LANGUAGE.
_Means for conveying instruction--Method of teaching the alphabet
in connection with objects--Spelling--Reading--Developing
lessons--Reading lessons in Natural History--The Arithmeticon--Brass
letters--Their uses_.
* * * * *
"Without things, words, accumulated by misery in the memory, had far
better die than drag out a miserable existence in the dark. Without
words, theirs stay and support, things unaccountably disappear out of
the storehouse, and may be lost for ever; but bind _a thing with a
word_, a strong link, stronger than any steel, and softer than
any silk, and the captive remains for ever happy in its bright
prison-house."--_Wilson_.
* * * * *
The senses of children having revealed every object in its true light,
they next desire to know its name, and then express their perceptions
in words. This you have to gratify, and from the time you tell them
the name of an object, it is the representative of the thing in the
mind of the child; if the object be not present, but you mention
the name, this suggests it to the infant mind. Had this been more
frequently thought of by instructors, we should have found them less
eager to make the child acquainted with the names of things of which
it has no knowledge or perception. Sounds and signs which give rise
to no idea in the mind, because the child has never seen or known the
things represented, are of no use, and can only burden the memory.
It is, therefore, the object of our system to give the children a
knowledge of things, and then a knowledge of the words which represent
those things. These remarks not only apply to the names of visible
things, but more particularly to those which are abstract. If I would
say, shew a child _a horse_, before you tell it the name of the
animal, still more would I urge it on the teacher to let a child see
what love, kindness, religion, &c. are, before it is told what names
to designate those principles by. If our ignorance as to material
things be the result of instructing the children in names, instead of
enabling them to become acquainted with things, so, on the other hand,
I believe we may account, in the same way to some extent, for _virtue_
being so frequently a mere word, an empty sound, amongst men, instead
of an active principle.
Our next endeavour is to teach the children to express their thoughts
upon things; and if they are not checked by injudicious treatment,
they will have some on every subject. We first teach them to express
_their notions_, we then tell them ours, and truth will prevail even
in the minds of children. On this plan, it will operate by its own
strength, not by the power of coercion, which renders even truth
disagreeable and repulsive; the children will adopt it from choice in
preference to error, and it will be firmly established in their minds.
It will no doubt be perceived, that for the promotion of the
course here recommended, it will be advisable to connect with our
_alphabetical and reading lessons_, as much information as we possibly
can. By so doing, the tedium of the task to the child will be
considerably lessened, as well as much knowledge attained. The means
of doing this in a variety of ways will, no doubt, suggest themselves
to the intelligent teacher; but as an illustration of what we mean,
the following conversational plan may not be useless.
We have twenty-six cards, and each card has on it one letter of the
alphabet, and some object in nature; the first, for instance, has the
letter A on the top, and an apple painted on the bottom. The children
are desired to go into the gallery, which is formed of seats, one
above the other, at one end of the school. The master places himself
before the children, so that they can see him, and he them, and being
thus situated, proceeds in the following manner:--
A.
Q. Where am I? A. Opposite to us. Q. What is on the right side of me?
A. A lady. Q. What is on the left side of me? A. A chair. Q. What is
before me? A. A desk. Q. Who is before me? A. We, children. Q. What
do I hold up in my hand? A. A letter A.Q. What word begins with A? A.
Apple. Q. Which hand do I hold it up with? A. With the right hand. Q.
Spell apple.[A] A. A-p-p-l-e. Q. How is an apple produced? A. It grows
on a tree. Q. What part of the tree is in the ground? A. The root. Q.
What is that which comes out of the ground? A. The stem. Q. When
the stem grows up straight, what would you call its position? A.
Perpendicular. Q. What are on the stem? A. Branches. Q. What are on
the branches? A. Leaves. Q. Of what colour are they? A. Green. Q. Is
there any thing else beside leaves on the branches? A. Yes, apples. Q.
What was it before it became an apple? A. Blossom. Q. What part of the
blossom becomes fruit? A. The inside. Q. What becomes of the leaves
of the blossom? A. They fall off the tree. Q. What was it before it
became a blossom? A. A bud. Q. What caused the buds to become larger,
and produce leaves and blossom? A. The sap. Q. What is sap? A. A
juice. Q. How can the sap make the buds larger? A. It comes out of the
root, and goes up the stem. Q. What next? A. Through the branches into
the buds. Q. What do the buds produce? A. Some buds produce leaves,
some blossoms, and some a shoot. Q. What do you mean by a shoot? A.
A young branch, which is green at first, but becomes hard by age. Q.
What part becomes hard first? A. The bottom.
[Footnote A: It is not supposed that all or many of the children will
be able to spell this or many of the subsequent words, or give such
answers as we have put down. But _some_ among the older or more acute
of them will soon be able to do so, and thus become instructors to the
rest. It may be proper to mention also that the information in Natural
History, &c. &c., displayed in some of the answers, is the result of
the instructions in Natural History which the children simultaneously
receive, and which is spoken of in a subsequent chapter. Mr. Golt's
simple arrangement of the Alphabet I much approve of, and no doubt it
will come into general use.]
B.
Q. What is this? A. The letter B--the first letter in baker, butter,
bacon, brewer, button, bell, &c., &e. [The teacher can take any of
these names he pleases, for instance, the first:] Children, let me
hear you spell baker. A. B-a-k-e-r. Q. What is a baker? A. A man who
makes bread. Q. What is bread made of? A. It is made of flour, water,
yeast, and a little salt. Q. What is flour made of? A. Wheat. Q. How
is it made? A. Ground to powder in a mill. Q. What makes the mill go
round? A. The wind, if it is a windmill. Q. Are there any other kinds
of mills? A. Yes; mills that go by water, mills that are drawn round
by horses, and mills that go by steam. Q. When the flour and water and
yeast are mixed together, what does the baker do? A. Bake them in an
oven. Q. What is the use of bread? A. For children to eat. Q. Who
causes the corn to grow? A. Almighty God.
C.
Q. What is this? A. It is letter C, the first letter in cow, c-o-w,
and cat, &c. Q. What is the use of the cow? A. The cow gives us milk
to put into the tea. Q. Is milk used for any other purpose besides
putting it into tea? A. Yes; it is used to put into puddings, and for
many other things. Q. Name some of the other things? A. It is used to
make butter and cheese. Q. What part of it is made into butter? A.
The cream which swims at the top of the milk. Q. How is it made into
butter? A. It is put into a thing called a churn, in the shape of a
barrel. Q. What is done next? A. The churn is turned round by means of
a handle, and the motion turns the cream into butter. Q. What is the
use of butter? A. To put on bread, and to put into pie-crust, and many
other nice things. Q. Of what colour is butter? A. It is generally
yellow. A. Are there any other things made of milk? A. Yes, many
things; but the principal one is cheese. Q. How is cheese made? A. The
milk is turned into curds and whey, which is done by putting a liquid
into it called rennet. Q. What part of the curd and whey is made into
cheese? A. The curd, which is put into a press; and when it has been
in the press a few days it becomes cheese. Q. Is the flesh of the cow
useful? A. Yes; it is eaten, and is called beef; and the flesh of the
young calf is called veal. Q. Is the skin of the cow or calf of any
use? A. Yes; the skin of the cow or calf of any use? A. Yes; the skin
of the cow is manufactured into leather for the soles of shoes. Q.
What is made with the calf skin? A. The top of the shoe, which is
called the upper-leather. Q. Are there any other parts of the cow that
are useful? A. Yes; the horns, which are made into combs, handles of
knives, forks, and other things. Q. What is made of the hoofs that
come off the cow's feet? A. Glue, to join boards together. Q. Who made
the cow? A. Almighty God.
D.
Q. What is this? A. Letter D, the first letter it dog, dove, draper,
&c. Q. What is the use of the dog, A. To guard the house and keep
thieves away. Q. How can a dog guard the house and keep thieves away?
A. By barking to wake the persons who live in the house. Q. Is the dog
of any other use? A. Yes; to draw under a truck. D. Does he do as his
master bids him? A. Yes; and knows his master from any other person.
Q. Is the dog a faithful animal? A. Yes, very faithful; he has been
known to die of grief for the loss of his master. Q. Can you mention
an instance of the dog's faithfulness? A. Yes; a dog waited at the
gates of the Fleet prison for hours every day for nearly two years,
because his master was confined in the prison. Q. Can you mention
another instance of the dog's faithfulness? A. Yes; a dog lay down on
his master's grave in a churchyard in London for many weeks. Q. How
did the dog get food? A. The people who lived near noticed him, and
brought him victuals. Q. Did the people do any thing besides giving
him victuals A. Yes; they made a house for him for fear he should die
with wet and cold. Q. How long did he stay there? A. Until the people
took him away, because he howled dreadfully when the organ played on
Sundays. Q. Is it right to beat a dog? A. No; it is very wrong to use
any animal ill, because we do not like to be beaten ourselves. Q. Did
Almighty God make the dog? A. Yes; and every thing else that has life.
E.
Q. What letter is this? A. E, the first letter in egg. Q. What is
the use of an egg? A. It is useful for many purposes; to put into
puddings, and to eat by itself. Q. Should country children keep an egg
if they find it in the hedge? A. No, it is thieving; they should find
out the owner and take it home. Q. Do children ever throw stones at
the fowls? A. Yes; but they are mischievous children, and perhaps do
not go to school. Q. What ought children to learn by going to school?
A. To be kind and good to every body, and every thing that has life.
F.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter F, the first letter in frying-pan,
father, &c. Q. Let me hear you spell frying-pan. A. F-r-y-i-n-g-p-a-n.
Q. What is the use of the frying-pan? A. To fry meat and pan-cakes.
Q. Spell me the names of the different kinds of meat. A. B-e-e-f,
p-o-r-k, m-u-t-t-o-n, l-a-m-b, h-a-m, &c. Q. Of what shape are
frying-pans? A. Some circular, and some are like an ellipsis.[A] Q.
Are there any other utensils into which meat is put that are circular?
A. Yes, please, sir, my mother has some circular plates; and, please,
sir, my mother has some elliptical dishes. Q. Any thing besides? A.
Yes, please, sir, my mother has a circular table; and, please, sir, my
mother has a rectangular one, and it is made of deal.
[Footnote A: It may possibly strike some of my readers as strange
that a geometrical question should be put in a conversation on the
alphabet, but it should be remembered that, according to the Infant
School system, _language_ is not taught exclusively, but in connection
with _number_ and _form_;--questions like the above, therefore are
calculated to excite their memories, and induce an application of
their geometrical knowledge.]
G.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter G, the first letter in goat, good,
girl, &c. Q. Spell goat. A. G-o-a-t. Q. What is the use of the goat'?
A. In some countries people drink the goat's milk; and the skin is
useful to make the upper-leather of shoes. Q. Are goats fond of going
into the valleys and low places? A. No; they are fond of going up
hills and high places. Q. If a goat is coming down a hill which has
only one narrow path merely wide enough for one goat to walk on
without falling down, and another goat is coming up the same path,
what do they do? A. The goat that is coming up lies down and lets the
other goat walk over him. Q. Why does not one of the goats turn round
and go back again? A. Because there would not be room, and the one
which should try to turn round would fall down and be killed.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter H, the first letter in horse, house,
&c. Q. What is the use of the horse? A. To draw carts, coaches,
stages, waggons, fire-engines, &c. Q. Spell horse, and cart, and
coach. A. H-o-r-s-e, c-a-r-t, c-o-a-c-h. Q. What is the difference
between a cart and coach? A. A cart has two wheels, and a coach has
four. Q. Tell me some other difference. A. The horses in a cart go
before each other, but the horses in a coach go side by side. Q. What
is the use of a fire-engine? A. To put the fire out when the house is
on fire. Q. Is it right for children to play with the fire? A. No,
very wrong; as many children are burnt to death, and many houses burnt
down from it. Q. Should the horse be cruelly used? A. No; he should
be kindly treated, as he is the most useful animal we have. Q. Who
created him? A. Almighty God.
I.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter I, the first letter in iron,
idleness, &c. Q. Spell iron. A. I-r-o-n. Q. What is the use of an
iron? A. To iron the clothes after they are washed, and to make them
smooth. Q. How do they iron the clothes? A. Make the iron hot, and
then work it backwards and forwards on the clothes. Q. Should little
children come with clean clothes to school? A. Yes; and clean hands
and faces too. Q. Is not iron used for other purposes? A. Oh, yes; for
a great many things, as knives, forks, &c.
J.
Q. What is this letter? A. J, the first letter in jug, John, &c. Q.
What is the use of the jug? A. To hold water, or beer, or any other
liquid. Q. What is a jug made of? A. Of clay, which is worked round
into the shape of a jug, and then burnt, and that hardens it. Q.
Should children be careful when they are carrying a jug? A. Yes; or
else they will let it fall and break it. Q. Then it is necessary for
children to be careful? A. Yes, every body should be careful.
K.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter K, the first letter in kite, &c. Q.
What is the use of the kite? A. For little children to fly. Please,
sir, my big brother has got a kite. Q. What does your brother do with
his kite? A. Please, sir, he goes into the fields when he has got
time, and flies it. Q. How does he fly it? A. Please, sir, he has got
a long string, which he fixes to another called a loop, and then he
unwinds the string, and gets some boy to hold it up. Q. What then? A.
Please, sir, then he runs against the wind, and the kite goes up. Q.
What is the use of the tail of the kite? A. Please, sir, it will not
fly without a tail. Q. Why not? A. Please, sir, it goes round and
round without a tail, and comes down. Q. Then what do you suppose is
the use of the tail? Please, sir, I don't know. Another child will
probably supply the answer. Please, sir, to balance it.
L.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter L, the first letter in lion, &c. Q.
Spell lion. A. L-i-o-n. Q. What is the size of a full grown lion? A.
A full grown lion stands four feet and a half high, and is eight feet
long. Q. How high do you stand? A. Please, sir, some of us stand two
feet, and none of us above three. Q. Has the lion any particular
character among beasts? A. Yes, he is called the king of beasts on
account of his great strength. Q. When he seizes his prey, how far can
he leap? A. To the distance of twenty feet. Q. Describe some other
particulars concerning the lion. A. The lion has a shaggy mane, which
the lioness has not. Q. What other particulars? A. The lion's roar is
so loud that other animals run away when they hear it. Q. Where are
lions found? A. In most hot countries: the largest are found in Asia
and Africa.
M.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter M, the first letter in Monday,
mouse, &c. Q. What is the use of the mouse? A. To make the servants
diligent and put the things out of the way. Q. How can mice make
servants diligent? A. If people do not put their candles in a proper
place the mice will gnaw them. Q. Are mice of any other service? A.
Please, sir, if the mice did not make a smell, some people would never
clean their cupboards out.[A]
[Footnote A: This answer was given by a child four years old; and
immediately afterwards another child called out, "Please, sir, if it
were not for bugs, some people would not clean their bedsteads."]
N.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter N, the first letter in nut, &c. Q.
What is a nut? A. A thing that is hard, and it grows on a tree. Q.
What shape is it? A. Something in the shape of a marble. Q. How can
it be eaten, if it is like a marble? A. Please, air, it is the kernel
that we eat. Q. flow are nuts produced? A. They grow on trees.
O.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter O, the first letter in orange. Q.
Of what colour is an orange? A. An orange is green at first, but
afterwards becomes of a colour called orange-red. Q. Do they grow in
the ground like potatoes? A. No, they grow on trees like apples. Q.
Can you tell me anything in the shape of an orange? A. Yes, the earth
on which we live is nearly of that shape. Q. On what part of the earth
do we live? A. The surface. Q. What do you mean by the surface? A.
The outside. Q. Who formed the earth, and preserves it in its proper
motions? A. Almighty God.
P.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter P, the first letter in pig,
plum-pudding, &c. Q. What is the use of the pig? A. Its flesh is
eaten, and is called pork. Q. What is the use of the hair or bristles?
A. To make brushes or brooms. Q. What is the use of a brush? A. Some
brushes are to brush the clothes, and others to brush the dirt out of
the corners of the room. Q. Does a good servant ever leave the dirt
in the corners? A. No, never; a good servant or any clean little girl
would be ashamed of it.
Q.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter Q, the first letter in quill, &c. Q.
How are quills produced? A. From the wings of geese and other large
birds. Q. What is the use of the quill? A. To form into pens and many
other things. Q. What is the use of the pen? A. To dip into ink and
write with it. Q. What do you write upon? A. Paper. Q. What is paper
made of? A. Rags.
R.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter R, the first letter in rabbit, &c.
Q. What is the use of the rabbit? A. The flesh of the rabbit is
eaten, and is very nice. Q. What does the rabbit eat? A. Corn, grass,
cabbage-leaves, and many different herbs. Q. What is the use of the
skin? A. To make hats, and to trim boys' caps. Q. Are they very
numerous? A. They are to be found in almost all countries.
S.
Q. What is this? A. Letter S, the first letter in shoe, &c. Q. What is
the use of shoes? A. To keep the feet warm and dry. Q. Should children
walk in the mud or in the kennel? A. No, because that would spoil the
shoes, and wear them out too soon. Q. And why should little children
be careful not to wear them out any more than they can help? A.
Because our parents must work harder to buy us more.
T.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter T, the first letter in tea-kettle.
Q. What are tea-kettles made of? A. Some are made of tin, and some of
copper, and some of iron. Q. Why are they not made of wood? A. Because
the wood would burn. Q. What thing is that at the top? A. The handle.
Q. What is underneath the handle? A. The lid. Q. What is in the front
of it? A. The spout. Q. What is the use of the spout? A. For the water
to come out. Q. What is the use of the handle? A. To take hold of. Q.
Why do they not take hold of the spout? A. Because it is the wrong
way.
U.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter U, the first letter in umbrella, &c.
Q. Is letter U a vowel or consonant? A. A vowel. Q. What is the use of
the umbrella? A. To keep the rain off any body. Q. What are umbrellas
made of? A. Some of silk and some of cotton. Q. Which are the best?
A. Those that are made of silk. Q. Is there any thing else in an
umbrella? A. Yes; whalebone. Q. Where does whalebone come from? A. Out
of a large fish called a whale. Q. Who made the whale? A. Almighty
God.
V.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter V, the first letter in vine, &c. Q.
What is a vine? A. A thing that grows against the wall and produces
grapes. Q. Why does it not grow like another tree, and support its own
weight? A. Because it is not strong enough. Q. Then it cannot grow and
become fruitful in this country without man's assistance? A. No; and,
please, sir, we cannot grow and become fruitful without the assistance
of Almighty God.[A]
[Footnote A: This answer was given by a child five-years of age.]
W.
Q. What letter is this? A. It is Letter W, the first letter in wheel.
Q. Spell wheel. A. W-h-e-e-l. Q. What is the use of wheels? A. To make
it easier for horses to draw. Q. How do you know that? A. Please,
sir, I had a little cart full of stones, and the wheel came off; and,
please, sir, I found it much harder to draw. Q. Then if it was not
for wheels, the horses could not draw so great a weight? A. No, and,
please, sir, people could not go into the country so quick as they
do. Q. What trade do they call the persons that make wheels? A.
Wheel-wrights.
X.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter X, the first letter in Xenophon, a
man's name. Q. What was the particular character of Xenophon? A. He
was very courageous. Q. What does courageous mean? A. To be afraid to
do harm, but not to be afraid to do good, or anything that is right.
Q. What is the greatest courage? A. To conquer our own bad passions
and bad inclinations. Q. Is he a courageous man that can conquer his
bad passions? A. Yes; because they are the most difficult to conquer.
Y.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter Y, the first letter in yoke, &c. Q.
Is it a vowel or consonant? A. When it begins a word it is called a
consonant, but if not, a vowel. Q. What is a yoke? A. Please, sir,
what the milk people carry the milk pails on. Q. What is the use of
the yoke? A. To enable the people to carry the milk easier.
Z.
Q. What letter is this? A. Letter Z, the first letter in Zealander. Q.
What is a Zealander? A. A man that lives on an island in the Southern
Ocean, called Zealand. Q. How do they live? A. Principally by hunting
and fishing. Q. What is hunting? A. Following animals to catch them.
Q. Who made all the animals? A. Almighty God.
* * * * *
The method above described is adapted to the large room, where the
children may be taught all together; but it is necessary to change the
scene even in this; for however novel and pleasing a thing may be
at first, if it be not managed with prudence it will soon lose
its effect. It is here to be observed, that the mode of teaching
described, is not practised every day, but only twice or thrice a
week. The children will take care that the teacher does not altogether
forget to teach them in any way that they have been accustomed to.
After letting the above plan lie by for a day or two, some of the
children will come to the teacher, and say, "Please, sir, may we
say the picture alphabet up in the gallery?" If the other children
overhear the question, it will go through the school like lightning:
"Oh yes--yes--yes, sir, if you please, do let us say the letters in
the gallery." Thus a desire is created in the children's minds, and it
is then especially that they may be taught with good effect.
_Another plan_ which we adopt, is in practice almost every day; but
it is better adapted to what is called the class-room: we have
the alphabet printed in large letters, both in Roman and Italic
characters, on one sheet of paper: this paper is pasted on a board, or
on pasteboard, and placed against the wall; the whole class then stand
around it, but instead of one of the monitors pointing to the letters,
the master or mistress does it; so that the children not only obtain
instruction from each other, but every child has a lesson from the
master or mistress twice every day.
Before they go to the reading lessons, they have the sounds of all the
words in spelling: thus the sound of a--ball, call, fall, wall; then
the reading-lesson is full of words of the same sound. In like manner
they proceed with other letters, as i--the sound of which they learn
from such words as five, drive, strive, until, by a series of lessons,
they become acquainted with all the sounds; and are able to read any
common book.
I have observed in some instances the most deplorable laxity in this
particular. Cases have occurred in which children have been for two
years at school, and yet scarcely knew the whole alphabet; and I have
known others to be four years in an infant school, without being able
to read. I hesitate not to say that the fault rests exclusively
with the teachers, who, finding this department of their work more
troublesome than others which are attractive to visitors, have
sometimes neglected it, and even thrown it entirely aside, affirming
that reading is not a part of the infant system at all! Such a
declaration is, however, only to be accounted for from the most
lamentable ignorance, preverseness, or both. Had it been true, we
should not have had a single infant school in Scotland, and throughout
that country the children read delightfully.
The great importance of full instruction in reading will be apparent
from the following considerations.
1. If the parents do not find the children learn to read, they will
discontinue sending them. This they consider essential, and nothing
else will be deemed by them an adequate substitute.
2. Children cannot make desirable progress in other schools which
they may enter, unless they obtain an ability to read at least simple
lessons.
3. Neglect in this respect impedes the progress of the infant system.
Such an obstacle ought not to exist, and should at once be removed.
4. In manufacturing districts children go to work very soon; and if
they are not able to read before, there is reason to fear they will
not afterwards acquire the power; but if they have this, Sunday
schools may supply other deficiencies.
5. Want of ability to read prevents, of course, a knowledge of the
Word of God.
To prevent this evil, I have arranged a series, denominated
"Developing Lessons," the great object of which is to induce children
to think and reflect on what they see. They are thus formed: at the
top is a coloured picture, or series of coloured pictures of insects,
quadrupeds, and general objects. For instance, there is one containing
the poplar, hawk-moth, and wasp. The lesson is as follows: "The wasp
can sting, and fly as well as the moth, which does not sting. I hope
no wasp will sting me; he is small, but the hawk-moth is large. The
moth eats leaves, but the wasp loves sweet things, and makes a round
nest. If boys take the nest they may be stung: the fish like the
wasp-grubs." On this, questions are proposed: Which stings? Which is
small and which large? Which eats leaves? Which makes a round nest?
&c. &c.
To take another instance. There is a figure of an Italian, to which is
appended the following: "The Italian has got a flask of oil and a fish
in his hand, and something else in his hand which the little child
who reads this must find out. Any child can tell who makes use of the
sense of seeing. In Italy they make a good deal of wine; big grapes
grow there that they make it with. Italians can sing very well, and
so can little children when they are taught." Questions are likewise
proposed on this, as before.
Of these lessons, however, there is a great variety. All schools
should possess them: they will effectually prevent the evil alluded
to, by checking the apathy of children in learning to read, and
calling the teacher's powers into full exercise. They are equally
adapted to spelling and reading.
I will give several specimens of reading lessons in natural history,
each of which has a large, well-engraved and coloured plate at the
top, copied from nature.
THE EAGLE.
How glad some poor children would be if they could read about the
eagle. He is a big strong bird, and has such great wings, and such
long sharp claws, that he can dig them into the lamb, hare, rabbit,
and other animals, and thus fly away with them to feed his young ones,
and to eat them himself. Eagles make such a large nest on the side of
some high rock, where nobody can get at it. There used to be eagles in
Wales, and there are some now in Scotland, but very few in England,
for they do not like to be where there are many people. _The Almighty
gave man dominion over the birds of the air_, as well as over the
other animals, and as he gave man power to _think_, if the eagles
become troublesome, men catch them, though they can fly so high; and
as the eagle knows this, he likes to keep out of our way, and go into
parts of the world where there are not so many people. There are many
sorts of eagles: the black eagle, the sea eagle, the bald eagle, and
others. They have all strong bills bent down in front, and strong
claws. This bird is mentioned in the Bible.
Questions are proposed after this is read, and thus the examination
proceeds:--Q. What is that? A. An eagle. Q. What sort of a bird is he?
A. He is big and strong. Q. What are those? A. His feathers. Q. What
else are they called? A. His plumage. Q. Is the eagle a small bird?
A. No, very large. Q. Are his claws long and sharp? A. Yes. Q. What
animals could he carry away? A. A lamb, a hare, a rabbit, or other
small animals. Q. What does he do with those? A. Feed his young ones.
Q. Where does the eagle make his nest? A. On the side of some rock. Q.
Why does he make it there? A. That no one may get at it. Q. Used there
to be eagles in Wales? A. Yes. Q. Where are there a few still? A. In
England, Scotland, and Ireland. Q. Why are they not as plentiful as
they were? A. Because they do not like to be where many men live. Q.
Did the Almighty give man dominion over the birds of the air? A. Yes.
Q. What other power did he give man? A. Power to think. Q. As men can
think, when the eagles became troublesome, what did they do? A. They
caught them. Q. And what did the eagles that were not caught do? A.
They went to places where men were not so plenty. Q. Are, there many
different kinds of eagles? A. Yes. Q. Name some. A. The black eagle,
the bald eagle, the sea eagle, and others.
THE VULTURE.
The vulture is like the eagle in size, and some of its habits; but it
is so very different from it in many ways, that there is little danger
of confusing the two together: the greatest distinction between them
is, that the head of the vulture is either quite naked, or covered
only with a short down, while the eagle's is well feathered. This is
the chief difference in appearance, but in their habits there is a
much greater. Instead of flying over hills and valleys in pursuit of
living game, the vultures only search for dead carcasses, which they
prefer, although they may have been a long time dead, and therefore
very bad, and smelling very offensively. They generally live in very
warm countries, and are useful in clearing away those dead carcasses
which, but for them, would cause many dreadful diseases. In some
countries, indeed, on account of this, the inhabitants will not
allow any one to injure them, and they are called for this reason
scavengers, which means that they do the business for which scavengers
are employed. Vultures are very greedy and ravenous; they will often
eat so much that they are not able to move or fly, but sit quite
stupidly and insensible. One of them will often, at a single meal,
devour the entire body of an albatross (bones and all), which is a
bird nearly as large as the vulture itself. They will smell a dead
carcass at a very great distance, and will soon surround and devour
it.
Vultures lay two eggs at a time and only once a year: they build their
nests on the same kind of places as eagles do, so that it is very hard
to find them.
What does the vulture resemble the eagle in? A. In size and in some of
its habits. Q. In what does it differ from the eagle? A. In having a
neck and head either naked or covered with short down. Q. What is the
difference in the manner in which they feed? A. The eagle seeks its
food over hill and valley, and lives entirely on prey which he takes
alive, while the vulture seeks out dead and putrid carcasses. Q. For
what reason do you suppose is the vulture's neck not covered with
feathers as the eagle's is? A. If they had feathers on their necks,
like eagles and hawks, they would soon become clotted with blood. Q.
Why would this happen? A. Because they are continually plunging their
necks into decayed flesh and bloody carcasses. Q. How do vultures sit?
A. In a dull, mopeing manner. Q. Where do they generally sit? A. On
tall dead trees. Q. Do they continue thus long? A. Yes, for several
hours. Q. What is the cause of their thus sitting so dull and
inactive? A. The great quantity of food they have eaten. Q. Is there
any description of vulture forming an exception to the general
character of those birds? A. Yes, that particular kind called the
snake eater. Q. Where is this bird a native of? A. Of Africa. Q. Why
is it called the snake eater? A. On account of its singular manner
of destroying serpents, on which it feeds. Q. Describe the manner in
which this bird kills its prey. A. He waits until the serpent raises
its head, and then strikes him with his wing, and repeats the blow
until the serpent is killed. Q. What do the natives of Asia and Africa
call the vulture? A. The scavenger. Q. Why? A. Because they are so
useful in eating dead carcasses. Q. How is this useful? A. It clears
the ground of them; otherwise, in those warm places, they would be the
cause of much disease. Q. What does this shew us? A. That the good God
has created nothing without its use. Q. What is the largest bird of
the vulture kind? A. The great condor of South America. Q. What does
its wing often measure from tip to tip? A. Twelve feet when spread
out. Q. How do the natives of South America often catch the vulture?
A. The dead carcass of a cow or horse is set for a bait, on which they
feed so ravenously that they become stupid, and are easily taken.
THE CROCODILE.
I hope you will not put your dirty hands on this picture of the
crocodile. The live ones have hard scales on their backs, and such a
many teeth, that they could bite a man's leg off; but there are none
in our land, only young ones that sailors bring home with them. The
crocodile can run fast; those are best off who are out of his way. He
lives by the water; he goes much in it; and he can swim well. Young
ones come out of eggs, which the old ones lay in the sand. Some
beasts eat the eggs, or else there would be too many crocodiles. The
crocodile can run fast if he runs straight, and those who wish to get
out of his way run zigzag, and he takes some time to turn; the poor
black men know this, and can get out of his way; but some of them can
fight and kill him on the land or in the water. I think the crocodile
is mentioned in _Scripture_. Ask your teacher what Scripture means.
When you learn geography you will know where many of the places are
that are mentioned in the Bible, and you will see where the river Nile
is. There are such a many crocodiles on the banks of that river that
the people are afraid to go alone. What a many wonderful animals our
great Creator has made! How humble and thankful we should be to see so
many great wonders!
Q. What have crocodiles on their backs? A. Hard scales. Q. Have they
many teeth? A. Yes, a great many. Q. Could they bite off a man's leg?
A. They could. Q. Are there any in our country? A. None wild, but a
few that sailors bring in ships. Q. Can the crocodile run fast? A.
Yes. Q. Where does he live? A. In the water. Q. What do their young
ones come out of? A. Out of eggs, which the old one lays in the sand.
Q. How do people run that wish to get out of the crocodile's way? A.
Zigzag, like the waved line in our lesson. Q. What do some men do? A.
Fight and kill them in the water. Q. Where do most of those animals
live? A. In the river Nile. Q. Where is this river? A. In Egypt.
The spelling lessons contain words capable of explanation, such as
white, black, round, square; others are classed as fleet, ship, brig,
sloop, &c.; and others are in contrast, as hot, cold, dark, light,
wet, dry, &c.
In this department we use the tablet placed beneath the arithmeticon,
the invention and improvement of which are described in the volume
entitled "Early Discipline Illustrated, or the Infant System
Successful and Progressing." A clear idea of the whole apparatus is
given by the wood-cut on the next page, and it ought certainly to be
found in every infant school. The sense of sight is then brought into
full action to aid the mind, and that with results which would not
easily be conceived. We shall take another opportunity of explaining
the use of the upper part of the apparatus, the lower demanding our
present attention.
[Illustration]
To use the _tablet_, let the followings things be observed. It is
supposed the children know well there are twenty-six letters in the
alphabet; that twenty are called consonants, and that six are vowels.
We take first one perpendicular row of letters in the figure. Now
point to D, and say, What is that'? and the answer will be, D. Ask, Is
it a vowel or consonant, and they will reply, A consonant; but ask,
Why do you know it is D, and the answer will probably be, It is so
because it is. Hide the circular part of the letter, and ask, What is
the position of the other part, and they will say, having previously
learnt the elements of form which will shortly be explained, A
perpendicular line; hide that, and ask them what the other part is,
telling them to bend one of their fore-fingers in the same form, and
they will say, A curved line. If they are then asked how they may know
it is D, they will say, Because it is made of a perpendicular line and
has a curved line behind. Further information may then be given. Turn
the D letter up thus [Illustration: The character D turned on its
side], and say, I want to teach you the difference between concave and
convex: the under part of the curve is concave and the upper part of
it is convex. Then say, I shall now take the letter away, and wish you
to shew me concave and convex on one of your fingers; when they will
bend the forefinger and point them both out on it. Go on with the
other letters in the same way: shew them the vowels after the
consonants and analyze each one. For example, A is formed of two
inclined lines and a horizontal line to join them in the centre; and
the top of that letter is an acute angle, and were a line placed at
the bottom it would be a triangle. A brass letter may be moreover
shewn to be a substance: its properties may be described as hard,
smooth, bright, &c., and its coming from the mineral kingdom may be
noticed, and thus the instruction may be indefinitely varied.
The _power_ of letters may then be pointed out. Ask them to spell M R,
and they will give you the sound of R, or something like it, and so
in reference to other letters. But place the A against the M as it
appears in the figure, and you may teach them to say A, M, AM; and
thus all the way down the left side of the row of consonants. If then
you carry the vowel down on the other side of them, you will change
the lesson, and by such means go on almost _ad infinitum_. Double rows
of consonants may be placed with a vowel between them, and when well
practiced in this, they will ask for the vowel to be omitted that
they may supply it, which they will do very readily and with great
pleasure, while there is a tasking of the mind which cannot but prove
beneficial.
Again, turn the frame with the balls round, so that the wires are
perpendicular instead of horizontal, raise a ball gently, and say, To
ascend, ascending, ascended; let it fall gently, saying, to descend,
descending, descended; with a little explanation these words will then
be understood, and others may be taught in the same way. To fall,
falling, fallen; to rise, rising, risen; to go, going, gone, will
readily occur, and others will easily be supplied by the ingenuity of
the instructor. The frame may also be applied to _grammar_.
It is to be used as follows:--Move one of the balls to a part of the
frame distinct from the rest. The children will then repeat, "There
_it_ is, there _it_ is." Apply your finger to the ball, and set it
running round. The children will immediately change from saying,
"There _it_ is," to "There _it_ goes, there _it_ goes."
When they have repeated "There it goes" long enough to impress it on
their memory, stop the ball; the children will probably say, "Now _it_
stops, now _it_ stops." When that is the case, move another ball to
it, and then explain to the children the difference between singular
and plural, desiring them to call out, "There _they_ are, there _they_
are;" and when they have done that as long as may be proper, set both
balls moving, and it is likely they will call out, "There _they_ go,
there _they_ go." I do not particularize further, because I know that
good teachers will at once see the principle aimed at, and supply the
other requisite lessons: the object of this book being rather to shew
the principle of the thing, than to go into detail.