POISONED WEAPONS, ARROWS, SPEARS, &c.
{Poisoned arrows.}
The arrows of the South African Bushmen are worthy of notice, not only
for the ingenuity displayed in making formidable weapons from such
apparently insignificant materials, but for the deadly poison with
which in many cases they are imbued. A crooked stick, a few reeds, bits
of bone, and the dorsal sinews of any antelope, are all the materials
required in the formation of the weapons. The poisoning is sometimes
a more elaborate affair. Among the southern tribes, some of whom
still maintain an existence as hunters and occasional marauders on
the borders of the colony, the juices of the bulbs of various species
of amaryllis and hæmanthus, mixed sometimes with serpent poison, and
aided by the adhesive acrid juice of the euphorbium, are boiled down
in the hollow of a stone to the tough viscous consistency of birdlime,
and sparingly smeared upon the arrow heads. Farther to the north the
process is much more simple. The Bushmen of the Kalihari Desert, and
the regions in the vicinity of Lake Ngami, use the entrails of a
grub called 'kaa or ngwa, an almost inarticulate sound, which it is
impossible to write so as to enable the English reader to pronounce it
with anything like correctness. Both forms of spelling are attempts
to indicate a click of the tongue against the teeth, followed by a
slight nasal ringing, and ending in the broad sound of the vowel "a."
The grub is of a creamy white, and is soft, with the exception of its
head; and when full-sized seldom much exceeds three-quarters of an inch
in length. It lives chiefly, perhaps almost exclusively, upon the leaf
of a tree called "Maruru papeerie," which varies from the size of a
small low-growing shrub to that of a moderately-sized tree, upwards of
20ft. high, or 12in. or 14in. in thickness. It is covered with thorns,
and its wood in the vicinity of Lake Ngami was soft and of a very even
texture; but toward the Zambesi it seemed harder. When we first saw it
it was feeding on these leaves, and we were rather puzzled by a loose
ragged mantle or envelope of green matter, which seemed to be peeling
off like a skin in process of being cast. It lay in loose rolls, mostly
parallel to the muscular rings upon the body, and was gradually forced
forward, so as to form a hood or shield above the head, where it dried
and broke off as it accumulated, and was replaced by fresh matter. Our
highest magnifying power was the microscope of a sextant; but this at
length enabled us to decide that the green matter was merely excrement
issuing not only in the usual manner, but also from pores ranged along
the whole length of the body. As the grub attains its full size, this
matter issues more sparingly, and is of a browner colour. The grub
drops to the ground, buries itself to the depth of a couple of feet,
and forms its cocoon of a thin shell of earth, cemented by glutinous
juices around its body. This is quite hard enough to bear handling,
even rather roughly, so long as it retains its perfect form, and we
brought several specimens to England; but if it is once broken, the
slightest touch is enough to complete its destruction.
In applying this poison to their arrows, the Bushmen collect a number
of the cocoons, which they lay near them on a skin, a leaf, or on a
sandal; they break one of these, and, taking out the grub, hold it
between the thumb and forefinger, and squeeze the entrails, or rather
the internal juices, in small drops upon the arrow head, which is then
carefully laid upon any extemporised rest to dry in the sun, much as
an artist lays his brushes on something that will keep the hair from
contact with anything capable of giving or receiving damage from the
colour with which they are charged. They take the greatest possible
care not to let these juices come in contact with any cut or sore, or
abrasion of the skin, for they would in such case produce the same
excruciating agony that is inflicted upon a wounded animal; and it
is said that a man with a wound, however slight, so infected, would
become a maniac, and would probably destroy himself in the extremity
of his pain. It is, however, believed that fat rubbed plentifully on
the wound, and taken internally in sufficient quantities, would prove
an antidote; but this is a medicine by no means likely to be always
at hand among persons living a nomadic life, and but occasionally
supplied with animal food like the Bushman. Fortunately for them they
possess another remedy, growing plentifully and naturally in most parts
of their country. We were aware that they knew of this; and a friend,
who had been personally acquainted with the chief for a considerable
time, had long attempted to induce him to reveal its name, but he was
unwilling to do so, till in a conversation with another member of his
tribe he mentioned its name; and our friend, who perfectly understood
the Sechuana and some of the other native languages, asked him at
the next opportunity if the remedy in question were not the "Kàla
haétlwe," and thus surprised him into the confession that white men
knew everything, and that further attempts at concealment were useless.
The word kala signifies friend, but we are not aware of the meaning of
the concluding syllables. The "Kàla haétlwe" is a small, soft-stemmed
plant; the flower is yellow, star-shaped, and has five petals; the
stamens are numerous, and the calyx is divided into two sepals.
The root is something between a bulb and a tuber--rough and brown
outside--and, when cut, is seen marked with concentric lines of light
reddish brown and purple. The leaves are 2-1/2in. in length, and 1/4in.
wide. The mid-rib of the leaf projects on the under surface, and forms
a depression on the upper. There are, however, two other plants which
bear the same name, and are used for the same purpose. One of them has
a broader leaf and larger flower, and tastes like sorrel; and the third
has a waved or wrinkled leaf. The root or bulb is chewed and laid on
the wound, and is followed by plentiful application of fat.
The natives use an arrow with a bone head dotted over with the ngwa or
'kaa poison, and loosely inserted into the shaft. This is a slender
reed, seldom more than 3/8in. thick. It is bound with sinew at the end
to keep the head from splitting it, and is also bound for the same
purpose near the notch. In fastening this sinew no knots or hitches
are used, but the end is frayed out very fine, chewed soft, and, while
still soft, is firmly pressed down upon the rest, where its glutinous
properties cause it firmly to adhere.
The Bushman makes use of a simple and effectual method of sheathing his
arrows, so as to render any accidents impossible. When not intended for
use the point is reversed and enters the socket in the shaft.
They make use of a very ingenious expedient for tightening the
bowstring. A small knob of hardened sinew is firmly lashed to one end
of the bow, the string made of the dorsal sinews of the springbok or
other antelope, slightly twisted, has a loop at one end, which is
hitched on to the end of the bow; the other is brought up and passed
between the knob and the wood, several turns are taken loosely round
the latter. When required for use the bow is bent by holding it with
the hand and knee, with the action represented in the beautiful statue
of Cupid, and then with the other hand turning the coil of sinew around
the end of the bow until the string is sufficiently tightened.
They also adopt a very simple plan of preserving an ostrich feather.
The Bushman, it may be after weeks or months of patient stalking, kills
an ostrich. He knows the feathers are valuable, and that from a white
trader he may obtain for them tobacco, clasp knives, tinder boxes, or
other articles of value to himself, but he also knows that he must keep
them clean and unbroken. He therefore inserts the quill first into a
reed, and taps it on the ground till the whole feather has vanished,
and he can carry it about in his quiver; and, to say truth, it is at
first sight a little astonishing to a European when a Bushman offers
for inspection a slender reed, to see him draw from it a gracefully
waving ostrich plume of the finest quality and largest size.
The simple apparatus by which the Bushmen obtain fire is shown at page
536. It consists of two sticks of moderately close-grained but not
very hard wood. One of these, which may be called the fire stick, is
somewhat thicker than the little finger, and may be of any length,
generally about 1ft. or 18in., and in this small notches are cut with
the point of an assegai, at about 1in. apart, for the reception of the
end of the other, or the whirling stick. This is about the size and
length of the ramrod of a common fowling piece, and both are carried
in the quiver, with their arrows, sucking reeds, and rushes, for the
manufacture of bracelets, &c.
The preparation of the wourari poison is usually conducted by natives,
from whom it is best obtained. This substance may be at times of
service to the explorer. The sumpitans of the Dyaks and Borneans should
also be noticed. Mr. Bates says that salt is put on the tongue of the
coati as a restorative from the stupor induced by the wourari poison.
We have often heard of poisoned bullets, and once saw an experiment
tried. A hole was bored in a revolver bullet and filled with the juices
of the 'kaa or ngwa--the Bushman's poison grub; this was fired into the
rump of an ox; the animal showed little or no sign of acute pain, but
seemed to be dull and stupefied for some hours. At length it seemed as
if it were likely to recover, and, partly because the flesh was really
wanted for food, and partly to end an experiment which seemed likely to
lead to no useful result, the poor creature was shot dead. Probably the
fire might have neutralised or destroyed the active principle of the
poison.
We have heard of some native tribes who prepare arrow poison by first
making a hollow nest in the liver of a dead animal. They then fill this
with living centipedes, scorpions, tarantulas, and other poisonous
creatures. These they irritate by striking the liver with a stick, when
the virus of the united assemblage of venom bearers is poured out and
at once absorbed by the liver, which is rubbed over the weapon to be
treated. The Chinese plunge their arrows in a putrid carcase in order
to poison them. The Malays keep their poison preparations strictly
secret. Poisoned weapons retain their destructive qualities for years,
and should therefore be handled with extreme caution.
A square of paper, folded diagonally across, may be used as a "feather"
for a blowpipe arrow. Wild cotton is also used to make the arrow fit
the tube.
A cross-bow of peculiar construction is used by the Chinese; the
action of the trigger is sufficiently simple to need no explanation,
and the chief peculiarity consists in the fact of its having a kind of
reservoir above the barrel, in which half a dozen or more arrows or
bolts lie one upon the other; this is connected with the barrel only
at the foremost end, the string passing beneath it, and the lowermost
arrow resting on the string until the bow is bent; then the string
being pulled back allows one arrow to drop into its place in the
barrel, from which, of course, a sufficient length of the upper part
has been cut away to admit of the arrow falling in. When the trigger is
pulled, the string drives the lower arrow out from beneath the others;
the next arrow then rests on the string, and, when that is again drawn
back, drops like the first into the barrel; and so on until all are
exhausted, and it becomes necessary to replenish the reservoir.
[Illustration]
The pellet bow, the subject of the illustration below, is an instrument
with which many tribes make excellent practice with small pellets of
hardened clay. For the inexperienced, a padded glove is necessary for
the protection of the left thumb, and there is also a peculiar knack in
so holding the bow that that arm shall be the merest trifle out of the
line of flight of the pellet.
Many semi-barbarous nations are perfectly aware of the advantage to be
gained by rifling their arrows, and this is done sometimes by having
rather large barbs, and giving them a pitch or turn on opposite sides,
or by putting on the feathers spirally.
In using the arrow for the capture of tortoises on the South American
rivers, the archers like to shoot at such a distance that they may give
their arrow a good elevation, and allow it to fall more perpendicularly
on the back of the tortoise, as it has then a better chance of
penetrating the shell. It has no barb, as, if its broad point once
pierces, there is not much fear of its being dragged out.
A thorn wreath is used by the Uganda and other nations in Central
Africa, and is described by Captain Speke. The thorns all point to the
centre, and yield just enough to allow an antelope or other animal to
put his foot through, when their points are sure to enter the leg,
and prevent its coming off. A log is made fast to it, heavy enough to
impede the motions of the animal, but not sufficiently so to tear the
wreath off from his leg and allow him to get away. Young branches of
many kinds of mimosa in South Africa, which have thorns 5in. or 6in.
long, would answer well for this. The ancient Romans and Greeks made
use of this contrivance in deer hunting.
We remember seeing, several years ago, the foot of a Vaal rheebok
encumbered with a joint of the spine of a horse or ox. The poor
creature had literally put its foot in it some time before, and had
worn the painful appendage till the skin beneath was destroyed and the
tendons weakened, which led to its being eventually caught.
{The manufacture of stone weapons.}
Europeans are very rarely reduced to such a state of destitution as
to be entirely without some tool or weapon of iron or steel, even if
it is merely an old jack knife; yet such cases may, and sometimes do,
happen. We remember reading with great interest the tale of two seamen
who, during many weeks' sojourn on a small island, possessed absolutely
nothing but one knife, which served them to cut up the sea birds they
managed to catch, till at length this, having been wrapped in a bloody
cloth and carefully stowed away in a crevice of the rocks, was found
by some bird, dragged from its hiding place, and irrecoverably lost;
then they with great labour beat out and ground down upon the rocks
an old spike nail. Under such circumstances, the ability to produce a
cutting edge from a flint or other pebble of sufficient hardness would
have stood them in good stead; and even, if we remember how often edged
tools are spared by using a piece of glass as a scraper, we shall be
ready to acknowledge that a keen-edged fragment of flint, obsidian, or
agate may advantageously be used in the same manner. Perhaps it may be
thought absurd to give directions for the breaking of glass for this
purpose, yet, simple as the matter seems, a hint may not be thrown
away: Take the back of a knife, or the smooth straight edge of any
piece of iron fixed with tolerable firmness for a moment, then, taking
the piece of glass in both hands, rest its edge midway between them on
the edge of the iron; let the upper edge of the glass lean from you,
and push it gently along the iron, so as slightly to indent the edge of
the glass; then, reversing its position so as to make it lean towards
you, draw it smartly along the iron, and you will find it separated by
a clean fracture directly across, forming a line more or less curved,
and leaving one edge of the glass much sharper than the other. By a
little practice, and by pressing a little more with one hand than the
other, almost any curvature that the work to be done may require may be
achieved.
In North Australia we had reason to believe that many of the tribes
through whose country we passed were utterly ignorant of the use of
iron. Fragments of jasper and other stones were found in several
localities, where they had evidently been used for cutting up or
skinning animals. Spear heads that they had dropped or lost in
the chase were occasionally picked up; and once we came across a
considerable area profusely strewn with chips of every form and kind,
indicating that the manufacture of weapons had been extensively carried
on there. Some of these might be relics of antiquity; but those strewn
upon the surface over an area of 200yds. or 300yds. were quite recent;
while along the river side were holes in the earth surrounded by
scorched shells of the freshwater mussel, of the tortoise and turtle,
besides bones of fish and alligators, and fragments of charred wood and
blackened stones that had been used in cooking. The savages might have
been few in number; perhaps in one instance the cooking holes would
indicate the presence of twenty or thirty; while, from the number of
chips, from six to eight seemed to have been engaged in making weapons;
and it must be remembered that, thoroughly as they enjoy the pleasure
of doing nothing, they are neither ignorant nor idle when employed
either in the chase or in the preparation of snares or weapons for
it. Besides this--as only the perfect weapons would be taken away for
actual service, and the failures and imperfect ones would far outnumber
them--it is easy to imagine how such chips would accumulate during
successive generations.
The following explanation of the progress of stone-implement making
was given us by a fellow traveller, and our own examination of
the fragments on the spot confirmed his statement:--The operator,
squatting down before a block large and solid enough to be used as
an anvil, selects a pebble as nearly oval as possible, and about the
size of an ostrich egg or a cocoanut. One end of this he strikes on
the large block, so as to detach a fragment, which leaves a flattened
base; then, taking it vertically in his hands, he strikes the edge
of this base upon the anvil, detaching in succession two ovate chips
as nearly as possible equal in form and size; and this, if cleverly
done, leaves a sharp and well-defined central rib, with a slightly
hollowed facet on either side. The next blow should, if successful,
split off another piece, small at the base, spreading slightly as
it goes upwards, and finally tapering to a keen point, with the rib
previously formed running truly along the centre; and this chip
constitutes the spear head, which is fastened to the shaft with gum and
lashings of bark or vegetable fibre. If this is well done, at least
three chips must have been made in the production of one head; but
if, as is most likely, the failures greatly outnumber the successes,
the proportion of chips must be greatly increased. Sometimes, when a
pebble is found well suited for the work, facets are struck off on
all sides, and spear heads are formed as long as the cleavage of the
"core" remains sufficiently perfect. Some of these, when about half
worked out, present so great a resemblance to a common beer glass with
facets on it, that we hardly know how to convey a better idea of the
peculiar form. The stone tomahawks discovered were generally of trap
or greenstone. They were first chipped out into a long wedge-like
form, and then with great labour ground up to a uniform rounded edge
upon other stones, and with gum and lashings securely fixed into a
branch, part of which is generally made to bend round them as a handle.
Blacksmiths in this country secure their cold chisels much in the same
manner.