 124.

Sturtevant, B. F. (shoes), 368.

Submarine blasting, etc., 107.

Suez canal, 107.

Sugar, 69.

Sun-dial, 384.

Subdivision of labor, 392. (See Ordnance and Sewing Machines.)

Surgery and instruments, 70.

Suspension bridges, 95, 96-100.

Swan, light, 137.

Sweden, 266.

Sweeping machines, 331.

Swiss manufactures, (See Watches, etc.)

Switzerland, 16, 46, 391.

Symington, 81, 83, 85.

Syphon recorder, 139.

T.

T-rail, 108.

Tables, 354. (See Furniture.)

Tachenius, 58.

Tack making, 344.

Tainter, C. S., 408, 414.

Takamine, 68.

Talus, or Perdix, saw inventor, 340.

Tanning. (See Leather.)

Tapestry, 275.

Teasling, 306.

Tedders, 40.

Telegraph, 124-128, 139, 140.

Telegraphic pictures, 419.

Telephone, 2, 140, 141, 142, 406.

Telescope, 2, 409.

Telpherage, 144.

Telford, 95, 96.

Tennyson, 67.

Tesla, 145.

Testing machines, 398.

Textiles, 292-309.

Thermo-electricity, 112, 120.

Theodore of Samos, 340.

Thimonnier, 313.

Thomson, Sir Wm., 63, 139.

Thompson, Robt. Wm., 433, 435.

Thompson & Houston, 137.

“Three color process,” 417.

Thread making. (See Spinning.)

Threshing machines, 40, 41.

Throstle, 296.

Thurston, Prof. R. H., 86.

Tiles, 350.

Tilghman, B. F., sand blast, 332, 475.

Time locks, 425.

Time measuring of the ancients, 384.

Tissier, 238.

Tobacco and machinery, 55, 56, 57.

Tools, primitive, 310, 328, 339.

Torpedo vessels, 271, 445.

Torpedoes, 271.

Torricelli, 166, 183.

Tour, Cagniard de la, 65.

Towne’s lattice bridge, 103.

Traction railways and engines, 436.

Transplanters, 29.

Transportation, 107, 109.

Treadwell, Daniel, 284.

Tresca, M., 247.

Trevithick, Richard, 81, 82.

Tripler, C. E., liquid air, 216.

Trolley lines. (See Electric, etc.)

Trough batteries. (See Electricity.)

Truss bridges, 102, 103.

Tubal Cain, 218, 239.

Tubes and tubing, making, 248.

Tubular bridges, 100, 102.

Tull, Jethro, 1680-1740, 14, 25.

Tungsten. (See Metals.)

Tunnels, 106, 107.

Turbines, 89, 168, 171, 172.

Turning, Art of, 242, 339, 344.

Tusser, Thomas, 14.

Tweddle, 176.

Twine binders. (See Harvesters.)

Twinings (inventor, refrigerator), 215.

Tympanum, 164.

Tyndall, John, 411, 412.

Type, 280, 281.

Type Distributor, 279.

Type setter, 278, 279.

Type writers, 6, 286.

V.

Vail, Alfred, 126.

Valerius, 388.

Valves, valve gear, 87, 89.

Vapor engines, 190-192.

Vapor stoves, 200-206, 212.

Varley, Alfred, 133.

Varro, 32.

Vegetable cutters, 51.

Velocipedes, 431.

Venetians, 280.

Ventilation, 209.

Veneering, 351.

Vestibule cars, 437.

Vick, Henry de, clockmaker, 387.

Victoria bridge. (See Bridges.)

Vienna, 38.

Vienna exposition, 348.

Vince, Leonardo de, 75.

Virgil, 32.

Virginal, 6, 402.

Vitruvius, 227.

Volta, voltaic electricity, 112, 117, 118, 112 to 120, 125, 133, 134,

249.

Von Alteneck, H., 138.

Von Drais, 432.

Vortex theory, 2;

Vortex wheel, 171.

Voting machines, 395.

Vulcan, 246.

Vulcanisation. (See Rubber.)

W.

Waggons, 431.

Walker, John (matches), 200.

Walker, Joseph, 367.

Wales, Thos. C., 477.

Wallace and Maxim, 137.

Wall paper, 275, 279.

Walter, John, 285.

Watches, 391. (See Clocks.)

Waltham watches, 393.

War, effect on by inventions, 271, 272.

Washington, 15, 16.

Washing and ironing machines, 335-338.

Wasp, first paper maker, 273.

Watches. (See Horology.)

Water. (See Hydraulics.)

Water clocks, 385, 386.

Water closets, 178.

Water distribution, 167, 178;

gas, 454.

Water wheels, 165;

mills, 167;

engines, 178.

Water frame. (See Spinning.)

Water metres, 178;

scoops, 178.

Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry, 59.

Watt, James, 5, 8, 78, 79, 80, 81, 86, 154, 167, 170, 176,

182, 203, 206, 296, 341, 460.

Watson, Bishop, 451.

Weaving, 6, 292, 304. (See Textiles.)

Weaver’s shuttle, 307.

Weber piano, 403.

Webster, Daniel, 91.

Wedgwood, 459, 460, 464.

Weeks, Jos., 364.

Weighing, scales, etc., 396, 397, 398.

Weisenthal, C. F., 310, 312.

Welding, 248.

Wellington, Duke of, 83.

Wells, making and boring of, 373, 379-383;

driven, 382;

Artesian, 381.

Welsbach lamp, 456.

Westinghouse, electric light, 137, 138.

Weston, Sir Richard, 14.

Weston, electrician, 137.

West (destroyer of bacteria), 213.

Whaleback ships, 438.

Wheat, its cultivation, 25, 26.

Wheatstone, Chas., 127, 133, 146, 147, 410.

Wheeler and Wilson, 319.

Wheelbarrow, seeder, 24.

Whewell, 166.

Whitehurst, Geo., 168.

Whitney, Eli, cotton gin, 42, 43, 297.

Whitworth, Sir J., 244, 246, 263.

Wilde, electric magnet, 133.

Wilder, safes, 421.

Wilkes, 277.

William of Malmesbury, 75.

Wilson, A. B., sewing machinery, 319.

Wilson, Genl. John M., 180.

Winchester rifle, 267.

Wind mills, wheels, etc., 404. (See Mills.)

Window glass, window screens, 359.

Wine making. (See Chemistry.)

Winter, Sir John, 225.

Wire working, 250.

Wire wound gun, 263.

Wireless telegraphy, 150, 151.

Wolf, aeronaut, 447.

Wöhler, chemist, 238.

Wollaston, 60, 249, 412.

Woodbridge, Dr. W. E., 262, 263.

Woodbury, Oscar D. and E. C., 330.

Woodworth, Wm., planing machinery, 349.

Wood, lathe turning, 344.

Wood, bending and trenting of, 347, 352, 356.

Wood working machinery, 242, 339, 352, 369.

Woods, variety and beauty, 352.

Wood carving, 346.

Wool. (See Spinning, Weaving, Textiles.)

Wool, mineral, 474, 480.

Wooden shoes, making of, 367.

Worcester, Marquis of, 5, 75, 77, 81.

Work shop, a modern, 251.

World’s fair, 1851, 36, 38.

Woven goods, variety of, 308, 309.

Wright (gas engine), 188.

Wren, architect, 209.

Wyatt of Lichfield, 294, 295.

X.

X rays, 149, 150.

Xyloplasty, 347.

Y.

Yale, Linus, Jr., locks, 425.

Yankee clippers, 438.

Yarn. (See Weaving, etc.)

Yeast, 65.

York, Duke of, 124, 125.

Young of America, 63, 417.

Young, Arthur, 1741-1800, 14, 15.

Youmans, Prof., 450.

Z.

Zanon, 1764, 24.

Zech, Jacob, 388.

Zeppelin, Count, 446.

Zimmermann, self-playing pianos, 406.

Zinc, 236.

Zinc batteries. (See Electricity.)

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES.

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