CHAPTER III.

WORKING IN METALS.

It would be of great advantage to every traveller if before starting

on an expedition he were to spend a few hours in learning from a

blacksmith how to weld together two pieces of iron, and from a tinman

how to solder tin or copper. In the absence of this experience, a man

who is determined to help himself need not despair of success if he

will bear in mind that the chief essentials in both cases are proper

heat, strict cleanliness, and sufficient quickness of manipulation

without hurry. If the traveller possesses a portable forge, it is most

likely he will have learned how to use it before starting; if not, he

may in many countries, South Africa especially, find almost in every

tribe some native who could make one; or if not, he might adopt some

of the expedients described under that head. His first care should

be to see that his fire burns clearly and with sufficient intensity,

and this he may aid by occasionally dashing in a little water, which,

by the decomposition of the gases, will increase the heat under the

direct blast, while the surplus, falling on the surrounding coal, will

prevent the fire spreading farther than is requisite. The broken ends

of the iron to be rejoined should then be placed in the fire, one of

them in the centre of the heat, and the other near enough to acquire a

preparatory warmth; the first, heated to a bright orange red, should

be taken out and thickened by stamping the broken point upon the anvil

till it is considerably shorter than before; if the heat is sufficient,

the scarf, or smooth diagonal surface which is to form one part of

the welded joint, may be worked upon it; if not, it must be returned

to the fire while the other part is taken out and driven up in the

same manner. In using the hammer, some care is needful to proportion

the force of the blow to the size and comparative heat of the metal

you are working, and also to turn the iron under the hammer so that

each stroke shall help to consolidate the mass instead of splitting it

into fibres. When the surfaces of the scarf are worked smooth, fair,

and perfectly free from scales or dirt of any kind, place them side

by side in the fire and bring them to an intense white heat, so that

when drawn forth they may almost spontaneously give off small white

sparks. We would add a caution against burning the iron, or partially

fusing it, by too much heat, but we do not think a traveller with an

extempore forge is in much danger of doing this. The anvil should now

be perfectly clean; the "smith," with his hammer ready in his right

hand, should grasp with his left one of the pieces while his attendant

draws out the other and lays it with the scarfed side uppermost on the

anvil; prompt action without hurry is now the one thing needful: the

smith withdraws his piece, lays it with its scarf turned downwards

on that of the assistant's, and with one decisive stroke of the

hand-hammer unites them; a few more smart and rapid strokes while the

iron is slightly turned to and fro to receive them properly, complete

the union; and when the first heat is lost the iron is again put into

the fire, and the joint which, owing to the thickening and shortening

previously described, should present a clumsy appearance, may be

trimmed and hammered down to its proper dimensions, the iron, if this

is neatly done, having lost but little of its original length; and

it is now for the operator to judge whether he will restore this by

beating the metal a little thinner or sacrifice a little of it for the

sake of retaining the original thickness. Among the Kafirs a rock is

most frequently used for an anvil, and a smaller stone for a hammer.

The West Africans use a conical block of iron, about the size and shape

of the link extinguishers, some of which may yet be seen before old

houses in London. The work has, in consequence, a slightly indented

appearance, which distinguishes it from the smooth-faced hammer-work

of England; but their weapons are of excellent metal, and so flexible,

that they will almost tie in a knot rather than break. The Abyssinians

also use weapons of this temper; for they say if a steel sword breaks,

who can mend it, but if it bends we can sit on it and straighten it.

{Scrap and hoop iron.}

We have often made very good knives for skinning or cutting up animals

from the handles of broken gridirons, frying-pans, stout hoop, or

other bits of iron. Broken sheep-shears are also excellent substitutes.

The hoop iron used to bind the bundles of compressed hay issued to

troop horses can be made use of for an immense number of useful

purposes. The walls of many of the stables we erected in the Crimea

were composed entirely of this material, closely interwoven, like

basketwork. Excellent gabions can be made from it, as can the framework

of hut roofs. A piece a couple of yards long, doubled forward and back

in zigzag form, makes an excellent gridiron. Short pieces, straightened

out by hammering, form useful make-shift knife blades for the use of

native servants. Tent poles are greatly strengthened by having a spiral

strapping of this iron nailed to them. Saws for cutting or rather

fretting blocks of stone can be made by stretching a strip of this

material edgewise in a wooden frame, aided by water, sharp sand, and a

suitable balance weight, such as marble masons use. Excellent eel traps

are made by arranging long strips of hoop for a body, and then securing

them by small nails, as rivets, to hoops made from the same material.

Eel traps will be fully described under the head of "Fishing." We once

made a complete set of bars for the bottom and front of a camp stove

entirely of forage hoop iron, made a scraper for the door, a set of

hooks for a gun rack, and a set of cross hooks to hang meat on. Never

heedlessly throw away forage iron.

Trimming and filing up are matters which may be left very much to the

taste and opportunities of the traveller, but it should be remembered

that, _cæteris paribus_, a neatly finished piece of work, besides

being more satisfactory to the eye, is in itself stronger, as the

inequalities, flakes, flaws, or roughnesses of the surface, which,

under any strain, might form the commencement of a fracture, are

removed; and besides this, especially in wet climates, a well smoothed

piece of work is less liable to rust in patches than one of unequal

surface. If you intend to file-finish your work, remember to let it

cool slowly, and do not harden it by immersion in water.

{The use of cold or of joiners' chisels.}

In some cases incisions may be required, too sharp or clean to be cut

with a file, and, if proper care be taken, a fine, sharp, joiner's

chisel may be used without more injury than may be set right by fresh

grinding it; it is advisable, however, first to render the angle at

which the edge is set a little more obtuse, so as to lessen the danger

of flawing it, taking care at the same time to keep it as keen as

possible.

{Tires and wheels.}

In all expeditions in which wheeled vehicles are used, nothing causes

more trouble than the loosening of the tires, owing to the shrinking

of the woodwork, and possibly some slight expansion of the metal, from

the heavy pressure on the rough roads, as well as from the intense heat

of a tropical climate. If sufficient skill be available, the proper

course is to cut and shorten the tire, for all other make-shifts have

the disadvantage either of being insecure, or positively injurious to

the fabric of the wheel. Supposing the shortening to be determined on,

the tire must be taken off, and if, as is frequently the case, it be

fastened with rivets through the felloes, the clinch on the inner ends

of the bolts must be first cut or filed away, the "washers" or iron

rings taken off, and the rivets themselves driven back with a long

punch or drift pin; the "band" or tire will then either fall off or

require but a few blows to detach it. The streaks used to protect the

wheels of field artillery guns and waggons are removed and replaced

separately.

It is impossible to measure the relative circumference of the felloes

and the _inner side_ of the band without an instrument similar to the

perambulator; _i. e._ a wheel or disc of wood or metal, mounted on a

handle. A chalk mark is made on the felloe and a corresponding one

on the edge of the disc; the two are set together, and the disc--say

1ft. 6in. in circumference--will then revolve perhaps ten and a half

times in going round the hinder wheel of a Cape waggon of about 5ft.

diameter. As soon as the disc has again reached the starting point

another chalk mark is to be made upon it, and the distance between

the two marks on the disc, say 9in., is to be added to the number of

revolutions counted; it is then to be applied to the inner side of

the band, the ten revolutions counted off, the additional 9in. to be

run, and the distance between the starting point and the finish of its

course is the amount by which the band is too long. Some judgment is

required to decide whether more or less than this piece shall be taken

out. If the wheel looks very firm and close in its joints, perhaps a

little less should be cut, as the overlapping of the weld will take

up a trifle--especially if it be not very skilfully and neatly done;

if the wheel is loose and the spokes not firmly shouldered up to the

nave, a little more may be taken away; and in this case it is proper to

estimate whether the felloes will close up sufficiently to force the

spokes home upon the nave; if not, the ends of four or more felloes

opposite each other should be cut a trifle shorter with a fine tenon

saw, great care being taken not to cut the dowels by which the ends

of the felloes are kept true to each other. A smooth, hard place must

now be sought out, on which the wheel can be laid flat, the front

downwards, a hole being dug, if necessary, for the reception of the

nave; flat stones, plates of iron, or slabs of hard wood, laid evenly

under the circumference, would be of advantage when the shortened

band is to be driven on. The next essentials are plenty of water and

abundance of heating power. The ends of the band must now be heated,

and the smith will bevel off each of them, one from the inside and

the other from the out, so as to form the scarf; an attendant or two

holding the band, as he directs, upon the anvil. The tire should now

be reversed, and the curvature increased by resting it on two points

of support and striking heavily between them on its inner surface till

the scarfed ends close upon and begin to overlap each other. It is

again placed in the fire with the ends equally exposed to the intense

heat, and at the proper moment is lifted out by two attendants and

promptly, but carefully, placed upon the anvil; a few smart decisive

blows are given, and the joint is made. The hammer man now comes to

the assistance of the smith and consolidates it by striking alternate

blows with the "sledge," under his direction. The circumference is

again tried with the revolving disc, and if it be too short, as it

ought rather to be, it is again heated and hammered out, the weld,

if this be rightly done, gaining solidity in the process. The band

is then laid upon the ground and a fire of wood, dry cow dung, or

other material made, so as to heat it to redness through its whole

circumference. It is then lifted by tongs or other means (if hooks

are used they must be applied from the outside), and placed upon the

wheel, and, as quickly as possible, hammered down nearly into its true

position. The workmen will soon find what "smoke to the eyes" is like,

but they must disregard this, and, before the wood is too much burned

away, quantities of cold water must be dashed on, the hammer men all

the while beating down the shrinking band to a level with the felloes;

before it is quite cold the wheel should be caught up and brought to

the anvil, or a smooth rock, where the tire is faced up true to the

felloe front by heavy blows, and finally cooled off and tightened by

another deluge of cold water.

Everything depends upon prompt action; and the tiring of a set of

waggon wheels at some out station is really an exciting event, at which

all hands are required to work with a will.

{Repair of perch-bolts.}

Not unfrequently the "schammel-bolt" or perch-bolt will give way in

the grip, and if this flaw be detected in time, and the bolt be long

enough, the evil day may be staved off by removing it, boring a hole

through the "buik" plank or floor of the waggon, right above, and

dropping the bolt down through it so that its head remains 3in. or 4in.

higher than before, and the nip is brought upon a fresh place, as shown

by the dotted line above H (p. 216).

{Extempore anvils and vices.}

For small work, the "reim schoen," or drag, turned up upon a block of

wood, will form a very decent anvil; and the next essential is a vice,

which ought to be as large and powerful as can be carried. A weak

inefficient vice is worse than useless. The means of attaching it ought

also to be good, for if it is not firmly fixed no work can be properly

finished in it. No part of the waggon ought to be used as a holdfast

for the vice, unless indeed it were properly fitted with iron guards

for that purpose before starting, for the claws and screw-bolts would

speedily tear and split the wood, and only damage the vehicle to no

purpose. It would generally be better to cut down a convenient tree,

leaving a stump about 3-1/2ft. high, and in this to cut a niche, partly

to let the vice in: it might then be secured by hoops of iron, if

available, such as the nave bands, or anything similar, tightened with

wedges, and lashed in its place by thongs of raw hide, which, when they

dry, acquire almost the rigidity of iron.

If the vice cannot be fixed firmly, it is better to cut with the saw a

deep groove down into the solid stump, and, having inserted the iron

you wish to file, to tighten it with wedges, screws, lashings, or such

other appliances as you may have at hand (p. 166).

The tapping of screws on bolts or nuts, especially if of any size,

requires that the work be firmly held; but we should rather advise

that duplicate bolts and nuts of the principal sizes used in waggon

work--1/2in., 3/4in., 7/8in., and 1in.--be carried, as a set of taps

and dies could not be had even in Cape Town for much less than £5, and

an unskilled hand would be more likely to break the instruments than

use them to advantage. For the smaller sizes, suitable for gun-locks,

&c., a plate and set of taps might advantageously be carried.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

{Cutting bolts and gun-barrels.}

Sometimes a bolt, rod of iron, or a gun-barrel, has to be cut off to

a given length, and the most convenient way of doing this is to file

a row of small teeth upon the back of a handsaw, and with it to saw

off the superfluous iron: the first illustration shows the manner of

cutting the teeth, and their exact size and shape. Always put in a bit

of copper, lead, or leather to protect the gun-barrels from the grip

of the vice. It may, perhaps, be well to remark here, that nearly all

Russian saws are made to cut backwards, and all the gun breech-screws

made in that country are cut the reverse way to ours.

For repairs of guns, it is well to have sufficient wire of different

thicknesses; but when a hardened pivot is required, a broken gimlet or

a bradawl will often supply the material; and we have before now earned

a goat or sheep for dinner by supplying in this manner some deficiency

in the arms brought to the white man to be repaired. It is convenient

to buy a musket-lock or two before starting, and to save all sorts of

screws, tumblers, springs, &c., out of old locks.

We were once asked, far away in Namaqualand, to perform no less a

service for a friend than to put a new hammer on his gun. Modest

disclaimers of ability were not received, and there was nothing left

but to do our best. We found a bit of flat iron, which, fortunately,

had a hole in it: this we first squared up with a small "three-square"

file, and then fitting it to the tumbler, and making sure that the flat

surface of the hammer should strike upon the nipple, laboriously cut

and filed away the intermediate parts, and before morning the hammer

was fixed. Mr. Rae, the engineer of the Zambesi expedition, proceeded

more scientifically; he employed a native to weld up a quantity of iron

hooping into a plate quite thick and large enough to make the hammer,

then, drawing the outline, he bored small holes close together all

round it, broke off the superfluous iron, and finished with the file.

On one occasion we were unfortunate enough to break the little S-shaped

bridle which connects the claw of the mainspring with the arm of the

tumbler. Most of our readers will remember that this portion of a

gun-lock is of a most peculiar form, being not only S-shaped, but

flat-cheeked and T-ended. Notwithstanding the apparently complicated

nature of the undertaking, a new one had to be made; so we proceeded as

follows:--One of our small mining picks chanced to have an iron wedge

(which had originally been cut from an old patten iron) in the handle.

This we softened in the fire, worked into form on the head of an

upturned hammer with one of smaller size, and then roughly finished it

up with a handsaw file. The screw hole had then to be made, and, as we

had no drill, we took the scissors from our fishing-book, ground down

the point on our bit of Turkey hone, tempered it in the candle, and

then, by dint of hard labour and persistent boring, made a hole through

the end of the bridle. We then gave our work a few finishing touches,

tied it up in a bit of old leather, heated it in the fire, plunged it

in water to case-harden, and then secured it in the lock, where it

performed its work well until we parted with the gun so repaired.

{Sighting guns.}

Most of the hunters in South Africa find that ivory, from its agreeable

creamy white, is better adapted for the "korel," or front sight of

a gun, than the polished metal used for that purpose by the maker.

Sometimes the sight is accidentally lost, and has to be replaced; but

more frequently the dazzling bit of metal is purposely knocked off.

[Illustration: 1-9]

A broad flat groove, say 1/2in. broad, or as wide as a handsaw file,

and 1/16in. deep, is cut across the midrib of the gun (Fig. 1), and the

edges of this are under cut, either with a sharp-edged file, or, if

the operator is expert in the use of tools, with a chisel and mallet.

A piece of ivory (Fig. 3), cut so that the grain runs with the length

of the barrel, and with an elevated ridge left in the centre, is then

fitted tightly in, adjusted as nearly as possible, and the metal

clinched down upon it; then the central ridge is filed on either side

until, by occasionally firing at a mark, the gun is found to shoot

without lateral deviation. It should, in the beginning, be considerably

too high, and should then be filed down so as to carry the bullet point

blank to its mark at a hundred yards.

If the back sight is lost, cut a notch across the midrib as before,

and fashion a piece of iron (Fig. 2) to the same shape as you did your

ivory, only let the elevated ridge in this case be across the barrel.

File a notch in the centre, and leave the iron a little wider than

the rib, so that it may admit of being driven a little to either side,

and the superfluous metal filed off when the adjustment is nearly

perfected. Mark it, and take it out to do this; then put it in again,

clinch it, and test it by firing at a mark.

Figs. 4 and 5 represent the position of the two sights. If the gun

shoots to the right, shift the back sight (Fig. 6) to the left and the

front sight (Fig. 7) to the right; if to the left, shift the back sight

(Fig. 8) to the right, and the front one (Fig. 9) to the left. If the

gun shoots too low, file down the front sight; if too high, file down

the notch of the back sight.

In one of our own rifles the front sight was, as usual in military

patterns, based on the block of iron which forms the check for the

bayonet (Fig. 11). We did not remove this, but cut behind it a very

shallow groove an inch broad, and in this fixed and soldered a piece of

iron with a longitudinal groove, to carry a knife-edged sight of ivory,

as seen in Fig. 10.

[Illustration: 12 DAY

13 NIGHT

14 DAY

15 NIGHT

16 NIGHT

17 DUTCH ROER]

For night shooting, we used the only sixpence to be found amongst our

party; bending and polishing it and clinching it on to a saddle of

zinc painted black. Holes were punched in this for leather thongs, and

in front was a notch cut to fit the actual sight, and so insure the

central position of the silver one when in use (Fig. 13). By day the

saddle was turned beneath the barrel (Fig. 12), and the little flat

thongs of antelope hide were not at all in the way. With guns not of

military pattern the sight could not so conveniently be turned under,

but would have to be removed by day; but we should think a broad silver

sight might be fixed on a steel spring on the rib behind the sight,

with a broad ring to slip over and keep it down by day, as in Fig. 15,

or to draw back and let it rise into view by night as in Fig. 14 (p.

201). For the same purpose our late friend, C. J. Andersson, used to

wrap a bit of white paper round the muzzle of his gun, pinching it up

in the centre, or laying a cord under it to give it a little elevation

(Fig. 16).

As a protection, and also for the contrast of the colours, the Dutch,

and many of the English colonists, stitch very tightly over all a

bit of skin from the inside of the elephant's ear (Fig. 17). This

is very fine, exceedingly strong, and, when rubbed with a little

grease, intensely black; it is then very carefully cut, to allow the

front sight to appear through, and left to dry. Another advantage

of this plan is, that it corrects the errors often caused by the

mirage or refraction of the sun's rays from the polished barrel,

which, especially in the tropics, causes the object aimed at to

become indistinct, to assume the appearance of motion, and to be seen

sometimes considerably above its true position, thereby causing the

marksman to miss by shooting over it.

{Sheath knives or bayonets.}

No wise traveller ever encumbers himself with a long sword or bayonet

of ordinary pattern; but every one carries a sheath knife, of from 6in.

to 12in. in the blade; and the handle of this ought to be made so that

it may fix as a bayonet on his gun. We have seen natives considerably

astonished by this sudden conversion of our gun into a spear to kill a

wounded animal.

If the knife handle were simply made round, so as to stick into the

barrel, like the bayonet of old times, it would be better than nothing;

but if the side-springs were generally adopted, it might be well to

arm our troops, intended for service in wild countries, with a good

serviceable sheath knife, of 8in. or 10in. in the blade, to be used for

general purposes, and fixed as a bayonet when wanted, rather than with

the orthodox triangular needle, that is only of use in opportunities

that occur but rarely. We remember a party of a certain line regiment

coming upon a number of Hottentots, when their officer ordered them to

fix bayonets, forgetting for the moment that as usual they had been

left at home--just as were the swords and steel scabbards of the Cape

Corps--lest their rattling should give warning to the crafty foe. It is

a common custom in India, when real work has to be done, to throw aside

the steel scabbards and replace them with wooden ones, which have the

double advantage of being noiseless and a preservative to the edge of

the sword. We have heard a man of the Rifle Brigade say, he should not

fear even though lost in the bush. "Shoot the first Kafir that attacks

you," said he, "and arm yourself with his assegai, and no other will

come near you."

Our allies, the Fingoes, in the war of 1850-53, generally carried one

or more assegais, using the shaft as a ramrod, or holding two of them

crosswise in the left hand as a rest for the musket. The Kafirs, when

hard pressed, retain the largest assegai, and, breaking off the shaft,

use it as a sword or dagger. The contest is often prolonged by picking

up the assegais thrown by the other party, and sending them back again.

To prevent this, sometimes a tribe, bent on a sharp decisive conflict,

will cut the shaft half through, so that it may break when it strikes,

and become useless to the enemy.

The Dutch Boer sits down, rests his elbows on his knees, and extending

his left arm, with the ramrod grasped firmly and planted on the ground,

obtains an almost immovable rest for his heavy roer. Many of them shoot

from the left shoulder, and some few can shoot from either shoulder

equally well--an immense advantage if a man on horseback is surrounded

by enemies.

[Illustration: THE ASSEGAI GUN REST.]

[Illustration: RAMROD GUN REST.]

{Watch-key, to make.}

In an out-of-the way corner of Central India we were so unfortunate as

to lose our watch-key--the last of three. This we replaced as follows:

We first routed out a piece of soft steel about the size of a small

black-lead pencil. After filing off one end perfectly flush, we placed

it in the fire, whilst we prepared the square end of a saddler's awl

by grinding it to the exact size of the key-square of the fusee of the

watch. When the steel was heated to a cherry red, we fixed it upright

in the vice, and then supporting the bit of awl with a pair of pliers

we, with a light hammer, drove it a fair distance into the steel bar.

When it cooled, it was reheated, and the bit of awl driven deeper,

until a square hole of sufficient depth was formed. The bar was then

filed down to the size of the key-hole of the watch. The requisite

length was then cut off; the end flattened out for a thumb-piece; and

a hole drilled in it to pass a thin strip of tendon through. A few

finishing touches were given with a fine file; the work was heated to a

blue heat on a bit of red-hot iron, and was then dropped into a cup of

water. So we made our watch-key, which did its work well through about

4000 miles of travelling, and was as good as new when we returned to

England with it hanging at our whip-cord watch-guard.

{Tools, to temper.}

In all cases in which heat is required for iron work care should be

taken that the fire is perfectly clear, especially if it has been

previously used for melting lead, when any dross or other extraneous

matter should be scrupulously cleared out. Sulphur in any form is most

destructive. It would be well that the operator should learn before

starting how to work up and fresh temper a cold chisel, or punch, or

even to make one if needful out of a broken file or rasp; of course,

the punch is round, square, or octagonal, according to circumstances,

and generally flat at the end to drive back the nail or bolt that is

to be withdrawn. Sometimes a tapered point on a triangular instrument,

such as a handsaw file, with the edges sharpened, is useful for driving

into a broken nipple, and by turning it against the sun to extract

it when sufficient hold has not been left for the usual nipple key.

The cold chisel is first forged to a chisel edge, more or less finely

tapering according to the strength required, the two sides forming an

angle of about 15° to 20° with each other; the cantle is then filed

or ground till its sides form an angle of from 45° to 90°; it is

then heated to a cherry red, and dipped in water cautiously at first,

being frequently taken out and watched during the process till it

assumes a pale straw colour, a deeper tint or even a deep blue or

purple, according to the degree of hardness required, and is finally

ground sharp upon a stone with plenty of cold water. Small tools may

be tempered by laying them on a piece of red-hot iron, such as a bit

of waggon-wheel tire; the changing colours should be watched, and when

the desired tint appears the tool may be plunged into water. Should it

be too hard the temper may be reduced by dry grinding; when a temper

not quite so hard and less liable to fly is required, it may be given

by cooling the steel in grease or oil. The tools carried for this

purpose must vary according to the means of conveyance. On the North

Australian Expedition we had a portable forge, which remained at the

main camp, but on our inland journeys with packed horses we took as

many horse-shoes as were thought requisite, a small hand hammer, a pair

of tongs, a few files, rasps and punches, and a supply of nails.

{Case-hardening.}

It not unfrequently happens that some object, such as a fish-hook, key,

portion of a gun-lock, or gun furniture, will require being so treated

as to harden the surface whilst toughness of texture is retained. This

process is known as case-hardening, which is, as its name implies,

one by which a hard case or crust is formed over the surfaces of the

articles operated on. There are numerous instruments and contrivances

in constant use in the construction of which the toughness of iron

combined with the hardness of steel, communicated by the process about

to be described, is taken advantage of. Gun furniture, fish-hooks,

and handcuffs are examples, the latter most remarkedly so, as, were

they composed of ordinary iron, nothing would be more easy than to

file or saw them through; if of steel, a blow with a stone, or any

other heavy substance, would break them as though made of earthenware.

When case-hardened neither of these devices is available. Too hard to

cut, too tough to break, the metal is all that can be desired. Having

fashioned, filed up, and finished the article or articles in hand,

procure a fair quantity of leather cuttings, or horsehoof parings.

These should be roasted crisp, and pounded up until a sufficient

quantity of coarse powder is obtained to bury the "work" when laid in

a little iron box, which can be conveniently made by doubling up the

edges and ends of a bit of sheet iron. In the absence of iron, clay may

be used to form the box. This, when filled and gently pressed down,

must be placed, when dry, in a clear bright fire, and heated up to a

blood red heat, at which temperature it should be allowed to remain for

a short time, taking care not to increase it. The box and its contents

may then be withdrawn with the tongs, and thrown into a pail of cold

water. The work may, when cold, be washed and brushed clean, made

thoroughly dry, oiled, and put aside for use. Ferrocyanide of potassium

is also extensively used for case-hardening, being either sprinkled

over the work when hot, or mixed with some convenient substance, such

as dried cow dung, and placed in the box; but, unless in the hands of

those accustomed to use it, the surfaces of the work at times become

"pitted" from the contact of stray particles of the salt.

{To platinise iron, &c.}

Professor Church gives the following directions for covering the

surfaces of metallic objects with a film of platinum: "Dissolve in

1oz. of distilled water 60grs. of bichloride of platinum and 60grs.

of pure honey. Add to the above solution 3/4oz. of spirits of wine,

and 1/4oz. of ether. The mixed liquids, if not quite clear, must be

filtered through a piece of white blotting-paper. The objects to be

platinised, which may be of iron, steel, copper, bronze, or brass,

are to be thoroughly cleaned by washing them in soda, then in water.

When they have been dried they require heating over a lamp to a heat

below redness. For this purpose they may be suspended, by means of a

fine wire, over a spirit or an oil lamp, in such a way as not to touch

the flame. Suddenly, before they have had time to cool, the objects

are to be completely plunged beneath the surface of the platinising

liquid. One immersion for a single minute generally suffices, but the

process may be repeated if necessary, care being taken to wash and dry

the pieces operated upon before re-heating them. The composition of

the solution may vary considerably, and yet good results be obtained.

Sometimes the addition of more honey improves it; sometimes the

proportion of bichloride of platinum may be increased or diminished

with advantage. Indeed, it will be found that the appearance of the

platinum film deposited upon the objects may be altered by changing

the proportion of the bichloride present. The solution may be used

several times; gradually, however, it loses all its platinum, the place

of this element being taken by the iron or copper dissolved off the

immersed objects."

If the film of platinum deposited by this method is found to be

permanently adherent, the plan promises to be very valuable. It would

be a great boon to travellers in warm, damp countries to be able

to protect iron and steel articles by so simple a process. In the

same article Professor Church describes a new and very simple plan

of inlaying iron with silver, and also for enamelling metals with

different colours. Both these processes really come within the scope

of amateurs, and we can strongly recommend the entire paper to those

interested in the chemical arts.

We may now appropriately mention a few examples where this platinising

process seems to furnish desirable results. Articles made of iron or

steel--watch-chains, seals, sword-handles, keys, and similar useful or

ornamental objects--are greatly improved in appearance, and, moreover,

preserved from all chance of rusting, by this treatment. The colour of

the platinum film is of a neutral greyish black, and it often shows

at the same time a faint iridescence. Iron or steel which has been

inlaid with gold or silver, forming what is known as damascene work,

is greatly improved by platinising. Neither the gold nor the silver

are in the least degree affected, and they will be found to afford a

better contrast with the colour of the platinised than with that of the

original iron.

{To preserve iron from rusting.}

Iron which has become deeply rusted cannot be platinised by our

process. In order, however, to preserve from further destruction

objects of steel or iron having an archæological or artistic interest,

a very excellent plan may be used as a substitute. The purest white

paraffine is to be melted in a clean pan, and maintained at about the

temperature of boiling water. The rusted and corroded specimens are to

be immersed in this paraffine bath till they cease to froth from escape

of moisture. They are then withdrawn, wrapped in blotting-paper, and

kept in a warm place till the excess of paraffine has been absorbed.

The objects thus treated, while preserved from further decay, do not

acquire that disagreeable greasy aspect which the varnish ordinarily

used imparts. We have been obliged to tar our saw blades, which was

very inconvenient in working, but this was better than having them

spoiled by rust.

{Smith's tools.}

If the traveller has a waggon, as in South Africa, he may either carry

a portable forge or trust to finding natives capable of building one

and supplying bellows of their own manufacture. If he thinks the weight

of a small anvil too great, he should carry a heavy sledge hammer,

which will serve as an anvil for ordinary purposes; two hand hammers of

different weights; half-a-dozen pair of tongs, of such form and size

as will enable him conveniently to hold the different sizes of work

he may find necessary to do; at least a dozen files or more--square,

flat, half-round, or rat-tail; and of these the temper should never be

destroyed by working with them on iron that has not yet become cool,

though occasionally time may be saved by using a worn-out file to work

on iron while it is yet hot and comparatively soft; cold chisels of

different sizes, from small ones of 1/4in. or 1/2in. wide, to be tapped

with a small hand hammer, to others of 1-1/2in., to be held by pieces

of rod iron coiled round them, or still better by rods of osier, and

to be struck with the sledge hammer; if there is an anvil, of course

a chisel to fix upright in the hole provided will be taken with it;

punches of various sizes, and a stock and set of drills for boring

holes up to 1/2in. in diameter, with rymers, or tapering four-edged

tools for gradually enlarging them, and countersinks for letting in

the heads of screws, &c., to the surface level. For small work, such

as gun-locks, &c., an Archimedean drill and set of bits are very

convenient, a hand-vice and set of gunsmith's small files--triangular,

square, flat, half-round, round, and knife-edged--should accompany them.

{Muskets, to repair.}

A traveller will frequently have occasion either for his own servants

or for the natives of the country to put "fresh fire" into the pan

cover of a musket; for this purpose nothing is better than the blade

of an old saw, the thinner the better; a piece is broken off, softened

and filed down to the exact size; it is then bent so as to fit the face

of the pan-cover, and is bound on to it by several turns of iron wire,

not drawn so tightly but that bits of copper wire may be thrust beneath

them all round the edges that are to be joined; borax, dissolved in

water, is now laid on with an old brush, and, if necessary, small lumps

are also added, and the whole is placed in the fire and heated till

the copper melts and brazes the two parts firmly together; let it cool

slowly, finish it carefully with the file, heat it to a dull red, and

temper by cooling it in water. Half-civilised Hottentots frequently do

this.

{Fish-hooks, to make.}

The snoek-hook used in Table Bay is a bit of brass wire as thick as a

quill and 7in. long; the point is filed sharp, and the barb is merely

such a triangular notch as might be made with a handsaw file. It is not

bent in a true sweeping curve, like our fish-hooks, but turned sharply

up at about 2in. from the point, so that when the lip is pierced, it

slips at once into the sharp bend of the hook, and the struggles of the

fish are less likely to break it than they would be if it afforded the

leverage that the usual form of fish-hook gives. (See Fig. 20, p. 211.)

Fish-hooks can be made by taking a wire or rod of the required size

and softening it by heating it to a bright red and letting it cool

very slowly in sawdust or leaving it till the fire dies out; let the

soft end abut against something solid, and, with a sharp chisel and

mallet, make a deep cut at such an angle as to form the barb; file

up the point, heat it again, and bend it round a stick of the proper

size so that the curve may be true. We have, before now, broken up a

gridiron at the galley fire, and with a hook thus formed from one of

the bars caught a young shark, whose flesh formed a very desirable

addition to our fare. On another occasion, while exploring a branch

of the Victoria River, in North Australia, we halted, as usual, at

noon, with scanty rations, which Mr. Gregory improved by taking from

his hat a stout sewing needle, softening it in the fire, and bending

it into a fish-hook, baited with grasshoppers; a few strands of thread

made a sufficiently strong line, a small sapling formed a rod, and,

in a few minutes, he had caught three fish, resembling mullet, nearly

18in. long. The needle had done good service, but was too precious to

be thrown away, so Mr. Gregory carefully restored it to its pristine

straightness, tempered it, and again stuck it in his hat, to be used,

when required, for its legitimate purpose.

{Brass, and its treatment.}

It is rather curious that with brass the softening process is the very

reverse of that we use with iron. Heat a bit of brass and plunge it

into cold water, and, with a sharp knife or chisel, you may carve it

almost like pewter; heat it again when finished, let it cool slowly,

and it becomes as hard as before.

A traveller in Africa should be well provided with brass, the best

form being that of stout wire as thick as stair carpet rods; this will

serve for many useful purposes: hooks, rings, ramrods for guns, or

almost anything can be made of it. While, in lengths sufficient to make

armlets, it is always a convenient medium of barter, or payment for the

services of the natives, who, though they will give nothing for hollow

lacquered curtain rings, will always appreciate solid metal, that may

be cut, worn away, or broken, and remains the same throughout.

{Tinning Copper.}

To tin copper: first clean the surface carefully by rubbing it

with sandpaper or stone, or washing it with diluted nitric acid or

aquafortis; heat it till it is rather too warm to handle, by placing

a hot iron or pan of fire under the part to be tinned; rub on, with a

feather, a little hydrochloric acid (commonly called spirits of salt)

with zinc dissolved in it; then, with a soldering bolt previously

rubbed on sal-ammoniac, touch the bit of tin you hold upon the copper,

and, as you melt it, spread it evenly with a bit of rag over the

surface you wish to tin; this ought to be done with the insides of

all copper vessels that are to be used for containing liquids or for

cooking, and also for the edges of sheets that are afterwards to be

soldered together. Even if the edges were to be riveted, it would

still be advisable to tin them, as they might then also be soldered by

slightly heating them and running a little tin into the joint, by means

of the heated bolt rubbed on sal-ammoniac, as before.

Small iron nails, tacks, fish-hooks, &c., are protected from

the effects of rust by tinning. The process is carried out as

follows:--First cleanse the objects to be operated on in diluted

sulphuric acid, then place them with broken fragments of tin and

sal-ammoniac in an earthenware bottle over a strong charcoal fire. When

the coating of tin is found to be complete, they are first washed in

clean water, and then dried in hot bran or sawdust.

[Illustration: 1-20]

{Sheet metal, to join.}

A very strong joint may be made by turning up, say 1/2in., more or

less, of the edge of one sheet (Fig. 1), then laying in it the edge of

the other (Fig. 2), and turning up the edges of both (Fig. 3); then,

keeping the joint pressed down, lift up the second sheet as you would

open a book, and press it out flat and open (Fig. 4). You cannot make

this joint in the two edges of the same sheet, turned round upon each

other (Fig. 5), unless you first nearly flatten the two parts (Fig. 6),

when they may be doubled upon each other, and the sheet restored to its

cylindrical form by the insertion of any pointed cylinder, such as, for

instance, the horn of the anvil or a block of wood rounded and tapered

at the end (Fig. 7). Suppose it is required to make a pannikin, this

joint, whether previously tinned so that it may be soldered or not, is

the only proper one, but the corners should previously have been cut

away, so that only a single or, at most, a slightly overlapping double

thickness may be left at top and bottom (Fig. 8). The bottom edge is

now turned outwards by gently tapping it on the block or anvil edge

with a hammer till it resembles a narrow flange (Fig. 9). A circular

piece is now cut for the bottom so much larger as to allow a rim to be

turned up all round (Fig. 10), and to admit the flange within it (Fig.

11); then setting it flat upon the anvil, and forcing into it a block

of wood that has been cut perfectly to fit it, clinch down the rim of

the bottom upon the flange (Fig. 12), and turn them both up against

the side together (Fig. 13). The top edge may now be rolled over in

the same manner, and it will give additional strength if the rim is

strengthened by the insertion of a piece of wire. If the foregoing

joints have been carefully made you will have a water-tight and, what

is more, a fireproof pannikin with or without the aid of solder, and

a handle can be riveted on or not just as suits your convenience. One

great advantage of the folded joint is, that if it is not too tightly

hammered down, the parts will slide freely on each other, and advantage

may be taken of this for making an opening in one side of a cannister

to be closed by a sliding lid; or, if you are making a pannikin or

other vessel, and your metal is not large enough to make the whole

circumference in one piece, cut a small strip (Fig. 14) of the breadth

you wish the joint, say 3/16in. or 1/4in., and fold the edge of the

metal twice over it (Fig. 15), then draw it out; do the same with

the other edge, and also with the edges of the piece you intend to

insert (Fig. 16), and you may then, with a little care, slip the parts

together, and clinch down the joints as closely as you wish (Fig. 17).

If the corners have previously been snipped off, or smoothed with a

file, it will considerably increase the facility of doing this.

{Utilisation of meat tin cases.}

During the North Australian Expedition, when Mr. Gregory was preparing

for the journey from the Victoria River to the Albert, in the Gulf

of Carpentaria, he collected all the emptied preserved meat tins,

and burning off the old paint by placing them above the forge fire,

smoothed down the tin upon the surface with a piece of _greasy_ rag,

trimmed up the ragged edges, and, in most cases, obtained sheets of

tinned iron nearly equal to new; from these he made pannikins of

graduated sizes, in fact a nest of them, one fitting into the other

from the largest to the least, thus securing comfort and convenience to

his party, and utilising material which many persons would have thrown

away as useless.

In opening a packing case lined with tin, care should be taken to cut

the edges as clean as possible, for not only are ragged points liable

to tear the hands very disagreeably, but if you wish to make use of

the tin in any other manner, it is of great importance that it should

be kept quite clean, flat, and free from unsightly wrinkles; a smooth

sheet of tin may be cut, turned, or bent almost at will, but if it has

previously been wrinkled, it is absolutely impossible to restore it to

flatness, and to make a true joint in it is as much out of the question

as to write freely on note paper fall of unsightly folds or creases.

For cutting tin or other sheet metal, a pair of small tin snips, say

8in. or 9in. in total length, will be found exceedingly useful: stout

copper or sheet-iron may be cut with them.

{Dishes and plates, to make.}

To make plates or dishes of sheet iron or other metal, cut out a disc

or oval, of the size you wish, and then draw a line parallel to the

edge all round it (Fig. 18); then draw lines radiating from the centre,

like points on a compass card, as many as you please, say twelve, which

will divide each quarter into three parts, answering to the hours on a

clock face.

Make a small hollow across the end of a block of wood, the stem of the

nearest small tree cut off at a convenient length for instance, lay the

edge of your plate on it with one of the radiating lines corresponding

with the hollow; strike it with the edge of your hammer till you have

slightly indented it, do the same on the opposite side, and then with

the other two quarters; repeat this all round, and you will have a very

neat and useful plate, with scolloped edges like the patty pans usually

sold by tinmen (Fig. 19).

{Rivets.}

A few rivets of various sizes, of iron, tin, and copper, should be

taken; but, if the work is to be exposed to the action of the water,

care should be taken not to fasten iron sheets with copper rivets, as

the action of the metals on each other will be most destructive.

Tin rivets may be used to fasten any other metal where great strength

is not required, and they are very advantageous for many purposes, as

handles of tin or copper pannikins. By these we mean rivets of tin, not

of iron tinned over, which also are useful, but not so easily worked.

{Make-shift forge and bellows.}

To extemporise a forge and bellows, the natives of Africa and India,

who invariably squat down to their work, simply make their fire on the

ground, which is previously smoothed and clayed over; behind this is

raised a bank or fence of clay, perforated for the admission of a tube,

either of wood of the bark of a small tree, or of the horn of an ox, or

other large animal.

Their bellows are variously formed, but in every instance a pair are

used, being worked alternately, one with the right hand and the other

with the left, so as to keep up a continuous blast. They are generally

formed of goat or antelope skins of about the same size, which are

skinned off as "sacks," and braiied or softened in the usual manner.

[Illustration: NATIVE INDIAN BLACKSMITH.]

The sack is made by cutting the skin of the animal along the inside of

the thighs, and then, without making any other incision, stripping it

over the fore part of the body, the head being previously cut off, the

skin of the legs is sewn or knotted up to prevent the escape of air. In

one of the hinder legs of each bag is fitted a smaller tube, frequently

of gemsbok horn, and to the sides of the aperture of the neck are sewn

two pieces of stick with loops upon them for the insertion in one of

the thumbs, and in the other of the fingers, so that by expanding the

hand the neck can be opened while it is raised to inflate the bag, and

closed up by grasping it tightly when it is pressed down to force the

stream of air upon the fire; then by inflating and compressing the bags

alternately, the primary object of a continuous and sufficient supply

of air is obtained.

There are various modifications of form, in some of which more or less

wood is very ingeniously used; but as the power of the whole depends

entirely on the amount of air that can be inclosed in and forcibly

expelled from the skin bags, we think the foregoing description will

sufficiently answer the purpose.

If the traveller wishes--as an Englishman generally does--to stand up

to his work, he can build up for his forge a square of rough stones,

and then smooth over the top with a mixture of cattle dung and clay,

of which last anthills broken up afford the finest quality; or if the

hills are sufficiently large, he may at once smooth off the top of one

and shape the embankment in the rear. But in this case he will also

have to raise another platform, not only to carry his bellows, but for

the blower to sit upon; for we doubt whether a native in the wilderness

could be prevailed upon to blow them in any other position.

One of the most important portions of a waggon, and at the same time

one most liable to damage, is the axle, and it is therefore of vital

consequence that the traveller should understand properly how to set

about repairing it.

{New axles.}

Suppose it be necessary to condemn the broken axle and make a new one;

the first care is to seek out a tree of good hard wood--"kameel doorn"

(_Acacia giraffæ_) is about the best a traveller is generally likely to

find, though many other varieties may be used--and in thinly wooded

countries this may imply a day or more spent in searching for miles

around, for the trunk should be of tolerably straight grain, solid,

and capable of affording a log 6ft. or 7ft. in length, 10in. in depth,

and 4in. in thickness. A yoke of oxen may be sent to draw it home,

and it should then be truly, however roughly, squared up to the above

dimensions.

The size of the aperture in the nave, both at the back and front of

the wheel, should then be taken, they will generally be about 4in.,

tapering to 3in. or 2-1/2in.; the length of the arm will probably be

from 14in. to 16in. In cutting the arm _nothing_ is to be tapered off

from the front (Fig. 1) or from the lower part (Fig. 2), all the taper

being cut from above and from behind, so that the wheels may incline a

little inward in front and below, and if the axle arms should bend a

little with the weight of cargo and with the forward draught, they may

only have a tendency to resume a true position.

The arms should be carefully lined off in accordance with these rules,

and in cutting the shoulder (Fig. 3) it should be squared, not from the

edge of the axle, but from a line (dotted in the illustration) drawn

along the centre of the arm, so that the back of the nave may bear

truly against it. In cutting the shoulder be sure not to weaken the

arm by letting the saw go, however little, beyond the proper depth,

for where so great a pressure has to be borne the slightest cut would

become the beginning of a fracture. When the arms have been cut and

roughly rounded by saw and adze or axe, trim them with the spoke-shave,

and occasionally try on the wheel, whirling it round to test the

truthfulness of the work--there is almost sure to be sufficient grease

or tar left in it to mark all the undue projections, and to leave clean

the hollows on the arm, and the marks should be carefully examined

that you may know what parts require to be trimmed away. It is now

time to take off the iron work from the condemned axle; and sufficient

notice should be taken of every piece, to know exactly to what portion

of the woodwork it is to be restored, for much extra difficulty is

occasioned by any uncertainty on this point. Bolts, though of the same

apparent size, should not be transferred at random from one side to

the other, and every nut, when once removed, should be scrupulously

restored to the individual bolt it belongs to. These injunctions may

seem needlessly strict; but we speak from experience, and if the reader

has to attempt the work now under consideration he will do well to

attend as strictly to them.

[Illustration]

The iron skeins, or friction guards (Fig. 4), should be removed from

the arms of the old axle and carefully let into the corresponding

ones of the new; and when nearly fitted they may be slightly heated

so as to char and smooth the bed for themselves, as well as to grip

more tightly, in cooling, the wood they are meant to protect. Before

fastening them with their proper bolts the wheels should be tried on to

ascertain that they have been truly fitted.

Note.--The sketch above shows, on one side, the kap tent, or

properly-built roof, and on the other, the wattled substitute. O is

the front of the "kadel," or swinging bed frame, L, 8, M, on the next

page, are the yokes, skeis, and trek gear, drawn to the scale given

at the side.

If, as is most frequently the case, the new axle is a front one, it

must now be fitted under the rest of the fore "stell" or "carriage"

(H), the holes for the connecting bolts and perch-bolt marked and truly

bored, and the clamps which bind it to the upper portion heated, driven

into their place, and tightened by being suddenly cooled with water.

[Illustration]

Sometimes, when it is not necessary, or wood sufficiently large cannot

be procured, to make a new axle, a new arm (I) may be let in, and

this should be scarfed and checked in, and the inner end (Fig. 5),

which reaches nearly to the centre of the axle, cut, not square, but

diagonally across, so that the after side is somewhat longer than the

front, and this, preventing the inner end from coming forward, will

also counteract the natural tendency of the draught to force the arm

backward.

If the longitudinal cut (Fig. 6) for the scarf is also made not square

across, but a little inclined upwards in front, it will also help to

resist the backward pressure of the wheel. No fastening beyond the

bolt which passes through the quarter of the axle and the band at the

shoulder is absolutely necessary for the fixing of a new arm. We have,

upon one occasion, not only made a new axle, but when, from unsoundness

of timber, a new arm was necessary, have put in one on which the

heavily-loaded waggon ran nearly 1000 miles; and besides this, the

fore "tong" (J), or socket in which the dissel-boom or pole (K) works

being much broken, we cut off the jaws on either side, and fitted new

ones in a manner that will be much better understood by the above

sketch than by description; and these, after running from the Zambesi

to Otjimbengue, were still so firm that the professional waggon-wright,

deemed it necessary only to secure them by the addition of a couple of

bands put on hot, and shrunk down on them with water.

{Repairing poles.}

Frequently the "dissel-boom" or pole will break, but the cutting

and fitting of a new one is too simple a matter to need much more

instruction than a careful inspection of the old one will afford; it

was our practice, however, to bore a hole perpendicularly downward

behind the dissel-bolt (Fig. 7), and by means of a 1/2in. bolt and nut,

tightly screwed, preserve the pole from splitting when subjected to a

heavy strain.

Mr. Reeder, whom we met near the Zambesi, showed us a very ingenious

plan of staying the dissel-boom when the fore tong was weakened.

Chapman went out and shot a rhinoceros, and Reeder first nailed a chock

upon the dissel-boom, and fixed on it a grummet of rhinoceros hide

as tight as possible, then, taking a long, stout strip of the same,

he hitched the middle of it on in front of the grummet, leading the

parts to each side of the splinter bar, and thence under the axle to

the bolts behind it, where the ends were thinned off sufficiently to

admit of their being easily made fast. These stays did not come forward

enough to gall the after oxen. The great virtue of raw hide is that,

instead of slackening like rope when it dries, it shrinks, and becomes

as hard as iron. Suppose a dissel-boom sprung where another could

not be procured, the skin from the leg of an ox, or a wild animal of

corresponding size--say a buffalo or quagga--drawn on while wet and

allowed to dry, would make the joint firmer even than the unfractured

part (Fig. 8). The skin from the tail of an ox will, in the same

manner, mend a broken waggon whip; and that of a calf's tail is in like

manner used by the Kafirs to bind the part where the iron of their

assegais or light javelins is inserted into the shaft. Quagga skin,

indeed, is especially used for this purpose, and hardly for any other,

as it is so rigid that the ordinary means for softening leather are

of no avail. Sometimes the Dutch farmers use the skin, just as it is

stripped off, as a jar or barrel to hold corn or other produce.

[Illustration]

{The repair of wheels.}

A long journey over rough roads and in an intensely hot country, like

Africa in the dry season, will tell upon the best-made wheels, and

the spokes and tires will become loose most frequently where it is

impossible properly to rectify the defect. In such cases a number of

wedges of dry, straight-grained wood must be prepared, and for this

purpose some box or packing-case, made of deal, must be sacrificed, as

it will be almost impossible to procure anything so suitable in the

bush; the plank must be cut into pieces between 3in. and 4in. long,

and, if these are again sawn diagonally along their length, material

will be saved by the production of two wedges, where only one could

have been made by the whittling process. These must be driven tightly

in from back and front, between the felloe and the tire, and as equally

as possible all round the wheel; if they are then wetted with, and

allowed to absorb, a strong solution of salt in water, they will swell,

and will not again shrink as they would if wetted with water only. We

knew one very practical Englishman who used to soak his wedges in salt

and water before driving them in, but what he gained by thus previously

swelling them we never were able to learn. If the spokes become loose

in the nave the temporary remedy is to cut two stout bars, in length

just equal to the diameter of the wheel; half check them so as to give

them a better hold on the felloe; lay them parallel to each other on

the front of the wheel, one on each side the nave, and bind every spoke

as firmly as possible to them with thongs of raw hide, taking care to

keep the lashings quite close to the centre of the wheel; the drying up

of the thongs will shrink them so much that the fabric of the wheel

will be as firmly bound together as if clamped with iron.

If a spoke be broken, cut a new one much thicker than the rest, half

check it on to the back of the felloe, and let the other end abut

upon the nave, filling up nearly the space between the sound spokes

on either side; it should need to be driven in tightly, and, when in

position, should be secured by thongs of raw hide, both at the nave and

at the felloe, to sticks laid across the front of the spokes on either

side, and securely lashed to them.

{Lead, and its uses.}

Lead is useful for a multitude of purposes; its great specific gravity,

and the ease with which it can be melted, cut, hammered, moulded, and

bent, render it especially valuable as a handy metal. Our space will

not admit of our giving more than a few of the most noteworthy purposes

to which it can be applied by the hunter and explorer. Projectiles of

all sizes can be made from it, from the ponderous cannon shot to the

small sizes used by the hunter naturalist.

{Cannon shot.}

Round shot for artillery, of excellent quality, can be manufactured

from lead; and there is no doubt that for certain purposes it is far

superior to the iron missiles in general use, the cheapness of the

latter material being its great recommendation. It will sometimes

happen in wild countries that although regular cannon balls are not

obtainable lead is, and to make round shot from it two or three methods

may be adopted. The first is to form a ball from well-mixed clay, or

carve one from wood, of size to fit the bore of the piece easily, but

not too loosely. The clay ball will require thorough drying in the sun

or before a slow fire before use. The wooden one will merely require

sprinkling over with fine ashes from the camp fire to fit it for use.

Two large calabashes, wooden boxes, bowls, or cooking pots, are now

to be rather more than filled with well-kneaded clay, which has been

carefully freed from stones or grit, pressing it well down with a flat

board until it is quite even at the surface and is perfectly compact.

The clay round the edges of the two clay holders must now be trimmed

off with a knife even with the sides of the holders, but projecting

about an inch beyond the brim. The surface of each is now to be

sprinkled with very fine ashes, and the ball pressed into the centre

of the clay until it is half imbedded. It is then to be carefully

removed, and pressed in like manner on the other holder. The ball is

then taken out and laid aside, the two holders being allowed to dry

slowly, care being taken that the clay is not cracked by the too sudden

application of heat. When thoroughly dry, the vessels or holders are

to be placed mouth to mouth, and so fitted, by scraping the clay, that

the two indentations formed by the ball fit exactly facing each other;

when this has been done, a funnel-shaped inlet must be cut for the

admission of the molten lead. The two holders may now be put together,

secured with a lashing of cord or strips of hide, and the metal run in

at the inlet. Some time must be allowed to elapse before the mould is

disturbed, or the lead will not have sufficiently settled to admit of

the shot being removed without injury to the apparatus. The tail of

lead formed by the inlet serves to lift the shot out by, and is then

cut off flush with the surface. A number of balls may with care be made

with the same pair of holders, only the greatest caution is needed in

this, as with all other operations in which molten lead is used, to

guard against the presence of moisture in the mould, or most serious

accidents will happen.

We were busily engaged one night over the camp fire casting heavy

bullets for our large smooth bore, making use of an iron ladle for the

lead, and a large pair of iron moulds for the balls. These had become

rather hot and were laid aside to cool; and whilst this was doing, as

the lead was beginning to run rather short, we started for the tent

to get more, desiring one of the Indians, who was keeping up the fire

and generally aiding in the operations, to go on casting so soon as

the moulds were cool. That no time might be lost, our dusky assistant

plunged the hot mould in a pot of water, closed it up, and proceeded to

pour in the charge of heated metal, when a violent explosion instantly

took place, scattering the boiling lead broadcast over the naked legs

and bodies of the unfortunate natives, sending the ladle one way, the

mould another, and causing a perfect panic and dire dismay throughout

the party.

Soft stones of many kinds can be conveniently made use of for casting

in, taking two of equal size, scooping out the cavity in each stone

of the form intended to be given to the casting, and then cutting an

inlet. Common Bath scouring bricks answer this purpose admirably. We

constantly use them for casting fishing leads, plummets, bodies for

artificial baits, &c. &c. Two bricks, or portions of brick, are made

use of. The surfaces are rendered smooth by rubbing them together.

The intended cavity is then marked with a sharp point on each half,

and scooped neatly out with a knife, chisel, or other convenient

instrument; when finished, notched, and the inlet cut, the two halves

are tied together with tape and the lead poured in. Objects of six

or seven pounds weight can be made by the use of two common scouring

bricks. Balls of large size are often made in the East by hammering

square masses of lead, or iron, on an anvil until sufficiently round

for use. Great labour and no little skill are required to perform the

operation, which after all leads to very unsatisfactory results, the

balls being rough and untrue, corresponding with the interiors of the

barrels they are intended to be fired from. We have seen heavy stones

and bits of iron covered with lead fired from the most unpromising

looking matchlocks, which, somehow or another, deliver their charge

with greater force and accuracy than would be anticipated on a first

examination. The best moulds for casting bullets of all sizes and forms

are those made from gun-metal, bronze, or brass.

{Buck-shot mould.}

A buck-shot mould of either of these materials will be found of great

value. We have one which has proved on many occasions of the greatest

service; it is constructed to contain two rows of cavities for the

shot, seven in each row, one above the other; so that when the groove

leading to the inlets is filled with lead, and all the cavities are

charged, the second row is turned upwards and treated in the same

manner. The shot, when cold, are cut from their necks with a knife or

strong pair of scissors, and are then fit for use. They should be about

the size of common peas, and a charge of them from a large powerful gun

is tremendously effective; they are extremely useful for deer jumping,

antelope shooting, wild goose or bustard stalking. At very short

distances, and in close encounter with a large animal, they may be

used with destructive effect, but must be only considered in the light

of a makeshift when the true large game of the forest has to be dealt

with. Against attacking hordes of savages, in a bush fight, or canoe

encounter, they are invaluable. The charge must be proportioned to the

size of the guns; those of heavy metal and large bore generally deliver

them best.

{Slugs, to make.}

Slugs are to be made by filling a box or large pot with fine clean

sand, forcing it down tight, and then with a smooth round stick, about

the size of a small pencil, making a number of holes from the surface

to the bottom of the vessel or receiver in which the sand has been

placed. When as many are made as the space will admit of, pour the

molten lead steadily into them until they are filled; when cold, the

sand can be thrown out, and the leaden rods or pencils separated from

it. These, when laid on a board in rows, can be cut up into short junks

by placing a strong knife on them, and striking it on the back with any

convenient instrument. Thick sheets of lead are cut up into dice in

much the same manner. These are usually shaken about in a tin box or an

iron pot, in order to round off the corners.

[Illustration]

{Shot, to make.}

The manufacture of shot by the amateur, although not quite as easy of

accomplishment as the preparation of slugs, may be, with the exercise

of a little ingenuity, successfully carried out; and although the

produce of his labours will not equal the perfect spheres produced by

the professional shot manufacturer, by the aid of his costly tower,

yet it will be good enough for the description of shooting he will be

likely to obtain in situations where the making of shot is rendered

necessary. We were driven to the necessity of devising the plan we are

about to describe by the impossibility of obtaining shot, coupled with

the urgent want of that to be procured with it. Thus is the operation

to be conducted:--A piece of iron, such as horse-shoes are made from,

is to be obtained if possible, if not, any other piece of iron, about

2ft. long and of moderate width and thickness, will answer the purpose.

About an inch from the end of this drill a wide-mouthed, funnel-shaped

hole, of the form known as a _countersink_, until within about the

eighth of an inch of going through the bar; then, with a drill about

the size of a knitting-needle, extend the hole quite through; next,

get a piece of dry plank, about 3ft. long, and in it, with a handsaw,

cut as many longitudinal cuts as the width of the board will admit

of, making them a little over the eighth of an inch deep and the

thickness of the saw wide. The board, when placed slightly on the

incline, must be so treated with a charge of molten lead that all the

cuts are filled with it from the upper end; the result will be the

formation of a great number of long lead wires. These are to be taken

from the grooves and fresh batches run, until as many pounds have

been made as it is intended to make shot. A preserved-meat tin, or an

ordinary tin pot, must now be about one-third filled with water, and

the remaining two-thirds filled up with oil; the pot must be placed

on a plate or dish, in order to catch any oil which may run over as

the work proceeds. The end of the iron bar which has the hole in it

is now to be placed in the fire and heated to a bright-red heat: when

the other end, round which a piece of cloth may be bound, is grasped

with the left hand, and the bar quickly withdrawn from the fire, struck

smartly against some solid body, in order to remove adhering dust and

ashes, and then held with the wide mouth of the hole upward, a short

distance above the surface of the oil in the pot. A lead wire is now

to be quickly taken up in the right hand and its end pressed well down

into the hole (as shown in the above illustration); if the iron is well

heated, the wire will melt away very rapidly and run in a succession

of drops into the oil: wire after wire is to be thus melted, until the

iron requires reheating. (It is a good plan to have two or more irons

at work, but it is not essential.) This wire-melting process must

be continued until all the stock has been expended, when the solid

contents of the pot may be taken out. If the operation of _dropping_

has been properly performed the result will be shot of about three

sizes--No. 7, No. 4, and duck shot. Certain conditional circumstances

somewhat alter these sizes, but approximately they are to be expected,

and a certain number more or less _tailed_ will generally be found

amongst the rest. To separate the three sizes of round shot two flat

tin boxes or empty sardine tins are required. With a piece of nail

filed down, so as to make a hole the size to just let No. 7 shot

through, punch a number of holes in the bottom of one of the boxes, so

as to make a sort of sieve of it; then with another nail make holes

in the bottom of the second box, just large enough to let your No. 4

through. When these are prepared, wash your mixed shot in water, with

wood ashes in it; this removes all the oil in the form of soap. The

shot, when dry, is ready for sifting with the boxes. The first box lets

only No. 7 or a size or so smaller through, keeping back the No. 4. The

second box lets the No. 4 through, retaining the duck shot. Each size

may now have its own respective _tailers_, or pear-shaped shot, mixed

with it; these can be got rid of by allowing the shot to run down over

a sloping board, when the round shot run straight to the bottom, whilst

the _tailers_ run off at the sides, and can be collected to melt up

again.

{Lead plates, to make.}

Plates of lead for writing inscriptions on can be cast by turning up

the edges of a piece of sheet copper, iron, or tin, just high enough

to form a sort of shallow tray to hold the molten lead. In the absence

of sheet metal, the surface of a box of sand, or a flat stone with a

little wall of clay round it, may be made use of.

{Lead pencils and stock whip handles.}

Lead pencils, for rough carpenter's work, can be made by filling

joints of small cane, marsh reeds, or weed stalks, with melted lead,

and then pointing them with a knife. The handles of stock whips and

some other implements are weighted, and prevented from splitting, by

having lead run into them; some of the former are occasionally very

elaborately ornamented. The operation is performed by first cutting out

the intended pattern on the handle with a sharp-pointed knife or other

instrument, taking care that the cutting penetrates the wood deeply,

that the form of the groove is slightly undercut, and that each ring

of the pattern communicates with the one below it. The first ring on

the stick must have an _inlet_ made in it; strips of stout brown paper

are now, after being slightly moistened and touched over with paste,

rolled round the stick, layer after layer in spiral form, until its

whole length has been thickly covered like the case of a rocket. When

thoroughly dry the lead is run in at the inlet, and when cold the paper

can be stripped off, and the handle finished off and polished with

sand-paper or a bit of fish-skin.

{Bruised gun-barrels, to repair.}

Indentations in the sides of gun or rifle barrels can be taken out by

the following process:--Take the barrel out of the stock; cut a cork so

as to fit the muzzle tightly, and then force it down three inches, ram

in about a quarter of an inch of dry powdered clay on the cork, twist

a cloth dipped in cold water several times round the barrel in order

to prevent the rib from becoming unsoldered by heat, and then fill up

the space above the clay with molten _hardened lead_. (See "To harden

bullets," p. 228.) You will then have a metal plug exactly fitting the

barrel. Remove the cork and clay, and fashion from strong hardwood a

rod just long enough to reach a few inches beyond the indentation. A

bar of iron is now to be heated to a red heat, and placed against the

indented spot on the outside of the barrel; the wet cloth being at the

same time wound above and below it. The metal plug is now to be forced

down the tube with the rod until it rests on the obstruction, when a

few blows with a piece of heavy wood on the upper end of the rod will

generally pass the plug onwards by forcing the tube back to its proper

position. It will be well to reverse ends with the plug and force it up

and down several times, until it travels quite freely past the point of

obstruction.

{Make-shift rifle shells.}

Rifle shells may be extemporised by having little tin tubes the length

of the conical bullet and the size of the gun nipple made. These, when

their ends have been plugged with wood, are placed one by one in the

mould, held upright by a bit of very fine brass wire, and the lead

cast round them, so that the lead at the base of the bullet may extend

beyond the end of the tube and cover it. The thin end of the tube

should project just a trifle beyond the apex of the cone, as a rest for

the cap. The wooden plug at this end is now taken out; the tube filled

with the best sporting powder, and a strong, well made percussion-cap

put on the tube, and secured there with strong varnish, sealing-wax,

or pitch. The loading of a breech-loader with these is accomplished

with no danger, but with a muzzle-loader the very greatest caution

is required. The end of the ramrod or loading stick should be very

deeply countersunk, in order to take all pressure off the cap; and even

with this precaution it is well to make use of an overhanging branch

of a tree to place the rod against, whilst the rifle is thrust muzzle

upwards until the ball is home. Shells somewhat on this principle were

first brought into notice by the late General Jacob, of the Scinde

Irregular Horse. They are tremendously destructive when skilfully used:

destroying large animals by exploding in them, and blowing up magazines

of gunpowder at all but incredible distances; but we have known them

explode _outside_ the elephant and other large pachyderms, thus failing

completely in the object they were used for. Mr. Metford's improvement

on the Jacob shell is worthy of remark. Finding that it did not always

explode, he mixed equal parts of chlorate of potass and sulphate of

antimony; the two can be mixed on a plate with a _bone_ paper-cutter

or a quill pen. The more they are mixed, the more sensitive is their

detonating power. The bullets are moulded with a hole from point nearly

to base, as for Jacob's shells, but no copper tube is used. The powder

is filled in with a quill to the top, and settled down by a few taps

of the base of the bullet on a table, and the end is then stopped with

wax. But it is very questionable whether, in close encounter with large

animals, it is not better, after all, to rely on the more certain

effects of heavy balls of ordinary construction, with strong charges of

powder behind them. With the numerous improvements in rifle shells we

cannot deal, as many of them are too complex in their component parts

for a wandering hunter or explorer to be able to imitate successfully.

{Ladles, spoons, and other substitutes.}

Small ladles or iron spoons are usually used to melt lead in, but,

in the absence of these, bullets and other small matters may be

cast in the following manner, which is a favourite one amongst the

Indians:--A piece of dry hard wood, about 16in. long, 3in. broad, and

2in. thick, is prepared; on one end of this a spoon-shaped cavity, with

a lip-shaped groove in the end, is made; in the bottom of this a few

red-hot wood embers from the fire are placed on these same fragments

of flattened lead, and on the lead some good-sized pieces of red-hot

embers. A bit of bark is now twisted into a blow-pipe, from which a

steady stream of air is directed to the miniature furnace, which almost

instantly melts the lead, and fits it for running by the lip into the

mould, just as it would from a spoon. Clean, excellent bullets are to

be made in this way.

{Lead ore smelting.}

It sometimes happens that lead ore or galena is discovered. Lead as

a metal, except in very rare instances, is not found in a native or

malleable form; and as the ore is a sulphuret, brittle, and easily

pulverised, some method must be had recourse to in order to smelt

and render it fit for use. Some Indians do it in the following

manner:--After reducing a large quantity of the ore to powder, between

heavy stones, they seek out a hollow tree stump, clear out the bottom

flush with the ground, and dig a pit just outside it. Then on the

bottom or floor of the stump a thick layer of dry wood is placed,

evenly on this a layer of the powdered ore, then another layer of wood,

then one of ore, and so on until the stump is quite full. A small hole

is then chopped with a tomahawk through the side of the stump, level

with the ground and opposite the pit. Through this orifice fire is

introduced, and the stump soon becomes a mass of glowing heat as the

air rushes in at the hole at the bottom; so fast as the galena (which

is usually very pure) is reduced to melted lead it trickles through the

interstices of the heated pile, and runs out into the pit, where it is

allowed to settle and cool.

The Dutch-Africans like to have their bullets of such a size that when

one is put into a clean barrel it passes slowly down without rattling,

the slight noise of the escaping air being heard as it descends. In a

skirmish they load very quickly; the powder is poured from the large

ox-horn into the hollow of the hand, and thence into the gun: a number

of bullets are held in the mouth, one is dropped in, and the moisture

cakes the powder round and holds it in its place with a very slight tap

from the ramrod, or sometimes perhaps without; though we should never

advise any one to incur so great a risk of bursting his gun.

[Illustration: LEAD SMELTING IN THE FOREST.]

{To harden bullets.}