[O] The Norwegian North Polar Expedition, 1893-1896. Scientific
Results edited by Fridtjof Nansen. Vol. I. Longmans, Green
& Co. N. Y., 1900. 1-16, 3 pl. 1-147, 3 pl. 1-26, 2 pl.
1-53 pl. 1-137, 36 pl.
Few Arctic expeditions have done so much to increase the world’s
knowledge as to the physical condition of large areas of the north
polar zone as has that of the _Fram_, initiated and commanded by Dr.
Fridtjof Nansen.
The expedition was unique in many respects. The _Fram_ was a departure
from the accepted models of Arctic ships; the route followed was one
unindorsed by any Arctic authority. The ship was destined to drift
unprecedented distances, beset by the enormous ice-pack of the Arctic
ocean. The commander himself was not only to attain the highest
north, but was to make a most hazardous journey, which was to have
a successful and unexpected issue partly through the aid of another
polar expedition whose location and existence were unknown to the
expeditionary forces of the _Fram_. Electricity made the Arctic ship a
glow of light, a phonograph brought well-known voices to cheer their
hours of leisure. Indeed, every device that was deemed of value was
utilized.
The extent of the Arctic ocean traversed by the _Fram_ is indicated by
the simple fact that she passed over 120 degrees of longitude above the
eightieth parallel of north latitude, a distance of one-third around
the world on that parallel.
Nansen and Johansen, in an attempt to reach the Pole, left the _Fram_
March 14, 1895, in about 84° N., 100 E., but after an uneventful
journey with dogs, they were obliged to turn back on April 7, 1895, in
latitude 86° 14′ N. They aimed to reach Spitzbergen and after months
of weary effort and varying fortunes, these two hardy men landed on
the east coast of the Franz Josef archipelago. Coming winter forbade
further progress, so they constructed a hut and subsisted on land and
sea game that was fortunately abundant. In the spring of 1896, turning
southward, they attempted to reach by the kyak the east coast of
Spitzbergen, hoping to be picked up by Norwegian whalers who frequent
those waters. Fortunately for them, they met in April, 1896, Jackson,
the commander of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, near Cape Flora.
Meanwhile the _Fram_, continuing its westerly drift, in which it
passed the most northerly point reached by Parry in boats in 1827,
emerged from the ice-floe of the Arctic ocean in the late summer
of 1896 and reached Norway on August 20, about ten days later than
Nansen’s own arrival with the English expedition from Franz Josef Land.
The _Fram_ returned with its frame uninjured and its expeditionary
force in health, after having covered in its voyage across the unknown
Polar sea an enormous area, estimated at fifty thousand square miles.
[Illustration: DR. FRIDTJOF NANSEN.]
The most important discovery was the oceanic depth of the Arctic Sea,
where for hundreds of miles this unknown ocean disclosed a depth of
over two miles. Naturally the absence of land limited the phases of the
scientific work of the expeditionary force, which devoted itself to
recording the phenomena of the air and the sea.
Nansen in his separate journey utilized his brief opportunities in
Franz Josef Land so successfully that his contributions to the geology
of that region are of no small importance.
The world has looked forward with a degree of impatience to the
publication of the scientific results of this expedition, and now is
favored with the first volume, a beautiful quarto of some 479 pages,
with 46 fine plates. It consists of a series of memoirs on the building
of the ship, on the birds of the air, on the crustacean forms of sea
life and a geological study of the southern part of the archipelago
of Franz Josef Land. It is a striking tribute to English-speaking
scientists that the work will appear in English text only. Although
printed in Christiana, such has been the vigilance of the editors that
typographical errors are comparatively few.
The account by Colin Archer of the construction of the _Fram_ is not
without interest, in view of the fact that this vessel was built on
novel lines calculated to cause the ice to meet a sloping surface, so
that, pressing down under the bilge, it would cause the vessel to rise
and thus insure its immunity from destruction.
Archer says: “In order to utilize this principle, it was decided to
depart entirely from the usual deep-bilged form of section and to adopt
a shape which would afford the ice no point of attack normal to the
ship’s side, but would, as the horizontal pressure increased, force
the attacking floes to divide under the ship’s bottom, lifting her as
described above.... Plane or concave surfaces were avoided as much as
possible by giving her round and full lines. This, while increasing the
power to resist pressure from outside, also had the advantage of making
it easy for the ice to glide along the bottom in any direction.”
As great length is an element of weakness, the _Fram’s_ length was cut
down as much as possible, with a tendency to make its form circular
or oval. Various expedients were adopted to reduce the dead weight of
the ship by a judicious arrangement of materials. While economizing
weight, the cargo-carrying capacity of the ship could not be too much
reduced, and the great strength of the ship must be preserved. Inasmuch
as the broadside of the ship, both structurally and from its shape,
is its weakest part, it was necessary to adopt extraordinary measures
to strengthen it. This was done largely by adding stays of yellow
pine placed nearly at right angles to the ship’s sides, and securely
fastened with wooden knees. These were supplemented with upright
stanchions tied by iron straps.
While experienced whalers strongly advocated the square rig, Archer
decided to ignore their advice and rigged the _Fram_ as a fore-and-aft
three-masted schooner, which style of rig proved, under the
circumstances, to be most suitable. The slight increase in leakage is
believed by Archer to be due in part to the drawing of the oakum out of
the seams and in part to the expansion and contraction of the timbers.
While the _Fram_ was not subjected to such tremendous ice convulsions
as have been many other Arctic ships, yet her experiences were very
severe and may be considered to prove that the design and system of
construction adopted were the most efficient possible.
[Illustration: THE FRAM.]
The most extensive, if not the most important, of the treatises that
form this volume, relate to regions and investigations with which the
voyage of the _Fram_ were only incidentally connected. Reference is
had to the papers on the geological formations of Cape Flora, Franz
Josef Land, by Professors Nansen, Pompeckj and Nathorst. Dr. Nansen
most cordially acknowledges his great indebtedness to Mr. Jackson and
Dr. Reginald Koettlitz, respectively the leader and geologist of the
Jackson-Harmsworth expedition to Franz Josef Land, 1894-1896. The
latter of these gentlemen, in a spirit of broad scientific generosity,
accorded Dr. Nansen full and equal access to his discoveries, covering
three years’ work on Northbrook Island, among fossils and geological
conditions of special interest.
[Illustration: MAP SHOWING REGIONS TRAVERSED.]
Nansen confines himself to a brief geological sketch of Cape Flora
and its neighborhood; Pompeckj treats fully the Jurassic fauna, while
Nathorst briefly discusses the fossil plants.
Nansen says: “Through Jackson’s kindness and Koettlitz’s valuable
assistance, I was enabled to make a collection of fossils and rocks
from the Jurassic deposits of this locality.”
“(Koettlitz) took me to places where, before my arrival, he had already
found fossils, or had observed anything of importance. Had it not been
for him I should certainly not have been able to do what little I did
during the few days at my disposal. I agree with Koettlitz on all
essential points, and have nothing new of importance to add to what he
has already said.”
As Nansen elsewhere remarks, the memoirs of Pompeckj and Nathorst
supplement the papers of Koettlitz, Newton and Teall, which appeared in
the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, 1897, pp. 477-519, and
1898, pp. 620-651.
Pompeckj describes fully the various fossils, illustrates them with
wealth of detail, discusses their stratigraphical relations, and
outlines the paleographical history of Franz Josef Land.
Of the twenty-six species collected by Nansen no less than seventeen
are new as compared with the Jackson-Harmsworth collection, which
contains five species lacking to Nansen. There are representatives of
single species only of echinoderms, vermes and gastropods, the scarcity
of the last named being generally characteristic of the Jurassic
fauna of the arctic regions, whether in Siberia, Greenland, or Arctic
America. On the other hand, at Cape Flora the cephalopods and the
lamellibranchs predominate very largely. This fact makes most notable
the absence of the lamellibranch genus _Aucella_, with all other forms
that are especially characteristic of the higher Jura.
The following new species have been determined by Pompeckj:
_Pseudomonotis Jacksoni_, an ornamented shell of a remarkably large
Aviculid form. _Macrocephalites Koettlitzi_, a shell with a very narrow
umbilicus and almost completely encircling whorls. _Cadoceras Nanseni_,
an ammonite showing a flat disc-like growth, with moderately thick
whorls of which cross-sections are nearly elliptical. Another ammonite
may possibly be a variety of _C. Nanseni_, but Pompeckj considers that
it is a separate species owing to its wider umbilicus, less pronounced
involution and somewhat asymmetrical lobe-line.
Pompeckj’s outline of the paleontographical history of Franz Josef Land
is worthy of careful consideration by all interested in this department
of science, although many may differ from some of the conclusions
reached by him. Commenting on the stratigraphical studies of Prof. E.
T. Newton, Pompeckj states that his own investigations compel him to
differ materially from the inferences drawn and theories advanced by
that scientist.
Pompeckj says: “The occurrence of these three genera of Ammonites
proves that the marine fauna of Cape Flora contain representatives of
the Callovian. More recent marine horizons have certainly not been
formed at Cape Flora, as far as I can judge from the collection of
fossils before me.... The Oxfordian and all the more recent Jurassic
horizons do not occur as marine deposits at Cape Flora.”
He finds species pertaining to the Lower Bajocian, Lower, Middle and
Upper Callovian horizons. It is most interesting to note that only
one other part of the arctic regions, Prince Patrick Island, Parry
Archipelago, has produced fossils, described by Haughton as Lias, that
are certainly older than the Callovian. It is, however, recognized as
possible that Lundgreen’s fossils from East Greenland may form another
exception.
Pompeckj points out that while the Bajocian fauna of Cape Flora is
without analogy in the arctic regions, it nevertheless presents
distinct affinities to the Central European Jura, and especially
resembles the Russian Callovian.
Moreover, this Jurassic collection from Cape Flora is of special
importance in outlining the geographic distribution of that system.
Pompeckj adds: “Hence the existence of a Bajocian sea in the north of
the Eurasian Jura continent is proved beyond all doubt.... As early as
the Bajocian period, there existed a Shetland Straits, which separated
the Eurasian continent, existing through the Lias period until the end
of the Bathonian, from the nearctic Jura continent.”
The comments relative to the transition of Nova Zembla, Spitzbergen,
Franz Josef Land, and possibly Alaska, from land to sea and sea to
land, are of marked interest, indicating as they do that large areas of
polar regions were exposed in the mesozoic period to repeated and very
considerable oscillations of the sea level.
The more interesting of the Jurassic fossils, found at Cape Flora,
are shown in the accompanying illustration. _Cadocera Nanseni_ (n.
sp.), 1, 2, 3, 5, 6. _Cadoceras_, sp. ex. aff. _Cad. Nanseni_ (n.
sp.), 4. _Cadoceras Tchefkini_, d’Orb, 7. _Cadoceras_, sp. indet., 8.
_Quenstedoceras vertumnum_, Sintzow, 9. _Cadoceras Frearsi_, d’Orb, 10.
_Macrocephalites_, 11. _Macrocephalites Koettlitzi_, n. sp., 12.
The collections of fossil plants, made by Nansen in Franz Josef Land
through the courtesy of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, are of
scientific value as indicating the fossil Jurassic flora of Franz
Josef Land as compared with that of Spitzbergen. These collections
fill in a not inconsiderable gap in the Arctic regions, and Nathorst’s
investigations serve to confirm the opinions and statements made by
Professor Heer, whose five volumes of Flora Fossilis Arctica constitute
a monumental work. As is well known, research has established the
fact that at one time Spitzbergen was covered with a luxuriant
miocene vegetation--cypresses, birches, sequoiæ, oaks and planes. It
moreover appears that this growth was coincident with the period when
Spitzbergen, Greenland, Franz Josef Land and Nova Zembla experienced a
continental climate.
[Illustration: JURASSIC FOSSILS FOUND AT CAPE FLORA.]
As fossil collections accumulate, one appreciates more and more
the masterly manner in which Heer summed up the results of polar
exploration as regards Arctic vegetable paleontology. He was the
first to present to the world a clear idea of the vegetation of the
Cretaceous land, scarcely known to science until elucidated by him.
It developed that in Heer’s time, among the fossil plants found in
Spitzbergen alone were 7 ginkos, 8 pines, a short bamboo, 7 poplars, 3
maples and a fossil strawberry.
Dr. Nansen was fortunate in securing the co-operation of Prof. A. G.
Nathorst in the examination of the fossil plants collected in Franz
Josef Land, as he has devoted much time to the flora, present and past,
of various portions of the Arctic regions, especially Spitzbergen
and King Charles Land. Nathorst had the advantage of the notes of
Newton, J. H. Steele and R. Curtis on the fossils of Franz Josef Land,
published in the Quarterly Journal of Geological Science, London, vols.
53-54, 1897-1898.
Most unfortunately, the fossils were very fragmentary, the leaves in
themselves small and often indistinguishable in color from the rock, so
that their examination was made almost entirely under the magnifying
lens. While the organic substance of the plants was sometimes still
to be seen in a soft, brownish variety of rock, yet the harder
yellowish varieties offered only impressions, or cavities, their
organic substance having entirely disappeared. In cross fractures there
were sometimes cavities which were complete transverse sections of
coniferous leaves.
There were twenty-nine species, of which the entire number are
coniferous except one fungus, one fern, two palms and one uncertain.
Nathorst says: “The plant-bearing strata of Franz Josef Land, which are
yet known to us, all belong, with the exception of those from Cook’s
Rock and Cape Stephen, the age of which is still uncertain, to the
upper Jurassic, or the transition beds to the cretaceous, while as yet
no tertiary strata have been discovered.”
In geological age, while the Franz Josef flora resembles most the
previously known Jurassic floras of Siberia and Spitzbergen, yet
Nathorst considers the geological age different, and naturally places
it between the two, it being evidently younger than that of Siberia.
It is interesting to note that Doctor Koettlitz found in an isolated
basalt nunatak (rock or hill protruding from a glacier) fossil plants
similar to those found by himself and Nansen on the north side of
Cape Flora. These nunatak plants, which Koettlitz believed to be _in
situ_, are identified by Nathorst as Upper Jurassic, and came from an
elevation variously estimated as from six hundred to seven hundred and
fifty feet above the sea.
Nansen agrees with Koettlitz in believing that tree-trunks found by
them, charred into charcoal or partly silicified, chiefly belonged to
conifers growing on the soil over which basalt flows were discharged
during the Upper Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous age, and that they have
been charred by a flowing mass of lava that overwhelmed them.
These fossil plants tell the story of tremendous physical changes which
have produced very important modifications in climatic conditions
in the Arctic regions. The changes in the types of vegetable life
are apparently as extensive in high as in low latitudes. The lower
cretaceous flora is almost tropical, as is shown by the predominating
forms of this vegetation. Carboniferous formations obtain extensively
in the Arctic regions, as they occur in the Parry Archipelago,
Spitzbergen and in Siberia. During the carboniferous age there was a
great extent of land near the North Pole closely resembling that of
the temperate latitude of the same period, as is shown by the small
number of fossil plants that are peculiar to the Arctic regions. In the
tertiary period miocene flora flourished in Spitzbergen, where even
the lime, the juniper and poplars have been found near latitude 79 N.
Then also throve sequoias, which closely resemble trees growing in the
southern part of the United States. The miocene flora gives evidence
of a very great contrast between the climatic conditions at that epoch
between Europe and the Arctic regions.
The cretaceous flora throws important light on the changes of climate
in the Arctic regions, and, as has been pointed out, the tropical forms
predominate in the vegetation of the Lower Cretaceous flora. Heer’s
prediction that the plants found on the west coast of Spitzbergen would
also be found on the East Greenland coast has been fully verified.
Miocene plants have been found from Spitzbergen westward through
Iceland and Greenland to Banks Land and in the Parry Archipelago, and
it is interesting to note that more than one fourth of the Arctic
plants are common to the miocene of Europe; in Greenland and on
McKenzie the percentage is nearly one half.
In all probability, the paper which is of the highest popular interest
is the account of the birds by Robert Collet and Dr. Nansen. The
full notes regarding Arctic birds testify fully to the fact that
the observers had in view the principal points of ornithological
importance. These comprise not only a mere record of the presence or
absence of certain species, but also additional observations regarding
them in their Arctic habitat.
Certainly the reproach can not be brought against the expedition of the
_Fram_, which has obtained in the case of many Arctic expeditions, that
it has added nothing to ornithological Arctic data.
The account of the birds, prepared by Mr. Robert Collet, has been
compiled from the various journals of the expeditionary force,
supplemented by verbal comments of Nansen. The memoir contains such
specific data as enable students to determine not only the general
character of the avifauna as one moves northward in the Siberian ocean,
but also the arrival and departure of the migrants and the presence of
stragglers. Among the birds of special interest which were observed
are the gray plover, the gray phalarope, the sabine gull and the
cuneate or Ross’s gull.
One of the greatest authorities on Arctic birds, Prof. Alfred Newton,
of the University of Cambridge, has well said that in consideration of
the avifauna of any country its peculiarities can be determined only by
dismissing accidental stragglers from the discussion. In elucidating
the great question of geographical distribution, one must confine
himself to either the birds that breed therein, or to those species
which regularly frequent it for a considerable portion of the year.
Considering the enormous area covered by the _Fram_ expedition and
its great diversity of physical conditions of sea and land, it was
impossible to treat under a single heading the birds observed.
[Illustration: PSEUDALIBROTUS NANSENI, G. O. SARS.]
Mr. Collet has, therefore, been wise in dividing his notes into four
sections, covering the Asiatic coast, the Siberian ocean, the sledge
journey to Franz Josef Land, and the Arctic Ocean to the north of Franz
Josef Land and Spitzbergen. But for this division, confusion would
have resulted from combining birds of regions so widely extended in
longitude and latitude.
The notes show conclusively what might have been anticipated, that the
avifauna of the Siberian Sea, and especially that portion of the Arctic
Ocean to the north of Franz Josef Land and Spitzbergen, is strictly
limited.
Including the species observed during the entire voyage, there are only
thirty-three recorded. Only twenty-one species pertain to the Arctic
Ocean, whether as regular migrants or stragglers, after excluding the
twelve species which were observed near the Asiatic coast. The presence
on the shores of the Siberian Sea of some of these twelve, however, is
of ornithological interest. There may be specially mentioned the gray
goose (_Anser segetum_), long-tailed duck (_Harelda glacialis_), silver
gull (_Larus argentatus_), snowy owl (_Nyctea scandiaca_), gray plover
(_Squatarola helvetica_) and the red-necked phalarope (_Phalaropus
hyperboreous_).
Confining ourselves to birds observed to the north of 81° 30, attention
is called to the abundant avifauna of the western as compared with the
eastern hemisphere. In Kennedy Channel, Grinnell Land, there have been
recorded no less than thirty-two species against twenty-one noted by
the _Fram_ in this voyage, including those seen in Franz Josef Land.
This is not surprising, however, when it is considered that the drift
of the _Fram_ was across a deep ocean of large extent, which is covered
perpetually by an unbroken ice-pack, unrelieved by any view of land
until the north coast of Spitzbergen was seen.
Omitting the birds observed in Franz Josef Land, the paucity of species
frequenting the great western Arctic Ocean is even more apparent. The
striking dissimilarity of the four regions traversed by the _Fram_
is plainly evident from the bird-life recorded. While there were
observed nine species in the Siberian Sea, fifteen in the Franz Josef
Archipelago, eighteen in the Arctic Ocean and twenty-three on the
Asiatic coast, yet only five were common to all four regions, viz.:
the dovekie, the glaucous gull, the ivory gull, the kittiwake and the
snow-bird.
The Siberian Sea presented a most limited avifauna, as in addition to
the five common species, there were recorded in the first summer in the
ice only the little auk, the fulmar, the roseate gull and a small skua.
The entire absence of land or shore birds that frequent Arctic islands,
omitting a single straggling snow-bird, indicates clearly that the
Siberian Sea extends far northward unbroken by any land area.
The eighteen species of birds that were found in the Arctic Ocean,
far to the north, naturally demand special comment. The six following
species are doubtless stragglers: the ringed plover (_Aegialitis
hiaticula_), 82° 59′ N., the most northerly shore-bird of Spitzbergen,
Nordenskiold having observed it on Seven islands, 80° 45′ N.; the
eider duck (_Somateria mollissima_), 82° 55′ N., near Spitzbergen; the
arctic tern (_Sterna macrura_), 84° 32′ N.; the puffin (_Fratercula
arctica glacialis_), 83° 11′ N., near Spitzbergen; the black-backed
gull (_Larus marinus_), 84° 35′ N. 75° E., and the Sabine gull (_Xema
Sabini_), 83° N., near Spitzbergen.
Of other species, the roseate gull (_Rhodostethia rosea_), 84° 41′
N., disappeared as the _Fram_ drifted west from the longitude of
Franz Josef Land, to be replaced as Spitzbergen was neared by a
wader (_Crymophilus fulicarius_), 83° 01′ N.; forked-tailed skuas
(_Stercorarius pomatorhinus_), 82° 57′ N., and Bruennich’s guillemot
(_Uria lomvia_), 83° 11′ N. The glaucous gull (_Larus glaucus_), 84°
48′ N., and long-tailed skua (_Stercorarius longicaudus_), 84° 47′ N.,
although seen both summers, were quite infrequent. These data indicate
absence of land at any near distance to the north, and disclose the
interesting fact that only the six following species, including the
snow-bird who is more probably a straggler, can be classed as regular
summer migrants to the vast ice-fields which cover the Arctic Ocean to
the north of Spitzbergen and Franz Josef Land.
[Illustration: RHODOSTETHIA ROSEA (MAGG), 1824. YOUNG IN FIRST PLUMAGE.]
The little auk (_Alle alle_), 84° 48′ N., was visible almost daily near
the 83d parallel in great numbers during the summer season, wherever
there were numerous water channels near the _Fram_. Of 40 birds killed
at one time, only ten were females.
The dovekie (_Cepphus mandti_), 84° 32′ N., with the little auk, was
the most numerous of all birds in very high latitudes, and nearly 150
were shot for the table. Out of 40 specimens only 14 were males. The
dovekie came early, May 13, 1896.
The ivory gull (_Pagophila eburnea_) is also present the entire
summer. It was the first visitor in 1895, when on May 14 it was seen
in 84° 38′ N., and what is of special interest, was flying from the
north-northeast.
The snow bunting (_Plectrophenax nivalis_), although a land-bird, was
seen both summers at somewhat infrequent intervals, as far as 84°
45′ N. They fed on refuse near the ships, but were also seen near
water-holes, and appeared to be feeding on crustaceans. Two of three
specimens were males. The first specimen in 1895 visited the _Fram_
on May 22 in 84° 40′ N., and then flew towards the north. In 1896 it
appeared on April 25, the first bird of the year, in 84° 17′ N.
The kittiwake (_Rissa tridactyla_) was much less numerous than
the ivory gull. It was seen in 82° 54′ N. They fed, as a rule, on
crustaceans, although in one bird were found parts of a _Gadus saida_
about 70 mm. in length. A _Gadus_ about 120 mm. in length was observed
on July 16, 1895, in 84° 42′ N., the most northerly point at which any
fish has been found.
The fulmar (_Fulmarus glacialis_) came early in 1895, on May 13, and in
1896 on May 22. This bold, voracious bird fed on crustaceans usually,
and owing to its villainous smell was utilized principally as food for
dogs. The last bird of 1895, a fulmar, was seen on September 14, when
the _Fram_ was in 85° 05′ N., 79° E. This is the most northern latitude
in which any bird has ever been observed.
The fulmars and ivory gulls were very bold and noisy, the latter being
specially objectionable. Ivory gulls were seen at the winter hut in
Franz Josef Land until October, when all water had long been frozen
over, and appeared again as early as March 12, 1896.
The first roseate gulls were young birds observed August 3, 1894, in
81° 05′ N., 120° E., about 500 kilometres from the nearest land. A
long and interesting description is given of these gulls in various
stages. One of the beautiful plates, which is imperfectly reproduced,
shows the plumage of a very young gull about a month old. Their food
consists exclusively of small fish and crustaceans, of the latter the
_Hymenodora glacialis_ predominating. Large numbers of these beautiful
gulls were seen in 1895 to the northeast of Franz Josef Land, which
points to their breeding in that locality. One was seen by Nansen on
July 11, 1895, in 82° 08′ N., flying from the northeast.
The very full memoir on _Crustacea_ is by Dr. G. O. Sars, well known as
one of the editorial committee of the scientific work of the Norwegian
North Atlantic Expedition. As the greater number of marine vertebrate
animals collected by the Norwegian North Polar Expedition belong to
the _Crustacea_, this memoir covers the greater part of the marine
collection.
The _Copepoda_ are predominant, especially those belonging to the
_Calanoid_ group, having been taken at nearly every haul along the
whole route of the _Fram_. The zoölogical equipment of the _Fram_ was
based unfortunately on the supposition that the Siberian basin was
shallow, so that the enormous oceanic depths which were found were only
inadequately explored by an extemporized sounding apparatus.
While the results of the dredging operations indicate that there was
very little animal life at the bottom of the ocean, on the other hand,
it appears that the entire surface of the sea, which consisted usually
of small temporary openings in the ice-pack, was covered with abundant
life throughout the entire year even to the most northern latitudes.
Including surface and deep-sea specimens, there were taken on October
12, 1895, no less than eleven species in latitude 85° 13′ N., longitude
79° E. On June 28, 1895, in 84° 32′ N., 76° E., there were taken from
the surface by tow net in a large water-channel fourteen species. This
indicates abundant marine life in the sea immediately near the North
Pole.
The pelagic animals, therefore, were not found at the sea surface
alone, but were also drawn from considerable depths. Many specimens
were obtained from strata at least 250 metres below the surface, and in
a number of instances from depths ranging between 500 and 1,000 metres.
It is to be added that the imperfect development of the visual organs
of the peculiar amphipod, _Cyclocaris Guilelmi_, Chevreux, points to
abyssal habits, as similar conditions do in the cases of other pelagic
animals.
In general pelagic fauna in the Polar Sea resembles that of the
northern Atlantic basin, the greater number of species being common
to both. While several heretofore unknown forms collected by this
expedition may be peculiar to the polar basin, yet it is not improbable
that these forms also occur in the North Atlantic. This appears
probable, since the western part of the _Fram’s_ route lies on the
border of the two basins, where the fauna does not differ essentially
from that in the eastern part.
While the pelagic fauna of the Polar Sea, even in the lowest depths,
resembles that of the Atlantic basin, the great salinity of its water
clearly indicates that it comes from the North Atlantic, and it is
therefore more than probable that the migration of pelagic animals to
the North Polar Sea is also from the west.
Indeed, Doctor Sars is of the opinion that the greater part of the
pelagic life of the north-polar basin comes by the underlying easterly
current from the North Atlantic. On the other hand, it is evident that
the westerly-flowing surface current of the Siberian Sea is of vital
importance as a means of supplying nourishment to the marine animals
of the western Arctic Ocean. This food supply, microscopic algæ chiefly
_Diatomeae_, while very abundant on the surface of the Siberian Sea,
diminishes gradually towards the west. “Indeed,” says Sars, “without
such a constant conveyance of nourishing matter, there could be no such
rich animal life in the Polar Sea.”
A very remarkable fact was the presence of certain pelagic _Copepoda_,
which hitherto had only been observed in southern waters, and a
_Calanoid_ of the genus _Hemicalanus_ Claus, previously known only
from the Mediterranean and tropical parts of the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans. Two species of the genus _Oncoea_, which accord perfectly with
species in the Bay of Naples, were found in great abundance north of
the New Siberian Islands. Another copepod, of the genus _Lubbockia_
Claus, heretofore only known in the Mediterranean and tropical oceans,
was found in the same locality, with which was a small perfectly
hyaline copepod of the very remarkable genus _Mormonilla_, of which
heretofore only two species have been recorded, both in the tropical
Pacific and south of the equator.
Perhaps the most remarkable forms are those mentioned by Doctor Sars,
when he says: “The very close and apparently genetic relationship
between the two polar species of the amphipodous genus _Pseudalibrotos_
and those occurring in the Caspian Sea, is another remarkable instance
which seems fully to corroborate the correctness of the assumption
of geologists as to a direct connexion in olden times between this
isolated basin and the North Polar Sea.”
Both species, taken near 85° N., are regarded as the primitive types
from which the Caspian forms are descended. The more remarkable of the
Arctic forms, _P. Nanseni_, is reproduced on page 430.
To conclude, this volume is a most valuable contribution to the
scientific literature of the Arctic regions. It has but one marked
objection, its publication in such beautiful form and high price as
necessarily places this series beyond the means of many scientific
students.