THE CAUSES OF THROAT STIFFNESS AND OF INCORRECT VOCAL ACTION
Involuntary contractions of the voluntary muscles can occur only as
reflex actions. If the muscles of the vocal organs are subject to
involuntary contractions, the causes of these contractions must be
sought through an investigation of the subject of reflex actions.
Reflex actions are of several kinds; of these the simplest type, and the
one most easily studied, is the muscular contraction due to the
excitation of the sensory nerve endings located in the skin. Thus when
the sole of the foot of a sleeping person is tickled, the leg is at
first drawn up and then violently kicked out. An exhaustive discussion
of the physiological and psychological features of reflex action is not
called for here; a sufficient understanding of the subject may safely be
assumed to be possessed by the reader.
Involuntary muscular contractions often occur as reflex actions without
any direct or tactual irritation of the sensory nerve endings. Several
examples of this form of reflex action are now to be considered. These
actions will be seen to be matters of such common experience as to call
for no special proof. They are the following:
(_a_) Reflex actions performed under the influence of sensory
impressions other than those of touch or muscular sense.
(_b_) Involuntary muscular contractions due to nervousness.
(_c_) Contractions of the muscles of certain members, caused by the
turning of the attention specially to the members.
(_d_) Involuntary contractions of muscles, accompanying the exertion of
other associated and antagonist muscles, and due to the radiation of
nerve impulse.
(_a_) _Reflex Actions due to Sensory Impressions other than those of
Touch or Muscular Sense_
A wide range of movements is included under this heading. Of these it is
necessary to mention only a few, such as the sudden start on the hearing
of an unexpected noise, the instinctive movement of dodging to escape an
approaching missile, and the raising of the arm to ward off an expected
blow.
Actions of a somewhat similar character normally occur in which it is
not easy to point to the excitation of any sense or senses. These
include the instinctive cowering attitude of fear, the play of facial
expression caused by sentiment and emotion, etc.
(_b_) _Involuntary Actions due to Nervousness_
A condition of marked nervousness generally causes the involuntary
contraction of muscles. Who does not recall his earliest attempts at
"speaking a piece" in school? The trembling of the lips, the twitching
of the arms and hands, and the vain attempts to govern the bodily
movements, are an experience painful even in the recollection.
Movements and contractions due to nervousness are entirely purposeless;
they even defy the most earnest efforts at inhibition. A marked feature
of this type of involuntary action is the contraction of antagonist
groups of muscles, productive of muscular stiffness of the members.
An extreme example of this form of nervousness is offered by the
unfortunate sufferer from stage fright. In this condition the entire
body often stiffens, and purposeful movement of any kind becomes for a
time impossible.
(_c_) _Contractions caused by Special Attention to Certain Members_
Suppose a small boy of sensitive nature to enter a room suddenly, and to
be at once chided for his awkwardness. His body will probably stiffen,
and his awkwardness become more pronounced. Now call his attention to
his hands and tell him he is holding them badly. His arms and hands will
immediately become painfully stiff. Speak of his feet and his legs come
on tension. Whatever member his attention is turned to, the muscles of
that part contract involuntarily.
Photographers sometimes have to contend with this form of involuntary
action on the part of their sitters. When the hands are to be posed the
arms stiffen; so also do the legs, the shoulders, and the neck, each
when its turn comes to receive attention.
Under normal conditions this form of awkwardness is easily overcome.
Sitting for a photograph soon becomes a simple matter. The boy outgrows
the awkward stage and gradually acquires a natural and easy bearing.
Muscular stiffening due to attention to special members is usually the
result of an uncomfortable feeling of being out of one's element, and
ill at ease in one's surroundings. So soon as this feeling wears off the
tendency to this form of stiffness disappears.
(_d_) _Contractions of Muscles due to the Radiation of Nerve Impulse_
A voluntary exertion of some of the muscles of a member sometimes causes
the involuntary contraction of all the other muscles of the part. As
will readily be seen, the exercise then takes place under conditions of
muscular stiffness. This is commonly a feature of the unskilful and
unaccustomed performance of muscular activities. A few examples will
serve to illustrate this type of involuntary contraction better than a
lengthy discussion of the physio-psychological principles involved.
When a novice takes his first lesson in riding a bicycle he clutches the
handle bars in a vise-like grip. His knees are so stiff as to bend only
with a great exertion of strength. To steer the wheel the learner must
put forth his most powerful muscular efforts. A half-hour lesson in
bicycle riding often tires the beginner more than an afternoon's ride
does the experienced cyclist.
This condition of muscular stiffness is due to the contraction of
antagonist groups of muscles, involving practically the entire body. In
one sense the excessive muscular contractions are involuntary; yet it
would not be easy to define where the voluntary element of the
contractions leaves off.
A similar excessive expenditure of strength may be seen in the attempt
of an illiterate laborer to sign his name. He grips the pen as though it
were a crowbar, and puts forth enough strength to handle a twenty-pound
weight. Learning to dance, or to skate, or to row a boat, is usually
accompanied in the beginning by this form of muscular stiffness.
As skill is acquired by practice in the performance of complex
activities, the undue muscular tension of the initial stage is gradually
relaxed.
There is another way in which the radiation of nerve impulse may be
caused, entirely distinct from the lack of use or skill. Muscular
stiffness may be induced in the case of activities so thoroughly
habitual as to be normally performed automatically. The cause of
muscular stiffness now to be considered is the attempt to perform
complex activities mechanically, that is, by consciously directing the
individual component movements and muscular contractions involved in the
actions. Involuntary contractions of associated and antagonist muscles
take place under these conditions, in addition to the voluntary exercise
of the muscles normally exerted in the movements.
This fact may be illustrated by attempting to write a few lines, and
forming every stroke of each letter by a distinct exercise of the will.
If you keep up this attempt for ten minutes you will find that you press
upon the paper with many times your accustomed weight. The hand stiffens
in consequence of the close attention paid to its movements. This
stiffness will extend to the arm, and even to the shoulder, if the
exercise be continued long enough and with sufficient intensity of
attention to the hand.
Another good illustration of this form of muscular stiffening may be
found by walking upstairs, and paying the same kind of attention to the
muscular actions. Try to ascend a single flight of stairs, performing
each elementary movement by a distinct volitional impulse. Pause on the
first step to secure perfect balance on one foot; raise the other foot,
bending the leg at the knee, then place this foot carefully on the next
higher step. Now gradually shift the weight of the body from the lower
to the higher foot; as the body inclines forward, exert the muscles of
the back and sides to preserve your balance; then contract the leg
muscles so as to raise the body to the higher step, with the weight
supported on that foot. Repeat this operation for each step. To mount
one flight of stairs in this way will tire you more than ascending a
half dozen flights in the ordinary automatic way.
All four of the types of involuntary muscular contraction just described
may be combined in a single instance. An inexperienced violin soloist,
such as a student playing at a conservatory recital, often exemplifies
this. Nervousness and awkwardness cause him to tremble; the scratchy
sound of his tones makes him twitch and start; meanwhile, the close
attention paid to his fingering and bowing stiffens his arms and
completes his difficulty.
The vocal organs are peculiarly subject to the forms of involuntary
muscular contraction under consideration. Each of the causes of muscular
tension may exert its special influence on the voice. Let us go over the
ground once more, this time with special reference to the actions of the
throat muscles.
_(a) Reflex Actions of the Muscles of the Vocal Organs, Independent of
Direct Sensory Excitation_
Involuntary actions of the vocal organs normally occur in response to
stimuli furnished by the emotions and feelings. Every one is familiar
with the shout of triumph, the sigh of relief, and the ejaculation of
surprise. Some emotions cause a convulsive stiffening of the muscles of
the vocal organs so complete as to render tone-production for a time
absolutely impossible. "Speechless with terror," "breathless with
apprehension," are expressions which accurately describe psychological
processes. A crowd of people watching a difficult rescue of a drowning
man is silent so long as the uncertainty lasts. A shout instantly goes
up when the rescue is seen to be safely effected. Both the silence of
the nervous strain and the shout of relief are normal involuntary
responses to the emotional states.
_(b) The Influence of Nervousness on the Vocal Action_
Nervous conditions exert a striking influence on the operations of the
voice. Even when our self-control under trying conditions is complete in
all other respects we are often unable to prevent our voices betraying
our nervous state. Stage fright, an extreme form of nervousness,
sometimes deprives the sufferer entirely of the power of speech. This
temporary loss of vocal command is not due to an inability to innervate
the muscles of the vocal organs; on the contrary, it is caused by
extreme muscular stiffness due to the violent, though involuntary,
contraction of all the muscles of the vocal organs.
Under normal conditions, entirely aside from nervousness, the voice
instinctively reflects every phase of sentiment and emotion. Love and
hate, sorrow and joy, anger, fear, and rage, each is clearly expressed
by the quality of the tones, independent of the meaning of the spoken
words. All these fine shades of tone quality result from muscular
adjustments of the vocal mechanism. In some mysterious manner the
outflow of motor impulses to the throat muscles is governed by the
nervous and emotional states.
This form of muscular contraction is in one sense not involuntary. As
the voice is voluntarily used, all the muscular contractions involved
are voluntary. Yet the minute contractions producing tone qualities
expressive of emotion are distinctly involuntary. More than this, these
contractions cannot usually be inhibited. An angry man cannot make his
voice sound other than angry. Our voices often betray our feelings in
spite of the most earnest efforts at concealment.
While the voice always normally and involuntarily adopts the tone
quality indicative of the emotional state, this action of the vocal
organs may be voluntarily and purposely performed. A perfect command of
these fine shades of tone quality renders the voice a very potent
instrument of expression. For the purposes of dramatic singing this form
of vocal expression might be of great value. It is to be regretted that
dramatic singers of this day pay so little attention to purely tonal
expressiveness. This is probably due in great measure to the prevalence
of throat stiffness, which robs the voice of much of its expressive
power.
_(c) Contractions of the Throat Muscles, caused by Attention to the
Throat_
When a physician attempts to examine a child's throat, the tendency of
the throat muscles to this form of involuntary contractions is apt to be
evidenced. The jaw stiffens and the tongue rises; for a time the
rebellious little throat refuses to remain quiet and relaxed.
People usually have some such difficulty the first time they submit to
examination with the laryngoscope. This is very apt to occur, even in
the case of experienced singers. Needless to say, this form of muscular
contraction is entirely involuntary; it even defies the most earnest
attempts at prevention. Comparatively little experience is required for
normal people to overcome this tendency. The throat usually becomes
tractable after one or two trials with the laryngoscope.
Vocalists are well aware of the proneness of one part of the vocal
mechanism, the tongue, to stiffen in consequence of direct attention
being paid to this member. In this connection Frangçon-Davies remarks:
"When the writer in early student days concentrated his attention upon
his tongue he found that this member became very stiff and unruly
indeed." (_The Singing of the Future_, London, 1906.) Leo Kofler speaks
of the same tendency: "Tell a pupil to let his tongue lie flat in his
mouth; he draws it back till it dams up his throat." (_Werner's
Magazine_, Oct., 1899.)
_(d) Throat Stiffness due to the Radiation of Nerve Impulse_
Two types of muscular tension due to the radiation of motor impulses
were noted; first, the stiffness incident to the early stages of
practice in complex activities; second, the stiffness caused by the
attempt to perform complex activities in a mechanical manner by paying
attention to the individual component movements and contractions. To
both these types of muscular stiffness the voice is especially subject.
It is not easy to find a perfect illustration of throat stiffness
incident to the early stages of instruction in singing. For this the
chief reason is that the later form of stiffness, due to the attempt
directly to manage the vocal organs, is much more pronounced than the
temporary early tension. As good an example as possible would be the
following: Let some one possessed of a fine natural untrained voice sing
a steady tone and then attempt to trill on the same note. The attempted
trill will invariably indicate a much higher degree of stiffness than
the single tone.
Several investigators of the voice have noticed the tendency of the
throat to stiffen when the singer tries to manage the voice by paying
direct attention to the mechanical action. Clara Kathleen Rogers points
this out clearly in the following passage: "There exists a possible and
a dangerous obstacle to the performance of the natural mission of the
voice. That obstacle is what? It is a superfluous and misdirected mental
activity which is fruitful of a corresponding obstruction on the part of
the body. In the body this obstruction takes the form of superfluous or
unnatural tension." (_The Philosophy of Singing_, N. Y., 1893.) Prof.
Scripture describes in scientific language the results of any attempt
directly to manage the vocal organs. Speaking of the use of the voice
under unfavorable conditions, he says: "The attempt is instinctively
made by the speaker or singer to correct such a fault by voluntary
innervation of the muscles; this cannot succeed perfectly because an
increase of innervation brings about contractions of associated and
antagonist muscles with the result of changed conditions and changed
sounds. Such extra muscular effort is, moreover, very fatiguing." (_The
Elements of Experimental Phonetics_, 1902.)
For the purposes of scientific voice culture this is one of the most
important facts which have been determined. The attempt to manage the
voice, by paying attention to the mechanical operations of the vocal
organs, causes an involuntary contraction of all the throat muscles, and
so interferes with the normal instinctive vocal action. Even the mere
thinking of the throat in singing, and especially in practising, is
enough to induce throat stiffness.