in a "walking match." The hall was so crowded with spectators--with
very few exceptions of the male sex--that it was with difficulty the
narrow track could be kept clear.
The sixty hours for which the walk was to be continued had nearly expired,
and the excitement grew more intense each moment. One of the walkers,
who was a few miles in advance, strode on at a pace almost marvelous,
constantly stimulated to greater efforts by the coarse shouts of the
masculine audience, who evidently took the same sort of interest in
the proceeding that they would in a dog race or a cock fight. The other
was pale and spiritless, and it seemed with difficulty that she dragged
herself along to keep upon the track until the last. At times she seemed
to be almost fainting, as the result of the long-continued excitement
and fatigue; but she managed to keep going until nine minutes before
the slow moving clock had measured off the sixty hours, when she became
too ill to be longer able to stand, and was carried off the track.
The cheers for the winner were as vigorous as though a rebel fort had
been captured, a million people emancipated from slavery, or some great
and noble deed of honor or daring had been done; but no one thought
of the injury which had been done the contestant. We turned away in
disgust.
The ancient Greeks and Romans amused themselves with witnessing the
gladiatorial contests of their male slaves; but it was left for
civilized America to introduce woman into the "ring" and make her show
her paces on the race-course. An ungraceful figure she cuts, and a
repulsive spectacle she presents; and worst of all is the havoc which
she makes with her health. At the very time that these four female
pedestrians were making their disgraceful exhibit in Boston, in another
part of the same city lay a helpless invalid who was once as noted a
"female walkist" as any of them, made hopelessly ill by the same
disregard of the plainest laws of nature.
The Male and the Female Brain.--But there are other important physical
differences to which we must call attention. Man possesses a larger
brain than woman, but she makes up the deficiency in size by superior
fineness in quality. The female brain differs from the masculine organ
of mentality in other particulars so marked that one who has given the
subject attention can determine with perfect ease the probable sex of
the owner of almost any skull which might be presented to him. This
difference in the conformation of the skull is undoubtedly due to a
difference in mental character, which, in turn, depends upon a
difference in cerebral development. Faculties which are generally
largely developed in one are usually smaller in the other, and the
reverse.
Vital Organs of Man and Woman.--The anatomist also observes an
interesting difference in the size of the various vital organs. For
example, while a woman has a heart proportionally smaller than the same
organ in man, she has a larger liver. Thus, while less well fitted for
severe physical exertion by less circulatory power, she has superior
excretory powers.
Woman Less Muscular, More Enduring.--This peculiarity of structure is
perfectly harmonious with the fact which experience has established
so often as to make the matter no longer a question, that woman is less
fitted for severe muscular exertion than man, but possesses in a
superior degree the quality known as endurance. With a less robust frame,
a more delicately organized constitution, she will endure for months
what would kill a robust man in as many weeks. More perfect elimination
of the wastes of the body secures a higher grade of vitality. On no
other hypothesis could we account for the marvelous endurance of the
feminine part of the civilized portion of the human race, ground down
under the heel of fashion for ages, "stayed," "corseted," "laced," and
thereby distorted and deformed in a manner that would be fatal to almost
any member of the masculine sex.
A Pathological Difference.--Most physiologists mention another
particular in which woman differs materially from man; viz, in
naturally employing, in respiration, chiefly the upper part of the
lungs, while man breathes chiefly with the lower part of the lungs.
For several years we have carefully studied this question, and we have
been unable to find any physiological or anatomical reason sufficient
to account for this fact, if it be such.
Why a Woman Does not Breathe Like a Man.--It is undoubtedly true that
most women do breathe almost exclusively with the upper part of the
chest; but whether this is a _natural_ peculiarity, or an acquired,
unnatural, and depraved one, is a question which we are decidedly
inclined to answer in harmony with the latter supposition, basing our
conclusion on the following undeniable facts:--
1. In childhood, and until about the age of puberty, respiration in
the boy and the girl is exactly the same.
2. Although there is a change in the mode of respiration in most females,
usually soon after the period of puberty, marked by increased
intercostal respiration and diminished abdominal or deep respiration,
this change can be accounted for on other than physiological grounds.
3. We believe the cause of this modification of respiration is the
change in dress which is usually made about that time. The young girl
is now becoming a woman, and must acquire the art of lacing, wearing
a corset, "stays," and sundry other contrivances by means of which to
produce a "fine form" by distorting and destroying all natural grace
and beauty in the "form divine."
4. We have met a number of ladies whose good fortune and good sense
had delivered them from the distorting influence of corset-wearing and
tight-lacing, and we have invariably observed that they are as capable
of deep respiration as men, and practice it as naturally.
We are thoroughly convinced that this so-called physiological
difference between man and woman is really a pathological rather than
a natural difference, and is due to the evils of fashionable dress,
which we have exposed at some length in another work exclusively devoted
to that subject.[2] In short, we believe that the only reason why women
do not, under ordinary circumstances, breathe as do men, is simply
_because they can not_ breathe naturally.
[Footnote 2: "Evils of Fashionable Dress, and How to Dress
Healthfully."]
The Reproductive Elements.--As has been previously observed, in all
except the very lowest forms of life, two elements are necessary to
the production of a new individual, or a reproduction of the species--a
male element and a female element. The special organs by means of which
these elements are produced, brought together, and developed into the
new individual in a more or less perfect state, are termed _sexual
organs_, as we have already seen. As an introduction to the specific
study of the sexual organs in the human species, let us briefly consider
the
Sexual Organs of Plants.--As already remarked, flowers are the sexual
organs of plants. Nothing is more interesting in the natural world than
the wonderful beauty, diversity, and perfect adaptability to various
conditions and functions, which we see in the sexual parts of plants.
An exceedingly interesting line of study, which has occupied the
attention of many naturalists, is the wonderful perfection displayed
in the adaptability of the male and female parts of plants to each other.
Without burdening the reader with unnecessary technicalities of detail,
we will briefly notice the principal parts of vegetable sexual organs
as illustrated in flowers.
Complete flowers are made up of four parts, two of which, the _stamen_
and _pistil_, are essential, while the other two, the calyx and corolla,
are accessory.
The _calyx_ is that part which surrounds the flower at its outer and
lower part. It varies greatly in form and color, but is most frequently
of a green or greenish color.
Just within the calyx is the _corolla_, which usually forms the most
attractive, showy, and beautiful part of the flower. The beautifully
colored petals of the rose, geranium, dahlia, and other similar flowers,
form their corollas.
Vegetable Husbands.--Within the cup formed by the calyx and corolla
are placed the _stamens_ and _pistils_ of the flower, the first being
the male organs proper, and the second the female organs of the flower.
The stamen is composed of a stem or filament, at the summit of which
are placed two little sacks called the _anther_, which contain a fine,
microscopic dust, the _pollen_, which contains the male reproductive
element of the flower. This part of the plant corresponds to the male
organ of reproduction in animals. A stamen has been called, not inaptly,
a vegetable husband. Some flowers have many stamens, or vegetable
husbands, which reminds us of the custom in Thibet and some other
Eastern countries which allows a woman to have several husbands.
Polygamous Flowers.--The great naturalist, Linnaeus, whose name was
immortalized by his careful study and classification of organized life,
made the number of stamens possessed by various flowers the basis of
a systematic classification.
For example, a flower having but one stamen was classed as _monandria_,
which means, literally, one husband; one having two stamens was
classified as _diandria_; flowers having a large number of male organs
were termed _polyandria_, or many husbands.
The Female Organ of Flowers.--The _pistil_ occupies the very center
of the flower. It produces and contains in a cell, the female element,
termed the _ovule_. It is surmounted by the _style_ and the _stigma_.
A series of plants in which the sexual organs are not visible to the
eye are termed _cryptogamia_, which means literally, hidden marriages.
As we proceed to study the anatomy of the human sexual apparatus we
shall be constantly struck with the remarkable correspondence between
animals and vegetables in the structure and functions of the sexual
apparatus.
Sexual Organs of Animals.--The male reproductive element is called a
_spermatozoon_ or _zoosperm_. The female element is called an _ovum_,
literally, an egg.
The Spermatozoon.--The male reproductive element of animals is formed
by an organ called the _testis_, or _testicle_, of which each male
possesses two. They are elastic, glandular bodies, and are formed
within the cavity of the abdomen, near the kidneys, but usually pass
out of the abdominal cavity and descend to their permanent position
before birth. The opening in the abdominal wall is usually completely
closed in a short time; but occasionally it remains open, giving rise
to congenital hernia, an accident in which a loop of intestine follows
the testicle down into the scrotum, either completely or partially.
In a few animals, as in the porcupine, the opening is never fully closed,
and the testis remains in the cavity of the body most of the time,
passing out only at certain periods. We also occasionally meet cases
of human beings in which the testes have never descended from their
place in the abdominal cavity, giving the individuals the appearance
of eunuchs. This condition, however, though an abnormal one, does not
in any way interfere with the function of the organs, as those who happen
to possess it often imagine. We have also met with cases in which the
organs were movable, and could readily be pressed up into the abdominal
cavity, through the unclosed inguinal cavity, which afforded them a
passage downward in the process of development.
As before remarked, these peculiarities do not affect the functions
of the organs in any appreciable degree, although they not infrequently
give rise to some apprehension on the part of those subject to them.
The left testicle is sometimes a little smaller than the right, another
fact which is seized upon by quacks as a means of exciting the fears
of young men who have been addicted to bad habits, although the
peculiarity is generally without important significance.
The testicles are connected with the urinary passage by means of two
ducts which terminate near the base of the bladder, at which point they
connect with the urethra. We need not dwell at further length upon the
structure of the testicles, as this subject receives fuller attention
elsewhere.
Human spermatozoa are about 1/600 of an inch in length. Those of
reptiles are very much larger. One of the remarkable features of these
minute elements is their peculiar movements. While alive, the
filamentous tail is in constant action in a manner strongly resembling
the movements of the caudal appendage of a tadpole. This wonderful
property led the earlier observers to believe that they were true
animalcula. But they are not to be regarded as such, though one can
scarcely make himself believe otherwise while watching their lively
evolutions, and apparent volitionary movement from one point to
another.
Spermatozoa originate in the testis as cells, which are filled with
granules. After a time, each granule acquires a long appendage, and
then the cell has become converted into a bundle of small zoosperms.
Development still continues, until finally the thin pellicle on the
outside of the bundle is ruptured, thus liberating the young
spermatozoa, which speedily complete their full development. The
spermatozoon is pure protoplasm, which is the basis of all life, and
its power of spontaneous motion is due to this fact.
In man, the formation of spermatozoa continues with greater or less
rapidity from puberty to old age, though at the two extremes of
existence they are imperfectly developed. When not discharged from the
body, they are said to be absorbed. Some physiologists claim that they
are composed of a substance identical with nerve tissue, and that by
absorption they play a very important part in the development and
maintenance of the nervous system.
It is asserted by good authorities that the reproductive element in
man is not so well developed as to be really fit for the reproduction
of the species before the age of twenty-four or twenty-five. After the
age of forty-five or fifty, the reproductive elements deteriorate in
quality, and become again unfitted for vigorous procreation.
The fully developed zoosperms are suspended in a transparent,
gelatinous fluid, which, mingled with the secretion of the prostate
gland and other fluids which it meets during its expulsion from the
body, constitutes the _semen_.
The Ovum.--The female element of generation, the ovum, is produced by
an organ called the _ovary_, of which there are two in each individual.
In size and form, the ovary closely resembles the testicle. Like the
latter organ, also, it is formed within the body early in the process
of development; but instead of passing outward and downward, as does
the testicle, it remains within the abdominal cavity, suspended in
place by ligaments. It is connected with a duct which receives the ovum
as it is discharged, and conveys it to the uterus.
The human ovum varies in size from 1/240 to 1/120 of an inch in diameter,
and consists of a single cell. Ova are not formed in such large numbers
as zoosperms. As a general rule, in the human female, a single ovum
is developed and discharged once in about four weeks, during the period
of sexual activity.
Fecundation.--It is often asked, and the question has elicited some
discussion, Which is the principal reproductive element; the zoosperm,
or the ovum? The ancients supposed the male element to be the essential
element, being simply nourished and developed by the female; but modern
research in biological science does not sustain this view. Probably
neither one enjoys especial preeminence; for neither can undergo
complete development without the other. In very rare cases, the ovum
has been observed to undergo a certain amount of development of itself;
but a perfect individual can be produced only by the union of the two
kinds of elements, which process is known as _fecundation_. The instant
this union occurs, the life of a new individual begins. All the changes
which result between that moment and the birth of the individual are
those of development only. Indeed, the same existence continues from
the instant of the union of the two elements, not only until birth,
but through growth, the attainment of maturity, the decline of life,
and even until death.
It is interesting to observe the different methods by which fecundation
is effected, both in plants and animals, for this is a process common
to both.
Fecundation in Flowers.--The great naturalist, Linnaeus, was the first
to explain the reproductive process in plants. He tells us that "the
flower forms the theater of their amours; the calyx is to be considered
as the nuptial bed; the corolla constitutes the curtains; the anthers
are the testes; the pollen, the fecundating fluid; the stigma of the
pistil, the external genital aperture; the style, the vagina, or the
conductor of the prolific seed; the ovary of the plant, the womb; the
reciprocal action of the stamens on the pistil, the accessory process
of fecundation."
Thus marvelous is the analogy between the reproductive organs and their
functions in plants and animals. Through this one vital process we may
trace a close relation between all the forms of life, from the humblest
plant, or even the mere specks of life which form the green scum upon
a stagnant pool, to man, the masterpiece of creation, the highest of
all animated creatures. In all the realm of Nature there can be found
no more remarkable evidences of the infinite skill and wisdom of the
Creator of all things.
In many instances the action of plants seems almost to be prompted by
intelligence. At the proper moment, the corolla contracts in such a
way as to bring the stamens nearer to the stigma, or in contact with
it, so as to insure fecundation. In some aquatic plants the flowers
elevate themselves above the surface of water while the process of
fecundation is effected; submerging themselves again immediately
afterward.
Other very curious changes occur in flowers of different species during
the reproductive act. The stigma is observed to become moistened, and
even to become distinctly odorous. Often, too, it becomes intensely
congested with the juices of the plant, and sometimes even acquires
an uncommon and most remarkable degree of contractility. This is the
case with the stigma of the tulip and one variety of sensitive plant,
and is in these plants observed to occur not only after the application
of the pollen to the stigma, but when excited by any other means of
stimulation. The flowers of some plants, during and after fecundation,
also show an increase of heat, in some cases so marked as to be readily
detected with the thermometer. This is said to be the case with the
_arum_ of Italy.
In some plants in which the pistil is longer than the stamens, thus
elevating the stigma above the anthers, the female organ is often
observed to bend over and depress itself so as to come within reach
of the anthers.
In most instances the fecundation of flowers is chiefly effected
through a purely mechanical process, though in these cases also we see
a wonderful adaptation of parts to conditions.
When the male and female parts of flowers are situated on different
plants, as is the case in the willow, the poplar, the melon vine, and
many other species, the pollen of the male flower is wafted by the wind
or gentle breeze to the stigma of the female flower, which will usually
be found at no very great distance, although fertilization may take
place in this way at very considerable distances. Bees, moths, and many
other species of insects, serve a very important purpose in this work,
transporting the fertilizing dust upon their wings, antennae,
sucking-tubes, and feet. Small birds, and even the humble snail, which
would scarcely be credited with any useful function, are also very
serviceable in the same direction. The part performed by insects in
the reproductive process of many plants is so great that they have been
very poetically termed "the marriage priests of flowers."
Nature provides for thorough fecundation in these cases by placing the
plants which bear the male and the female flowers near each other. This
fact accounts for the unproductiveness of certain varieties of
strawberries unless mixed with plants of some other variety, it being
well known to nursery-men that some varieties produce only the female
parts of flowers.
Modes of Fecundation in Animals.--The modes by which fecundation is
effected in animals are still more various and wonderful than in plants.
In some of the lower animals, as in most fish and reptiles, both elements
are discharged from the bodies of the parents before coming in contact,
there being no contact of the two individuals. In this class of animals
the process is almost wholly analogous to fecundation in those plants
in which the male and female flowers are on different plants or
different parts of the same plant. In the female fish, a large number
of ova are developed at a certain season of the year known as the
spawning season. Sometimes the number reaches many thousands. At the
same time, the testicles of the male fish, which are contained within
the abdominal cavity, become distended with developed zoosperms. When
the female seeks a place to deposit her eggs, the male closely follows;
and as she drops them upon the gravelly bottom, he discharges upon them
the zoosperms by which they are fecundated. The process is analogous
to some species of frogs. When the female is about to deposit her eggs,
the male mounts upon her back and rides about until the eggs are all
deposited, discharging upon them the fertilizing spermatozoa as they
are laid by the female.
In higher orders of animals, fecundation takes place within the
generative organs of the female by contact between the male and the
female organs. To effect this, there are necessitated certain accessory
organs, the _penis_ in the male and the _vagina_ in the female.
Nothing in all the range of nature is more remarkable than the
adaptation of the two varieties of sexual organs in each species. This
necessary provision is both a powerful means of securing the
perpetuation of the species, and an almost impassable barrier against
amalgamation.
The act of union, or sexual congress, is called _coitus_ or _copulation_.
It is accompanied by a peculiar nervous spasm due to excitement of
special nerves principally located in the _penis_ in the male, and in
an extremely sensitive organ, the _clitoris_, in the female. The
nervous action referred to is more exhausting to the system than any
other to which it is subject.
Union of the Ovum and Zoosperm.--The zoosperms not only come in contact
with the ovum, but penetrate the thin membrane which incloses its
contents, and enter its interior, where they disappear, becoming united
with its substance. In the ova of certain fishes, small openings have
been observed through which the spermatozoa find entrance. Whether such
openings exist in human ova is an undecided question; but it is probable
that they do.
Curious Modes of Reproduction.--A peculiar kind of reproduction is
observed in a variety of polyp, a curious animal which very much
resembles a shrub in appearance. It attaches itself to some solid object,
and then, as it grows, sends out little protuberances resembling buds.
Some of these separate and fall off, swimming about as separate animals.
These never become like the parent polyp; but they lay eggs, which hatch,
and become stationary polyps like their grandparent, and in their turn
throw off buds to form swimming polyps. In this case we have two kinds
of generation combined, alternating with each other.