found in private collections, particularly on sacred subjects, such as
the Madonna and Child, and other compositions of the Holy Family. They
are in three styles, which we have before described: the Grand Duke of
Florence has some specimens of each. The most admired is that which is
named the Madonna della Seggiola. Of this class of pictures it is often
doubted whether they ought to be considered as originals or copies, as
some of them have been three, five, or ten times repeated. The same may
be said of other cabinet pictures by him, particularly the St. John in
the Desert, which is in the Grand Ducal gallery at Florence, and is
found repeated in many collections both in Italy and other countries.
This was likely to happen in a school where the most common mode was the
following:--The subject was designed by Raffaello, the picture prepared
by Giulio, and finished by the master so exquisitely, that one might
almost count the hairs of the head. When pictures were thus finished,
they were copied by the scholars of Raffaello, who were very numerous,
and of the second and third order; and these were also sometimes
retouched by Giulio and by Raffaello himself. But whoever is experienced
in the freedom and delicacy of the chief of this school, need not fear
confounding his productions with those of the scholars, or Giulio
himself; who, besides having a more timid pencil, made use of a darker
tint than his master was accustomed to do. I have met with an
experienced person, who declared that he could recognize the character
of Giulio in the dark parts of the flesh tints, and in the middle dark
tints, not of a leaden color as Raffaello used, nor so well harmonized;
in the greater quantity of light, and in the eyes designed more roundly,
which Raffaello painted somewhat long, after the manner of Pietro
Perugino.”
PORTRAITS OF POPE JULIUS II.
There are no less than eight portraits of Julius II. attributed to
Raffaelle. 1. The original, by Raffaelle’s own hand, is in the Palazzo
Pitti at Florence, the best of all; 2. a scarcely inferior one in the
Tribune of the Florentine Gallery; 3. one in the English National
Gallery, from the Falconieri Palace at Rome; 4. a very fine one,
formerly in the Orleans Gallery; 5. an inferior one in the Corsini
Palace at Rome; 6. a very fine one in the Borghese Gallery at Rome; 7.
one at Berlin, from the Giustinian Gallery; 8. one in the possession of
Count Torlonia at Rome. Most of these are doubtless copies by
Raffaelle’s scholars, some of them finished by himself. The original
cartoon is preserved in the Corsini Palace at Florence.
MANNERS OF RAFFAELLE.
Raffaelle had three manners; first, that of his instructor, Pietro
Perugino, hence many exquisite pictures in the style of that master are
erroneously attributed to him; second, the same, modified by his
residence and studies at Florence, which continued till his completion
of the Theology in the Vatican, though constantly improving; and the
third, his own grand original manner, commencing with the school of
Athens. For a very full life of Raffaelle, with Lanzi’s admirable
critique, see Spooner’s Dictionary of Painters, Engravers, Sculptors,
and Architects.
PETER PAUL RUBENS.
This preëminent painter, accomplished scholar, and skillful diplomatist,
was born at Antwerp in 1577, on the feast day of St. Peter and St. Paul,
for which reason he received at the baptismal font the names of those
Apostles. Rubens, in his earliest years, discovered uncommon ability,
vivacity of genius, literary taste, and a mild and docile disposition.
His father, intending him for one of the learned professions, gave him a
very liberal education, and on the completion of his studies, placed him
as a page with the Countess of Lalain, in order that his son might
acquire graceful and accomplished manners, so important to success in a
professional career. His father dying soon afterwards, young Rubens
obtained the permission of his mother, to follow the bent of his genius.
He studied under several masters, the last of whom was the celebrated
Otho Venius. He made such extraordinary progress, that when he had
reached his twenty-third year, Venius frankly told him that he could be
of no further service to him, and that nothing more remained for his
improvement but a journey to Italy, which he recommended as the surest
means of ripening his extraordinary talents to the greatest perfection.
RUBENS’ VISIT TO ITALY.
Rubens having secured the favor and patronage of the Archduke Albert,
governor of the Netherlands, for whom he executed several pictures, set
out for Italy, with letters from his patron, recommending him in the
most honorable manner to the Duke of Mantua, that at his court he might
have access to his admirable collection of paintings and antique
statues. He was received with the most marked distinction by the Duke,
who took him into his service, and appointed him one of the gentlemen of
his bed-chamber, an honor which was the more acceptable to Rubens, as it
gave him greater facility for studying the great works of Giulio Romano
in the Palazzo del Te, which were the objects of his particular
admiration.
RUBENS’ ENTHUSIASM.
Giulio Romano’s masterly illustrations of the sublime poetry of Homer
excited Rubens’ emulation in the highest degree. One day, while he was
engaged in painting the history of Turnus and Æneas, in order to warm
his imagination with poetic rapture, he repeated with great energy, the
lines of Virgil, beginning,
“Ille etiam patriis agmen ciet,” &c.
The Duke, overhearing his recitations, entered the apartment, and was
surprised to find the young painter’s mind richly stored with classical
literature. Rubens remained in the service of the Duke of Mantua, who
had conceived the strongest attachment to him, nearly eight years,
visiting Venice, Rome, Genoa, and other cities, executing many
commissions, and leaving everywhere superb specimens of his magic
pencil. In 1605, the Duke having occasion to send an envoy to the court
of Spain, employed Rubens as a person eminently fitted for the delicate
mission. He successfully accomplished the negotiations confided to him,
painted the portrait of Philip III., and received from that monarch the
most flattering marks of distinction.
RUBENS’ RETURN TO ANTWERP.
In 1608, after an absence of eight years, Rubens was suddenly recalled
to Antwerp by the severe illness of his mother, who died before his
arrival. The loss of his dearly beloved parent was a severe affliction
to him. He had proposed to return to Italy, but the Archduke Albert, and
the Infanta Isabella, induced him to settle at Antwerp, where he
married, built a magnificent house, with a saloon in the form of a
rotunda, which he embellished with a rich collection of antique statues,
busts, vases, and pictures by the greatest masters. This collection he
sold many years afterwards to the Duke of Buckingham for £10,000. Amidst
these select productions of art, he passed about twelve years in the
tranquil exercise of his great abilities, producing an astonishing
number of admirable pictures for the churches and public edifices of the
Low Countries.
RUBENS’ HABITS.
In order to continue his mental improvement, to enjoy the sweets of
friendly intercourse, and to economize his precious time, Rubens
regulated his affairs with a precision which nothing was permitted to
derange. He received company at stated times, took regular exercise out
of doors, usually on horseback, and it is said that he never painted
without having some one to read to him from a classic work of history or
poetry. He possessed an extraordinary memory, and understood the ancient
and several modern languages, writing and speaking them with ease and
fluency. His familiar acquaintance with ancient and modern literature,
had enriched his mind with inexhaustible resources.
RUBENS’ DETRACTORS.
Rubens’ great popularity naturally excited envy, and created enemies.
Generous and affable to all, and a liberal encourager of art, he found
himself assailed by those who were most indebted to him for assistance.
With the most audacious effrontery, they insinuated that he owed the
best part of his reputation in the great variety of his works, for which
he was celebrated, to the talents of two of his disciples, Snyders and
Wildens, whom he employed occasionally in forwarding the animals and
landscapes in his pictures. The principal of these vilifiers were
Abraham Janssens, Cornelius Schut, and Theodore Rombouts; the first had
the hardihood to challenge him to paint a picture in competition with
him. Rubens treated these attacks with a dignity and philanthropy that
shows his exalted mind, and the goodness of his heart; he relieved the
necessities of his accusers, and exposed his immortal production of the
Descent from the Cross.
THE GALLERY OF THE LUXEMBOURG.
In 1620, Mary of Medicis commissioned Rubens to decorate the gallery of
the Luxembourg with a series of emblematical paintings, in twenty-four
compartments, illustrative of the principal events of her life. The
series was painted at Antwerp, except two pictures, which he finished at
Paris in 1623, when he arranged the whole in the gallery. These great
works, executed in less than three years, are alone sufficient to attest
the abundant fertility of his genius, and the wonderful facility of his
hand.
RUBENS SENT AS AMBASSADOR TO THE COURTS OF SPAIN AND ENGLAND.
In 1628, the Infanta Isabella despatched Rubens on a delicate political
mission to the court of Spain, relative to the critical state of the
government of the Low Countries, and for instructions preparatory to a
negotiation of peace between Spain and England. On his arrival at the
Spanish capital, he was received in the most gracious manner by Philip
IV., acquitted himself of his diplomatic mission to the entire
satisfaction of the Infanta and the King, and completely captivated that
monarch, and his minister, the Duke de Olivares, by the magnificent
productions of his pencil. He executed several great works, for which he
was munificently rewarded, received the honors of knighthood, and was
presented with the golden key, as a Gentleman of the Royal Bed-Chamber.
In 1629 he returned to Flanders, and was immediately despatched to
England by the Infanta, on a secret mission, to ascertain the
disposition of the government on the subject of peace. The king, Charles
I., an ardent lover of the fine arts, received the illustrious painter
with every mark of distinction, and immediately employed him in painting
the ceiling of the Banqueting House at Whitehall, where he represented
the Apotheosis of his father, James I., for which he received £3,000.
Here Rubens showed himself no less skillful as a diplomatist than as a
painter. In one of the frequent visits with which the king honored him
during the execution of the work, he alluded with infinite delicacy and
address to the subject of a peace with Spain, and finding the monarch
not averse to such a measure, he immediately produced his credentials.
Charles at once appointed some members of his council to negociate with
him, and a pacification was soon effected. The King was so highly
pleased with the productions of his pencil, and particularly with his
conduct in this diplomatic emergency, that he gave him a munificent
reward, and conferred upon him the honor of knighthood, Feb. 21, 1630.
On this occasion, the king presented Rubens with his own sword, enriched
with diamonds, his hat-band of jewels, valued at ten thousand crowns,
and a gold chain, which Rubens wore ever afterwards.
DEATH OF RUBENS.
Rubens, after having successfully accomplished the objects of his
missions to the courts of Spain and England, returned to Antwerp, where
he was received with all the honors and distinction due to his services
and exalted merit. He still continued to exercise his pencil with
undiminished industry and reputation till 1635, when he experienced some
aggravated attacks of the gout, to which he had been subject, succeeded
by an infirmity and trembling of the hand, which obliged him to decline
executing all works of large dimensions. Though he had now reached his
fifty-eighth year, and was loaded with deserved honors and wealth, he
nevertheless continued to instruct his pupils, to correspond with his
cherished friends, and to paint easel pictures when his torturing malady
would permit, till his death, in 1640, aged 63 years. He was buried
with extraordinary pomp and solemnity in the church of St. James, under
the altar of the private chapel, which he had decorated with one of his
finest pictures. A superb monument was erected to his memory.
RUBENS’ NUMEROUS WORKS.
The number of works executed by Rubens is truly astonishing; Smith, in
his Catalogue raisonné, vols. ii. and ix., describes about eighteen
hundred considered genuine by him, in the different public and private
collections of Europe. There can be no doubt that a great number of
these were executed by his numerous scholars and assistants, under his
direction, from his designs, and then finished by himself. It is well
known that he employed his pupils in forwarding many of his pictures,
and that Wildens, van Uden, and Mompers, in particular, assisted him in
his landscapes, and Snyders in his animals. His principal scholars were
Anthony Vandyck, Justus van Egmont, Theodore van Thulden, Abraham
Diepenbeck, Jacob Jordaens, Peter van Mol, Cornelius Schut, John van
Hoeck, Simon de Vos, Peter Soutman, Deodato Delmont, Erasmus Quellinus,
Francis Wouters, Francis Snyders, John Wildens, Lucas van Uden, and
Jodocus Mompers. Several other distinguished Flemish painters of the
period, who were not his pupils, imitated his style; the most eminent of
whom were Gerard Seghers, Gaspar de Crayer, and Martin Pepin. Besides
the genuine paintings of Rubens, there are a multitude of doubtful
authenticity, attributed to him, most of which were executed by his
pupils and imitators. Many such, fine pictures, are in the United
States. There are upwards of twelve hundred engravings after works
attributed to Rubens; some of which, however, are of doubtful
authenticity. Those executed by the Bolswerts, Paul Pontius, and other
cotemporary engravers who worked under Rubens’ supervision, are
undoubtedly genuine. There are a great number of his works in England in
the public galleries and the collections of the nobility; there are nine
in the National gallery, fourteen in the Dulwich gallery, and others at
Windsor, Hampton Court, and Whitehall. The enormous value set upon his
works at the present time, maybe seen by referring to the catalogue of
the National gallery; thus, the Brazen Serpent cost £1260; a Landscape,
called Rubens’ Chateau, £1500; Peace and War, £3000; the Rape of the
Sabines, £3000; and the Judgment of Paris, 4000 guineas. Many of the
works of Rubens, like those of other great masters, have suffered
greatly from the effects of time, but more from improper cleaning and
unskillful restoration, especially in retouching injured parts, by which
the original harmony of coloring has been destroyed. Thus his pictures
in the Banqueting house at Whitehall, have been three times cleaned,
repaired, and painted over, so that little of the original splendor of
coloring remains.
THE FIRST PICTURE BROUGHT TO ROME.
The first picture carried to Rome from Greece, according to Pliny, was
the famous Bacchus and Ariadne, painted by Aristides of Thebes. It was
painted on a heavy panel, and King Attalus offered for it, its weight in
gold, which excited the suspicion of the Consul Mummius that it
contained some secret charm. He accordingly broke off the bargain, and
took it himself to Rome, where he dedicated it in the temple of Ceres.
After this example, every Roman commander seems to have been ambitious
of adorning the city with the finest pictures and statues of Greece,
Asia Minor, Egypt, and Sicily. Julius Cæsar enshrined the two exquisite
pictures of Medea and Ajax, by Timomachus, in the Temple of Venus.
Augustus hung his forum with pictures of the horrors of war, and the
glories of a triumph; and he adorned the temple which he dedicated to
the deified Julius with many choice pictures, the most beautiful of
which was the Venus Anadyomene of Apelles. Another, scarcely less
celebrated, by the same painter, was one of Alexander in triumph,
leading War, bound and manacled. This picture was afterwards defaced by
Claudius, who caused the head of Alexander to be scraped out, and that
of Augustus to be inserted. Another picture of especial note, in the
same temple, was one of Castor and Pollux.
Augustus also placed in the Comitium some excellent works, by Nicias of
Athens, and others. The Temple of Peace was rich in pictures of the
highest class. There was placed the most valued of all the works of
Protogenes, the hunter Jalysus with his dogs and game, the Cyclops of
Timanthes, and the sea-monster Scylla, by Nicomachus.
In the Temple of Concord, there was a precious picture by Zeuxis--that
of Marsyas bound to a Tree; and the Muses and the Helen of the same
painter adorned some of the private villas at Rome.
In the Temple of Minerva, on the Capitol, was the Theseus of Parrhasius,
with the Rape of Proserpine, and a Victory by Nicomachus.
In the shrine of Ceres, where Mummius had placed the Bacchus and Ariadne
of Aristides, were several other works by the same painter.
The Portico of Octavia was adorned with pictures of Greek mythology and
history by Antiphilus; and that of Pompey boasted a rare fragment by
Polygnotus, of a Soldier upon a Scaling Ladder, probably a part of some
great battle-piece, which that illustrious painter had executed in honor
of his countrymen. Some suppose it to have been taken from the Pœcile at
Athens, where the pictures were not painted in fresco, but on panels.
The Portico of Pompey was still further adorned with pictures by Nicias,
among which were a large portrait of Alexander, a picture of Calypso,
and some animals, which were much prized. There was also a beautiful
picture of Hyacinthus, by the same artist, which was so highly valued by
Augustus, that, after his death, Tiberius consecrated it to his memory,
in the temple dedicated to him.
The Romans did not hesitate to carry off everything appertaining to the
fine arts in the countries they conquered. The greatest influx of Greek
pictures into Rome, at any one time, was during the edileship of
Scaurus, when, on account of a real or pretended debt owing by the
people of Sicyon to Rome, all the valuable pictures in that city were
seized and conveyed to Italy. Such were a few of the many pictures, the
spoils of war, which were carried to Rome, to adorn the temples,
palaces, and public places, not to speak of those which decorated the
villas of persons of rank and taste.
ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE.
The Romans were so fond of Etruscan statues that they collected them
from all quarters. At the taking of Volsinum (now Bolsena), they removed
two thousand bronze statues to Rome. The Etruscans were also much
employed by the Romans to make bronze statues of their divinities and
great personages. One of the most ancient remaining works executed by
them for Rome, is the bronze Wolf, “the thunder-stricken nurse of Rome,”
preserved in the Capitol, and of which Micali has given an excellent
figure. There was a colossal Etruscan Apollo, fifty feet high, placed in
the library of the Temple of Augustus, “the bigness of which,” says
Pliny, “is not so remarkable as the material and the workmanship; for
hard it is to say whether is most admirable, the beautiful figure of the
body, or the exquisite temperature of the metal” There was also a
colossal Jupiter of the Capitol, cast by Corovillius out of the brazen
armor taken from the dead bodies of the conquered Samnites. Pliny says
the first bronze statue cast in Rome, was that of the goddess Ceres, the
expense of which was defrayed by the forfeited goods of Spurius Capius,
who was put to death for aspiring to the dignity of king.
CAMPUS MARTIUS.
The Campus Martius was a large plain without the city of Rome, which was
adorned with a multitude of statues, the spoils of war; also with
columns, arches, and porticos. The public assemblies were held there,
the officers of state chosen, and audience given to foreign ambassadors;
there, also, the Roman youths performed their exercises, learned to
wrestle and box, to throw the discus, hurl the javelin, ride a horse,
drive a chariot, etc.
ELECTIONEERING PICTURES AT ROME.
The Roman commanders made a singular use of painting to advance their
interests. Their inordinate love of military fame discovered a mode of
feeding that ruling passion by means of this charming art. According to
Valerius Maximus, Massala was the first who, when he offered himself for
the consulship, instead of sitting in the market-place, dressed in the
white robe of humility, and pointing to his wounds like Coriolanus,
“Show them the scars that I would hide,
As if I had received them for the hire
Of their breath only,”
caused a picture to be hung up in the portico Hostilia, representing the
battle of Messana, where he had vanquished both the Carthagenians and
Syracusans. The picture told the story of his achievements to the best
advantage, and secured his election. Scipio Africanus was greatly
incensed against his brother, Lucius Scipio, for placing in the Capitol
a picture of the battle near Sardis, which won him the title of
Asiaticus, but in which, his nephew, the son of Africanus, was taken
prisoner. Again, Scipio Emilianus was highly offended at the display of
a picture of the Taking of Carthage, exhibited in the market-place by
Lucius Hostilius Mancinus. It appears that Mancinus was the first to
enter the city, and on his return to Rome, being desirous of the
consulship, he had a picture painted, representing the situation of the
town, its strong fortifications, all the machines used in the attack and
defense, and the actions of the besiegers, in which care was taken that
those of Mancinus should be most conspicuous. This he hung up in the
Forum, and personally explained to the people in such a manner, that he
won their good will, and gained the consulship. We learn from Quintilian
that the lawyers of Rome often made use of pictures in their pleadings
for the purpose of moving the judges.
DRAMATIC SCENERY AT ROME.
It is related that when Claudius Pulcher, during his edileship,
exhibited dramas publicly at Rome, the scenery, representing trees,
houses and other buildings was so naturally depicted, that the ravens
and other birds came to perch upon them. Many such anecdotes are related
as having occurred in all ages of the history of the art, but they are
not so sure a test of excellence as people generally imagine, for
animals are easily deceived. The writer has made experiments to satisfy
himself on this point; he has seen a whiffet dog bark obstreperously at
the portrait of a person it disliked; birds approach a picture of fruit,
and bees one of flowers. He has a picture of three dogs, so naturally
painted, that almost every dog, admitted into the room, not only looks
at it, but endeavors to _smell of it_. Every sportsman knows that it is
easy to decoy wild ducks with an artificial one.
APELLES OF EPHESUS AND PTOLEMY PHILOPATOR.
During a voyage in the eastern part of the Mediterranean, Apelles was
driven into Alexandria, in Egypt, by stress of weather. Not being in
favor with king Ptolemy, he did not venture to appear at the court; but
some of his enemies suborned one of the royal buffoons to invite him to
supper in the king’s name, Apelles attended accordingly, but Ptolemy,
indignant at the intrusion, demanded by whom he had been invited;
whereupon the painter, seizing an extinguished coal from the hearth,
drew upon the wall the features of the man who had invited him, with
such accuracy, that the king, even from the first lines, immediately
recognized the buffoon, and thenceforth received Apelles into his favor.
APELLES’ FAMOUS PICTURE OF CALUMNY.
According to Lucian, the reputation of Apelles, and the favor he enjoyed
at the court of Ptolemy, excited the jealousy of Antiphilus, a
celebrated Egyptian painter, who unjustly accused him of having
participated in the conspiracy of Theodotus of Tyre. Apelles was thrown
into the dungeon, and treated with great severity, but his innocence
being clearly established, Ptolemy endeavored to make reparation,
presented him with one hundred talents, and condemned Antiphilus to be
his slave. Apelles, however, was not satisfied with this reparation, and
on returning to Ephesus, painted in retaliation his famous picture of
Calumny, in which Ptolemy acted a principal part. Lucian saw this
picture, and thus describes it: